Common Common Difficulties Difficulties

Encountered by Encountered by Non-Native Non-Native

English SpeakersEnglish Speakers

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TenseTense

Problem: Chinese language does not have Problem: Chinese language does not have tensestenses

We discussed this a little yesterday.We discussed this a little yesterday. In a scientific paper:In a scientific paper:

Abstract: usually past tense, except Abstract: usually past tense, except introductory statement may be present tenseintroductory statement may be present tense

Introduction: usually present tenseIntroduction: usually present tense Methods: past tenseMethods: past tense Results: past tenseResults: past tense Discussion: present tenseDiscussion: present tense

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Subject-Verb AgreementSubject-Verb Agreement

For complicated sentences, For complicated sentences, remember to look for the subject, remember to look for the subject, where ever it may be, and make the where ever it may be, and make the verb agree with the subject. verb agree with the subject.

Read the sentence without all the Read the sentence without all the modifiers and clauses to help youmodifiers and clauses to help you

Diagram the sentence to help youDiagram the sentence to help you

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Plural Nouns Used as Plural Nouns Used as AdjectiveAdjective

When a plural noun is used as an When a plural noun is used as an adjective, it becomes singular:adjective, it becomes singular: Phenotype of dendritic Phenotype of dendritic cellscells

cellscells is a plural noun is a plural noun Dendritic Dendritic cellcell phenotype phenotype

phenotypephenotype is the noun and is the noun and cellscells is the is the adjectiveadjective

But But cellscells becomes singular as the adjective becomes singular as the adjective Dendritic Dendritic cellcell population population

population of dendritic cellspopulation of dendritic cells

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Abbreviations: Singular Abbreviations: Singular or Plural?or Plural?

If a word or term will be used in both If a word or term will be used in both the singular and plural, then it is the singular and plural, then it is better to derive the abbreviation from better to derive the abbreviation from the singular form and add an the singular form and add an ss to to make it plural.make it plural. An important effector cell in an immune An important effector cell in an immune

response is the dendritic cell (response is the dendritic cell (DCDC).). Islet infiltrates consist mainly of T cells Islet infiltrates consist mainly of T cells

but also include macrophages, but also include macrophages, DCsDCs, and , and B cells.B cells.

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Commonly Used TermsCommonly Used Terms

Suggest:Suggest: to cause you to think about to cause you to think about somethingsomething Use when your results point to that direction, but Use when your results point to that direction, but

you haven’t totally proven ityou haven’t totally proven it The genetic results The genetic results suggestsuggest that CD103 is a that CD103 is a

candidate gene for the development of type 1 candidate gene for the development of type 1 diabetes.diabetes.

AssessAssess: to evaluate, but in common speech : to evaluate, but in common speech usually refers to estimating a value for usually refers to estimating a value for something.something. Not a great word to use in science. Use Not a great word to use in science. Use determinedetermine

instead.instead.

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Commonly Used TermsCommonly Used Terms

DetermineDetermine: to decide or settle, to reach a : to decide or settle, to reach a conclusionconclusion We wanted to We wanted to determinedetermine…..….. For experiments that have not yet been done: For experiments that have not yet been done:

The actual binding constant remains to be The actual binding constant remains to be determineddetermined..

InvestigateInvestigate vs vs ExamineExamine investigateinvestigate: to observe or determine in detail: to observe or determine in detail examineexamine: to analyze or carefully observe: to analyze or carefully observe But But investigateinvestigate is a little stronger, and shows is a little stronger, and shows

more actionmore action

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Commonly Used TermsCommonly Used Terms

DemonstrateDemonstrate vs vs ShowShow DemonstrateDemonstrate: to prove or make evident by : to prove or make evident by

reasoning, to describe by experimentreasoning, to describe by experiment ShowShow: to make visible, to present: to make visible, to present DemonstrateDemonstrate is stronger for science writing is stronger for science writing

But use But use showshow for: for: As As shownshown in Fig. 14 in Fig. 14 NotNot: As : As showedshowed in Fig. 14 in Fig. 14

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Commonly Used TermsCommonly Used Terms

ImplyImply vs vs ImplicateImplicate: frequently misused: frequently misused ImplicateImplicate: to connect or involve: to connect or involve

Our results Our results implicateimplicate glucocorticoids as a glucocorticoids as a cause for…cause for…

ImplyImply: to say or express indirectly: to say or express indirectly The surgeon The surgeon impliedimplied that the disease was fatal. that the disease was fatal.

ElucidateElucidate: to make clear: to make clear Usually used with respect to something very Usually used with respect to something very

complicatedcomplicated Our long-term goal is to Our long-term goal is to elucidateelucidate the role of the role of

PPARPPAR2 in the development of type I diabetes.2 in the development of type I diabetes.

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Slang/Spoken LanguageSlang/Spoken Language

Be careful not to use slang or Be careful not to use slang or common termscommon terms gettinggetting the DNA sequence the DNA sequence Change to: Change to: determiningdetermining the DNA the DNA

sequencesequence

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Articles: A/An/TheArticles: A/An/The

Which to use: Which to use: a/ana/an or or thethe?? When to use them, when not to.When to use them, when not to.

Often it takes an “ear” for the language, Often it takes an “ear” for the language, which takes time to develop.which takes time to develop.

One of the most difficult concepts in One of the most difficult concepts in writing for non-native English writing for non-native English speakers, both European and Asian.speakers, both European and Asian.

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Articles: A/An/TheArticles: A/An/The Identify nouns as nouns, as general or Identify nouns as nouns, as general or

specificspecific articlesarticles are not adjectivesare not adjectives

A/AnA/An: indefinite, evolved from the word : indefinite, evolved from the word oneone Used only in singularUsed only in singular If a noun is plural, the If a noun is plural, the a/ana/an is usually omitted is usually omitted

TheThe: specifies the noun: specifies the noun The pictureThe picture means a specific picture means a specific picture A pictureA picture could refer to any picture could refer to any picture

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RulesRules UseUse a a or or anan with singular nouns that name with singular nouns that name

things that can be things that can be countedcounted but whose but whose specificspecific identityidentity is not known. is not known. AA paper, paper, anan experiment experiment NOTNOT: : The nurse gave The nurse gave aa water to the patient. water to the patient.

Water cannot be counted. So it should read: Water cannot be counted. So it should read: The The nurse gave water to the patient.nurse gave water to the patient.

Use Use thethe with most nouns whose identity is with most nouns whose identity is known to the readerknown to the reader TheThe professor teaching this class… professor teaching this class… TheThe experiment that I just described… experiment that I just described…

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RulesRules

Do not use Do not use thethe with most singular with most singular proper nouns.proper nouns. NOT:NOT: thethe Professor Dynan, Professor Dynan, NOTNOT: : thethe China China

But there are many exceptions:But there are many exceptions: TheThe United States of America, United States of America, TheThe People’s Republic of China People’s Republic of China TheThe Medical College of Georgia Medical College of Georgia

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Articles: A/An/TheArticles: A/An/The British and American writing differ somewhatBritish and American writing differ somewhat British omit the article before singular nouns British omit the article before singular nouns

that refer to places or timesthat refer to places or times British: He attends university.British: He attends university. American: He attends American: He attends a a university.university.

But there are some nouns in American English But there are some nouns in American English where the article is also omitted.where the article is also omitted. On Sunday, she always goes to church.On Sunday, she always goes to church.

We, of course, would like you to learn We, of course, would like you to learn American English!!!American English!!!

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A or An?A or An?

RuleRule UseUse aa before a word that starts with a consonant before a word that starts with a consonant UseUse anan before a word that starts with a vowel (a, before a word that starts with a vowel (a,

e, i, o, u)e, i, o, u)

ButBut It is the It is the sound sound of, not the letter at, the beginning of, not the letter at, the beginning

of the wordof the word AA university/ university/anan umbrella umbrella AA hero/ hero/anan honest person honest person

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A/An/TheA/An/The

Yes, it is confusing….but don’t Yes, it is confusing….but don’t worry.worry.

You will get the hang You will get the hang of it with practice!!of it with practice!!

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WhetherWhether

Conjunction used in Conjunction used in indirectindirect questions to introduce an alternativequestions to introduce an alternative Sentence does Sentence does notnot take a take a ?? because the because the

question is indirectquestion is indirect These experiments will tell us These experiments will tell us whetherwhether

GILZ inhibits marker gene expression GILZ inhibits marker gene expression indirectly through down-regulation of indirectly through down-regulation of PPARPPAR2.2.

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WhetherWhether

Do not use Do not use whether or notwhether or not. . Or notOr not is is redundant.redundant. NO:NO: These experiments will tell us These experiments will tell us

whether or notwhether or not GILZ inhibits marker GILZ inhibits marker gene expression indirectly through gene expression indirectly through down-regulation of PPARdown-regulation of PPAR2.2.

Do not use Do not use as to whetheras to whether. Change to . Change to whetherwhether..

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Which/ThatWhich/That Pronouns that introduce adjectival clauses Pronouns that introduce adjectival clauses

(clauses that modify nouns in the (clauses that modify nouns in the sentence)sentence)

RestrictiveRestrictive clauses define the noun clauses define the noun Use Use thatthat No commasNo commas

Non-restrictiveNon-restrictive clauses are extra and the clauses are extra and the sentence is meaningful without themsentence is meaningful without them Use Use whichwhich Set the phrase off by commasSet the phrase off by commas

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Which/That: ExamplesWhich/That: Examples

Regulatory Regulatory CD4+ T cells in non-obese CD4+ T cells in non-obese diabetic mice may include Th2 cells diabetic mice may include Th2 cells ((which/thatwhich/that) secrete Il-4, Il-5, Il-6, Il-10, and ) secrete Il-4, Il-5, Il-6, Il-10, and Il-30.Il-30.

AnswerAnswer: : Regulatory CD4+ T cells in non-Regulatory CD4+ T cells in non-obese diabetic mice may include Th2 cellsobese diabetic mice may include Th2 cells, , which which secrete Il-4, Il-5, Il-6, Il-10, and Il-30.secrete Il-4, Il-5, Il-6, Il-10, and Il-30.

Because the clause is Because the clause is non-restrictivenon-restrictive, is extra. , is extra. Sentence has meaning without the clause.Sentence has meaning without the clause. WhichWhich Use commasUse commas

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Which/That: ExamplesWhich/That: Examples

Effector Effector CD4+ T cells in non-obese diabetic CD4+ T cells in non-obese diabetic mice may include cells (mice may include cells (which/thatwhich/that) secrete ) secrete Il-2, Il-3, Il-12, IFN-Il-2, Il-3, Il-12, IFN- and TNF- and TNF-..

AnswerAnswer: : Effector Effector CD4+ T cells in non-obese CD4+ T cells in non-obese diabetic mice may include cells diabetic mice may include cells thatthat secrete secrete Il-2, Il-3, Il-12, IFN-Il-2, Il-3, Il-12, IFN- and TNF- and TNF-..

The clause is restrictive, defines the cells, is The clause is restrictive, defines the cells, is needed for the meaning of the sentence.needed for the meaning of the sentence. ThatThat No commas.No commas.

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Which/ThatWhich/That

NoteNote

The The which/thatwhich/that problem is probably problem is probably one of the most common mistakes one of the most common mistakes that I find among all scientists, that I find among all scientists, including Americans!including Americans!

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Improper Use of ThatImproper Use of That

ThatThat can be a pronoun or an adjective. can be a pronoun or an adjective. ThatThat is the reason why you can’t go out is the reason why you can’t go out

tonight.tonight. (pronoun, is the subject) (pronoun, is the subject) ThatThat dog bit me. dog bit me. (adjective, modifies dog) (adjective, modifies dog)

As a pronoun, it can be the subject or As a pronoun, it can be the subject or object of a clause.object of a clause. The dog The dog thatthat bit me was mean. (subject of bit me was mean. (subject of

dependent clause)dependent clause)

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But if it is the subject of a clause, there must be But if it is the subject of a clause, there must be a predicate to the clause.a predicate to the clause.

The observation of disease protection in The observation of disease protection in these NOD congenic mice demonstrates these NOD congenic mice demonstrates thatthat the existence of over 20 individual MHC and the existence of over 20 individual MHC and non-MHC-associated Idd loci on 12 non-MHC-associated Idd loci on 12 chromosomes.chromosomes.

No predicate, no verb in that clauseNo predicate, no verb in that clause Should be:Should be: The observation of disease The observation of disease

protection in these NOD congenic mice protection in these NOD congenic mice demonstrates the existence of over 20 demonstrates the existence of over 20 individual MHC and non-MHC-associated Idd individual MHC and non-MHC-associated Idd loci on 12 chromosomes.loci on 12 chromosomes.

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Another exampleAnother example

We found We found thatthat lower expression of lower expression of CCR6/CCR7 in bone marrow dendritic cells CCR6/CCR7 in bone marrow dendritic cells from NOD mice using GE Chemokine cDNA from NOD mice using GE Chemokine cDNA arrays.arrays. not a dependent clause, not another verbnot a dependent clause, not another verb

Change to:Change to: We found lower expression of We found lower expression of CCR6/CCR7 in bone marrow dendritic cells CCR6/CCR7 in bone marrow dendritic cells from NOD mice using GE Chemokine cDNA from NOD mice using GE Chemokine cDNA arrays.arrays. expression is object of verb found; all the rest expression is object of verb found; all the rest

are adjectival, prepositional phrases.are adjectival, prepositional phrases.

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Misplaced ModifiersMisplaced Modifiers The early focus of these studies was The early focus of these studies was

chemoprevention of chemical or photo chemoprevention of chemical or photo carcinogen-induced in rodent tumorigenesis.carcinogen-induced in rodent tumorigenesis.

Carcinogen-inducedCarcinogen-induced modifies modifies tumorigenesistumorigenesis (an adjective)(an adjective) What kind of tumorigenesis? Carcinogen-What kind of tumorigenesis? Carcinogen-

induced. induced. Put it next to tumorigenesis.Put it next to tumorigenesis.

In rodentIn rodent modifies modifies tumorigenesistumorigenesis. (a . (a prepositional, adjectival phrase)prepositional, adjectival phrase) Answers whereAnswers where

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Misplaced ModifiersMisplaced Modifiers OriginalOriginal:: The early focus of these studies The early focus of these studies

was chemoprevention of chemical or was chemoprevention of chemical or photo carcinogen-induced photo carcinogen-induced in rodentin rodent tumorigenesis.tumorigenesis.

Change to:Change to: The early focus of these The early focus of these studies was chemoprevention of chemical studies was chemoprevention of chemical or photo carcinogen-induced or photo carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis tumorigenesis in rodents.in rodents.

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Misplaced ModifiersMisplaced Modifiers

Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a very common complaint which may very common complaint which may be complicated by the development be complicated by the development of Barrett’s esophagus and of Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma.esophageal adenocarcinoma.

What does the phrase What does the phrase which may be which may be complicatedcomplicated describe? describe? In this sentence, it describes complaint. In this sentence, it describes complaint.

But it is meant to describe the disease. But it is meant to describe the disease.

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Misplaced ModifiersMisplaced Modifiers OriginalOriginal:: Gastroesophageal reflux disease Gastroesophageal reflux disease

is a very common complaint which may be is a very common complaint which may be complicated by the development of complicated by the development of Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma.adenocarcinoma.

Change to:Change to: Gastroesophageal reflux Gastroesophageal reflux disease, which may be complicated by the disease, which may be complicated by the development of Barrett’s esophagus and development of Barrett’s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma, is a very esophageal adenocarcinoma, is a very common complaint.common complaint.

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Be careful of Be careful of Spellchecker!Spellchecker!

Dr. Michael Shrout presented a plague to Dr. Michael Shrout presented a plague to Dr. Lloyd Cook as Past Chair of the MCG Dr. Lloyd Cook as Past Chair of the MCG Faculty for 1997-98. Drs. Campbell and Faculty for 1997-98. Drs. Campbell and Potter were presented a plague in Potter were presented a plague in appreciation of their service……appreciation of their service……

Spellchecker did not catch the gross Spellchecker did not catch the gross error here…..should be error here…..should be plaqueplaque, not , not plagueplague. .

Big difference!!!Big difference!!!

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Parallel ConstructionParallel Construction Mutations in RLF2 are associated with Mutations in RLF2 are associated with

severe mycobacterial, staphylococcal severe mycobacterial, staphylococcal infection and leprosy.infection and leprosy. 3 items in the series, but unparallel 3 items in the series, but unparallel

Change to:Change to: Mutations in RLF2 are Mutations in RLF2 are associated with severe associated with severe mycobacterial and mycobacterial and staphylococcalstaphylococcal infections and leprosy. infections and leprosy. 2 items in the series: infections (2 types) and 2 items in the series: infections (2 types) and

leprosy, in parallelleprosy, in parallel

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Use of HyphensUse of Hyphens

Compound nouns do not take a Compound nouns do not take a hyphen (dash)hyphen (dash) What was the dose response of What was the dose response of

glucocorticoids in bone marrow cells?glucocorticoids in bone marrow cells? Compound adjectives take a hyphenCompound adjectives take a hyphen

We carried out glucocorticoid dose-We carried out glucocorticoid dose-response experiments in bone marrow.response experiments in bone marrow.

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Use hyphens in the Use hyphens in the following common following common

phrasesphrases Insulin-Insulin-mediatedmediated effect effect DNA-DNA-bindingbinding protein protein Antibody-Antibody-specificspecific reaction reaction Heat-Heat-inducedinduced effects effects 12-week-old12-week-old mice mice

Not 12 week-old mice (unless you are Not 12 week-old mice (unless you are talking about twelve (a dozen) mice!talking about twelve (a dozen) mice!

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When items in a series When items in a series becomes confusingbecomes confusing

The use of animals is justified by the The use of animals is justified by the importance of the disease under importance of the disease under study, osteoporosis, and the study, osteoporosis, and the impossibility of performing a impossibility of performing a comparable study in humans.comparable study in humans. How many reasons are there? Looks like How many reasons are there? Looks like

3? 3? Importance of diseaseImportance of disease osteoporosisosteoporosis impossibilityimpossibility

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In a SeriesIn a Series

Change to:Change to: The use of animals is justified The use of animals is justified by the importance of osteoporosis and the by the importance of osteoporosis and the impossibility of performing a comparable impossibility of performing a comparable study in humans.study in humans. RemovedRemoved the disease under study. the disease under study. It is It is

redundant, anyway.redundant, anyway. An alternative might be to leave the An alternative might be to leave the

sentence as it was but to put sentence as it was but to put osteoporosisosteoporosis in parentheses.in parentheses.

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Serial Comma RuleSerial Comma Rule

In a series consisting of 3 or more In a series consisting of 3 or more elements, separate all the elements elements, separate all the elements with commas. Use a comma before with commas. Use a comma before the conjunction that joins the last the conjunction that joins the last two elements.two elements.

Prevents confusionPrevents confusion However, American newspapers and However, American newspapers and

the British usually do not use that the British usually do not use that final comma!final comma!

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Commas & Semi-colonsCommas & Semi-colons

If the items in the series are long If the items in the series are long and contain commas within them, and contain commas within them, then use a semi-colon to separate then use a semi-colon to separate the items instead of commas. the items instead of commas.

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ExampleExample

At least five polypeptides participate in At least five polypeptides participate in mammalian non-homologous end joining. mammalian non-homologous end joining. These include the two subunits of Ku, These include the two subunits of Ku, which bind to DNA endswhich bind to DNA ends;; DNA ligase IV DNA ligase IV and XRCC4, which form a complex that and XRCC4, which form a complex that catalyzes strand ligationcatalyzes strand ligation; ; and the DNA-and the DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit, which regulates the reaction.subunit, which regulates the reaction.

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Upper Case (Capital) Upper Case (Capital) LettersLetters

Chinese does not have upper and Chinese does not have upper and lower case letterslower case letters

General rule is to use upper case General rule is to use upper case letters in all words of a title except letters in all words of a title except for articles (a/an/the), prepositions, for articles (a/an/the), prepositions, and other minor words.and other minor words.

However……..things are a little However……..things are a little different in science.different in science.

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Upper Case (Capital) Upper Case (Capital) LettersLetters

Some journals use upper and lower Some journals use upper and lower case letters in the title of a paper, but case letters in the title of a paper, but some just upper case the first wordsome just upper case the first word Apoptosis Associated with Deregulated Apoptosis Associated with Deregulated

E2F Activity is Dependent on E2F1 and E2F Activity is Dependent on E2F1 and Atm/Nbs/Chk2 (Atm/Nbs/Chk2 (Molec & Cell BiologyMolec & Cell Biology))

Modification of the ionizing radiation Modification of the ionizing radiation response in living cells by an scFv response in living cells by an scFv against the DNA-dependent protein against the DNA-dependent protein kinase (kinase (Nucl Acid ResNucl Acid Res))

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Upper Case (Capital) Upper Case (Capital) LettersLetters

Usually the subsections use upper case on Usually the subsections use upper case on only the first wordonly the first word Combination of scFv 18-2 and IR inhibits Combination of scFv 18-2 and IR inhibits

microcolony formationmicrocolony formation Names of places or people or famous Names of places or people or famous

things use upper case for the first letter of things use upper case for the first letter of each major wordeach major word Medical College of GeorgiaMedical College of Georgia Wuhan University School of MedicineWuhan University School of Medicine Statue of LibertyStatue of Liberty Department of MedicineDepartment of Medicine

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Word Order with Word Order with NumbersNumbers

If there is more than one adjective If there is more than one adjective describing a noun, and one of the describing a noun, and one of the adjectives is a number, the number adjectives is a number, the number goes first.goes first. The reaction contained 2 x 10The reaction contained 2 x 1055 purified purified

cellscells.. Not:Not: The reaction contained purified 2 x The reaction contained purified 2 x

101055 cells. cells.

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The EndThe End