colonial archives

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~11 Arc hival Science 2 : 8 7 - 1 0 9 , 2 0 0 2 . 8 7

] ~ l 9 2 0 02 Kluw er Aca dem ic Pub l i shers . Pr in t ed in the Ne ther lands.

C o l o n i a l r c h i v e s a n d t h e r t s o f G o v e r n a n c e

N N L U R S T O L E R

Depa r tmen t o f An thropo logy, Un ivers it y o f Mich igan , Ann Arbo r M148109-1382 USA

E-ma i l : as to ler@ umich.edu )

Abstract A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s e n g a g e d i n p o s t - c o l o n i a l s t u d i e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a d o p t i n g a n

h i s t o r i c a l pe r spe c t i ve a nd us i ng a rc h i ve s . Ye t t he i r a rc h i va l a c t i v i t y t e nds t o r e ma i n more a n

e x t r a c ti v e t h a n a n e t h n o g r a p h i c o n e . D o c u m e n t s a r e th u s s t il l i n v o k e d p i e c e m e a l t o c o n f i r m

t he c o l on i a l i nve n t i on o f c e r t a i n p ra c t i c e s o r t o unde r sc o re c u l t u ra l c l a i ms , s i le n t . Ye t suc h

m i n i n g o f t h e con ten t o f g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i s s i o n s , r e p o r t s , a n d o t h e r a r c h i v al s o u r c e s r a r e ly

pa ys a t t e n t i on t o t he i r pe c u l i a r p l a c e me n t and form . S c h o l a r s n e e d t o m o v e f r o m a r c h i v e - a s -

sou rc e t o a rc h i ve -a s - sub j e c t . Th i s a r t i c l e , u s i ng doc ume n t p roduc t i on i n t he Du t c h Ea s t Ind i e s

a s a n i ll u s t r a t ion , a rgue s t ha t s c ho l a r s shou l d v i e w a rc h i ve s no t a s s i te s o f know l e dge r e t r i e va l,

bu t o f kno wl e dge p rodu c t i on , a s mo num e n t s o f s t a te s a s we l l a s s i t e s o f s t at e e t hnogra phy .

T h i s r e q u i r e s a s u s t ai n e d e n g a g e m e n t w i t h a r c h iv e s a s c u l tu r a l a g e n t s o f " f a c t " p r o d u c t io n , o f

t a xon om i e s i n t he ma k i ng , a nd o f s t a te a u t ho r i ty . W ha t c ons t i t u t e s t he a rc h i ve , wh a t fo rm i t

t a ke s , a nd wha t sy s t e ms o f c l a s s i f i c a t i on a nd e p i s t e m ol og y s i gna l a t spe c i f ic ti me s a re ( a nd

re f l e c t ) c r i t i c a l f e a t u re s o f c o l on i a l po l i t i c s a nd s t a t e powe r . Th e a rc h i v e wa s t he sup re me

t e c hn o l og y o f t he l a t e n i ne t e e n t h -c e n t u ry i mp e r i a l s t a te , a r e pos i t o ry o f c od i f i e d be l i e f s tha t

c l u s t e re d ( a nd bo re wi t ne s s t o ) c onne c t i ons be t we e n s e c re c y , t he l a w, a nd powe r .

Keywords: a rc h i ve s , a rc h i v i ng , bu re a uc ra c y , c o l on i a l a rc h i ve s , e t hnogra phy , knowl e dge

G e n e a l o g y i s g ra y , m e t i c u l o u s a n d p a t i e n t ly d o c u m e n t a r y . I t o p e r a te s o n a

f ie l d o f e n t a n g l e d a n d c o n f u s e d p a r c h m e n t s , o n d o c u m e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n

s c r a tc h e d o v e r a n d r e c o p i e d m a n y t im e s , t

T h i s e s s a y i s a b o u t t h e c o l o n i a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s a s s e e n t h r o u g h i t s a r c h i v a l

p r o d u c t i o n s . I t a s k s w h a t i n s i g h t s a b o u t t h e c o l o n i a l m i g h t b e g a i n e d f r o m

a t t e n d i n g n o t o n l y t o c o l o n i a l i s m s a r c h i v a l c o n t e n t , b u t t o it s p a r ti c u l a r a n d

s o m e t i m e s p e c u l i a r f o r m . I ts f o c u s i s o n a r c h i v i n g a s a p r o c e s s r a t h e r t h a n t o

a r c h i v e s a s t h i n g s . It l o o k s t o a r c h i v e s a s e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s r a t h e r

t h a n a s s o u r c e s , t o c o l o n i a l a r c h i v e s a s c r o s s - s e c t io n s o f c o n t e s t e d k n o w l -

e d g e . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , i t l o o k s t o c o l o n i a l a r c h i v e s a s b o t h t r a n s p a r e n c i e s

o n w h i c h p o w e r r e la t i o n s w e r e i n s c r i b e d a n d i n tr i c a te t e c h n o l o g i e s o f r u l e

i n t h e m s e l v e s . I t s c o n c e r n s a r e t w o : t o s i t u a t e n e w a p p r o a c h e s t o c o l o n i a l

1 M i c h e l F o u c a u l t, " N i e t z s c h e , G e n e a l o g y , H i s t o r y " , i n D a n i e l B o u c h a r d ( e d .) , Language,

Counter-Memory, Prac t ice: Selected Essa ys and Interview s by Miche l Foucault ( I thaca :

Co rne l l Un iver s i ty Press [1971] 1977), p . 139.


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a r ch i v es w i t h i n th e b r o a d e r h i s t o r ic t u r n o f t h e l a s t t w o d eca d es an d t o

s u g g es t w h a t c r i ti c a l h i s to r i e s o f t h e co l o n i a l h av e t o g a i n b y t u r n i n g f u r t h e r

t o w a r d a p o l i t ic s o f k n o w l ed g e t h a t r eck o n s w i t h a rch i v a l g en r e s , cu l t u r e s o f

d o cu m en t a t i o n , f i c ti o n s o f a cces s , an d a r ch iv a l co n v en t i o n s . 2

E p i s te m o l o g i c a l s c e p t i c is m , a r c h i v e s , a n d th e h i s to r i c t u r n

S o m e f o u r d ec ad e s a f t e r B r i t is h s o c i a l an t h r o p o l o g i s t E .E . Ev an s - P r i t ch a r d ' s

u n h e e d e d w a r n i n g t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g y w o u l d h a v e t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n b e i n g

h i s t o r y o r b e i n g n o t h i n g , an d C l au d e Lev i - S t r au s s ' co u n t e r c l a i m th a t

acco r d ed h i s t o r y n e i t h e r s p ec i a l v a l u e n o r p r i v i l eg ed an a l y t i c s p ace ,

s t u d en t s o f cu l tu r e h av e t ak en u p a t ran s f o r m a t i v e v en t u r e , c e l eb r a t i n g w i t h

u n p r eced en t ed r e l is h w h a t h a s co m e t o b e ca l l ed t h e h is t o r ic t u rn . '3 S o m e

m i g h t a r g u e th a t a n t h r o p o l o g y ' s e n g a g e m e n t w i t h h i st o r y o v e r th e l as t tw o

d ecad es , u n li k e t h a t r ecen t t u r n i n o t h e r d i s c i p li n e s , h a s n o t b ee n a t u rn

a t a l l , bu t r a ther a r e tu rn t o i t s found ing p r inc ip l es : enqu i ry i n to cumu-

l a t iv e p r o ces s e s o f cu l tu r a l p r o d u c t i o n , b u t w i t h o u t th e t y p o l o g i ca l a s p i r a t io n s

a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y a s s u m p t i o n s o n c e e m b r a c e d . O t h e r s m i g h t c o u n t e r t h a t t h e

f ev e r i s h tu r n t o h is t o r y r ep r e s en t s a s i g n if i can t d ep a r t u r e f r o m an ea r l ie r

v en t u r e , a mo r e ex p l i c i t r u p t u r e w i t h an t h r o p o l o g y ' s l o n g - s t an d i n g co mp l i c i t y

in co lon i a l p o l i t ics . 4 A s su ch , o ne co u ld a rgue t ha t t he h i s to r i c t u rn s igna l s

n o t a tu r n t o h i s t o r y p e r s e , b u t a d i f f e r en t r e f lec t i o n o n t h e p o l i t ic s o f k n o w l -

ed g e - a f u r t h e r r e j ec t io n o f t h e ca t eg o r i e s an d cu l t u r a l d i s t in c t i o n s o n w h i ch

2 On the h i s to r i c tu rn , s ee the in t rodu c t ion to Ter r ence J . M cD ona ld (ed . ) , The Historic

Turn in the Human Sciences (An n Arbor : U n iver s i ty o f Mich igan P res s , 1966) . Th i s e s s ay

r e p r e s e n ts a c o n d e n s e d v e r s i o n o f C h a p t e r 1 f r o m m y b o o k i n p ro g r e ss , Along the Archival

Grain

(P r ince ton : P r ince ton Un iv er s i ty P res s ). Pa r t s o f i t a r e bas ed on the 1996 Lewis

H e n r y M o r g a n L e c t u r e s d e l i v e re d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f R o c h e s t e r e n t it l e d E t h n o g r a p h y i n

the Arch ive s : M ove m en ts on the H is to r i c Turn . A d i f f e r en t ve r s ion o f th i s p iece appear s in

C a r o l y n H a m i l t o n ( e d .) , Refiguring the Archive ( f o r t h c o m i n g ) .

3 E . E . E v a n s - P r i t c h a rd , S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o g y : P a s t a n d P re s e n t, T h e M a r e t t L e c t u r e ,

1950 , Social Anthropology and Others Essays (New York: Free Press , 1951 ) , p . 152. Cla ude

Lev i -S t r aus s , The Savage Mind (Ch icago : C h icago Un iver s i ty P res s , 1966), p . 256 .

4 For s ome s ens e o f the r ange o f d i f f e r en t agenda s o f the cu r r en t h i s to r i c tu rn , s ee N ich -

o las B . D i rks , Geof f E ley , and Sher ry B . Or tne r ( eds . ) , Culture Power History: A Reader in

Contemporary Social Theory (P r ince ton : P r ince to n Un iver s i ty P res s , [ 1983] 1994) , Ter r ence

J . M c D o n a l d ( e d . ) , The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences ( A n n A r b o r : U n i v e r s i t y o f

M i c h i g a n P r e s s , 1 9 9 6) ; s p e c i f ic a l l y o n h i s to r y i n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n , s e e G e r a l d

S i d e r a n d G a v i n S m i t h ( e d s. ),

Between History and Histories: The Making of Silences and

Commemorations (Toron to : Toron to Un iv er s i ty P res s , 1997) . A ls o s ee R ichard Fo x ' s Fo r a

N e a r l y N e w C u l t u r e H i s t o r y , i n R i c h a r d G . F o x ( e d. ), Recapturing Anthropology: Working

in the Present ( S a n t a F e : S c h o o l o f A m e r i c a n R e s e a r c h P r e ss , 1 99 1), p p . 9 3 - 1 1 4 , a n d J a m e s

F a u b i o n , H i s t o r y i n A n t h r o p o l o g y , Annual Review o f Anthropology 22 (1993) : 35 -54 .


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d o c u m e n t s c o l l i d e a n d c o n v e r g e w i t h c o l o n i a l m e m o r i e s i n th e p o s t -c o l o n i a l

f i e l d .

I f E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d s ' w a r n i n g s o m e t h i rt y - fi v e y e a r s ag o t h a t a n t h r o p o l o -

g i st s h a v e t e n d e d t o b e u n c r it ic a l i n t h e ir u s e o f d o c u m e n t a r y s o u r c e s h a d

l it tl e r e s o n a n c e a t t h e ti m e , i t c e r t a in l y h a s m o r e t o d ay . F o r h o w e v e r d e e p a n d

f u l l t h e a r c h i v a l t u r n h a s b e e n i n p o s t - c o l o n i a l s c h o l a r s h i p o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s , w h a t

i s m o r e s u r p r i s i n g i s h o w t h i n a n d t e n t a t i v e i t c a n s ti ll r e m a i n , l ~ A n t h r o p o l o -

g i s ts m a y n o l o n g e r l o o k a t a r c h i v e s a s th e s t u f f o f a n o t h e r d i s c i p li n e . N o r a r e

t h e s e a r c h i v e s t r e a t e d a s i n e r t s i te s o f s t o r a g e a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n . 11 B u t a r c h i v a l

l a b o u r t e n d s t o r e m a i n m o r e a n e x t r a c ti v e e n te r p r i se t h a n a n e t h n o g r a p h i c

o n e . D o c u m e n t s a r e st il l i n v o k e d p i e c e m e a l a n d s e l e c ti v e l y to c o n f i r m t h e

c o l o n i a l in v e n t i o n o f tr a d i t io n a l p r a c t i c e s o r t o u n d e r s c o r e c u l t u r a l c la i m s .

A n t h r o p o l o g y h a s n e v e r c o m m i t t e d i ts e l f t o e x h a u s t t h e s o u r c es , a s

B e r n a r d C o h n o n c e c h i d e d t h e h i s to r i ca l p r o f e s s i o n f o r d o i n g w i th s u c h m o r a l

f e r v o r . B u t t h e e x t r a c t i v e m e t a p h o r r e m a i n s r e l e v a n t t o b o t h . ~2 S t u d e n t s o f

t h e c o l o n i a l e x p e r i e n c e m i n e t h e content o f g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i s s i o n s a n d

r e p o r t s , b u t r a r e l y a t t e n d t o t h e i r p e c u l i a r form o r context W e l o o k a t e x e m -

p l a r y d o c u m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n a t th e s o c i o l o g y o f c o p i e s, o r w h a t c l a i m s t o t ru t h

a r e lo d g e d i n th e r o te a n d r e d u n d a n t . W e w a r i l y q u o t e e x a m p l e s o f c o l o n i a l

e x c e s s e s - i f u n e a s y w i t h t h e p a t h o s a n d v o y e u r i s m t h a t s u c h c i t a t io n s e n t a il .

W e m a y r e a d i l y m o c k f e t is h i s m s o f th e h i s t o r ia n ' s c r af t, b u t th e r e r e m a i n s t h e

s h a r e d c o n v i c t i o n t h a t a c c e s s t o w h a t i s c l a s s i f i e d a n d c o n f i d e n t i a l a r e

t h e c o v e t e d f i n d i n g s o f s o u n d a n d s h r e w d i n t e l le c t u a l l a b o u r s . 13 T h e a b i l i t y

t o p r o c u r e t h e m m e a s u r e s s c h o l a r ly w o r t h . N o t l e a s t is th e s h a r e d c o n v i c t io n

t h a t s u c h g u a r d e d t r e a s u r e s a r e t h e s i t es w h e r e t h e s e c r e t s o f t h e c o l o n i a l s t a te

a r e r e a l l y s t o r e d .

T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f w a y s t o f r a m e t h e s o r t o f c h a l l e n g e I h a v e i n m i n d ,

b u t a t l e a st o n e s e e m s o b v i o u s : s t e e p e d a s s t u d e n ts o f c u l tu r e h a v e b e e n i n

t r e a t in g e t h n o g r a p h i e s a s te x t s , w e a r e j u s t n o w c r i t ic a l l y re f l e c t i n g o n t h e

m a k i n g o f d o c u m e n t s a n d h o w w e c h o o s e t o u se t h e m , o n a r ch i ve s n o t as

s it es o f k n o w l e d g e r e tr ie v a l b u t o f k n o w l e d g e p r o d u c t i o n , a s m o n u m e n t s o f

s t at e s a s w e l l a s s i te s o f s t a te e t h n o g r a p h y . T h i s i s n o t a r e j e c t i o n o f c o l o n i a l

10 E.E. Evans-Pritchard,

Anthropo logy and Hi s tory

(Manchester: Manchester University

Press, 1961), p. 5.

11 See Carlo Ginzburg, Clues Myths and the Hi s tor i ca l Method (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins

University, 1989).

12 Bernard Cohn, History and Anthropology: The State of Play ,

Comparat ive S tudies in

Soc ie t y and Hi s tory 22(2) (1980): 198-221.

13 On the trips to archives as feats of [male] prowess in nineteenth-century middle-class

culture, see Bonnie G. Smith, Gender and the Practices of Scientific History: The Seminar

and Archival Research in the Nineteenth-Century ,

A m e r i c a n H i s t o ri c a l R e v i e w

100(4-5)

(1995): 1150-1176.


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a r c h i v e s a s s o u r c e s o f t h e p as t . R a t h e r , it s i g n a l s a m o r e s u s t a i n e d e n g a g e m e n t

w i t h t h o s e a r c h i v e s a s c u l t u r a l a r t i f a c t s o f f a c t p r o d u c t i o n , o f t a x o n o m i e s i n

t h e m a k i n g , a n d o f d i s p a r at e n o t i o n s o f w h a t m a d e u p c o l o n i a l a ut h o ri ty .

A s b o t h R a n a j i t G u h a a n d G r e g D e n i n g l o n g h a v e w a r n e d , s o u r c e s a re

n o t s p r i n g s o f r e a l m e a n i n g , f o n t s o f c o l o n i a l t r u t h s i n t h e m s e l v e s . 14

W h e t h e r d o c u m e n t s a r e tr u s t w o r th y , a u t h en t i c, a n d r e li a b le r e m a i n p r e s s i n g

q u e s t i o n s , b u t a tu r n t o t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l it i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p r o d u c e d t h o s e

d o c u m e n t s , w h a t C a r lo G i n z b u r g h a s c a l le d th e i r e v i d e n t i a r y p a r a d i g m s ,

h a s a l t e r e d t h e s e n s e o f w h a t t r u s t a n d r e l ia b i l i ty m i g h t s i g n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l ly

e n t ai l . T h e t a s k i s le s s t o d i s t i n g u i s h f i c t io n f r o m f a c t t h a n t o t r a c k t h e p r o d u c -

t io n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n o f t h o s e f a c t s t h e m s e l v e s . W i t h t h is m o v e , c o lo n i a l

s t u d i es i s s t e e r i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t d ir e c t i o n , t o w a r d e n q u i r y i n t o t h e g r i d s o f

i n t e l li g i b i l it y t h a t p r o d u c e d t h o s e e v i d e n t i a l p a r a d i g m s a t a p a r t i c u l a r t i m e ,

f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c o n t i n g e n t , a n d i n a p a r t i c u l a r w a y . 15

S t u d e n t s o f t h e c o l o n i a l h a v e c o m e t o s e e a p p r o p r i a t i o n s o f c o l o n i a l

h i s t o r y a s i n f u s e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a s , m a k i n g s o m e s t o r i e s e l i g i b l e f o r

h i s t o r ic a l r e h e a r s a l a n d o t h e r s n o t . 16 T r o u b l i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h o w p e r s o n a l

m e m o r i e s a re s h a p e d a n d e f f a c e d b y s t at es t o o h a s p l a c e d a n a l y t i c e m p h a s i s

o n h o w p a s t p r a c t i c e s a r e w i n n o w e d f o r f u t u r e u s e s a n d f u t u r e p r o j e ct s . 17

S u c h q u e r i e s i n v i te a t u r n b a c k to d o c u m e n t a t i o n it s e lf , t o t h e t e a c h i n g t a s k

t h a t t h e L a t i n r o o t d o c e r e i m p l ie s , t o w h a t an d w h o w e r e b e i n g e d u c a t e d in

t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c s h u f f l e o f r o t e f o r m u l a s , g e n e r i c p l o t s , a n d p r e s c r i p t iv e a s i d e s

t h a t m a k e u p t h e b u l k o f a c o l o n i a l a r ch i v e . T h e i s s u e o f o f f i c ia l b i a s g i v e s

w a y t o a d i f f e r e n t c h a l l e n g e : t o i d e n t i f y i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f p o s s i b i l i ty t h a t

s h a p e d w h a t c o u l d b e w r i tt e n , w h a t w a r r a n t e d r e p et it io n , w h a t c o m p e t e n c i e s

w e r e r e w a r d e d i n a r c h i v a l w r i t i n g , w h a t s t o r i e s c o u l d n o t b e t o l d , a n d w h a t

c o u l d n o t b e s a id . A n d r e w A s h f o r t h m a y h a v e o v e r s t a te d t h e c a s e in h i s s t u d y

o f S o u t h A f r i c a ' s N a t i v e A f f a i r s C o m m i s s i o n , w h e n h e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e al

s e a t o f p o w e r i n m o d e r n s t a te s i s t h e b u r e a u , t h e l o c u s o f w r i t i n g , b u t h e

4

Ranajit Guha, The Proses of Counter-Insurgency , n Nicholas B. Dirks, Geoff Eley, and

Sherry B. Ortner (eds.),

Culture, Power, History: A Reader in Contempora9 Social Theory

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, [1983] 1994), pp. 336-371. Gre g Dening, The Dea th

o f W i ll iam Gooch: A Hi s tory ' s An thropo logy (Ho nolulu: Hawaii University Press, 1995), p. 54.

15 C arlo Ginzburg, Clu es: Ro ots of an E vidential Paradigm , in Clues, Myths and the

His tor i ca l Me thod

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), pp. 96-125.

16 Da vid W ill iam Cohen,

Bury ing SM." The Po l i ti c s o f Know ledge and the Soc io logy o f

P o w e r i n A f r ic a

(Portsmouth, NH: Heineman, 1992).

17 Joanne Rappaport, Cumbe Reborn: An Andean Ethnography o f Hi s tory (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1994). Also see the contributions to Sara h Nu ttall and C arli

Coetzee (eds.),

Nego t ia t ing the Pas t: The Making o f Memo ry in Sou th Af r i ca

(Cape Town:

Ox ford Unive rsity Press, 1998).


6/23

92

ANN LAURA STOLER

may not have been far off the mark. 18 That every document comes layered

with the received account of earlier events and the cultural semantics of a

political moment makes one point clear. What constitutes the archive, what

form it takes, and what systems of classification signal at specific times are

the very substance of colonial politics.

r o m e x t r a c t i o n t o e t h n o g r a p h y i n t h e c o lo n i a l a r c h iv e s

The transformation of archival activity is the point of departure and the

condition of a new history. ~9

If one could say that archives were once treated as a means to an end by

students of history, this is no longer the case today. The pleasures of a

well-stocked manuscript room with its ease of access and aura of quiet

detachment is a thing of the past. 2~ Over the last decade, epistemological

scepticism has taken cultural and historical studies by storm. A focus on

history as narrative, and on history-writing as a charged political act, has

made the thinking about archives no longer the pedestrian preoccupation of

spade-work historians or flat-footed archivists, nor the entry requirements

of fledgling initiates compelled to show mastery of the tools of their trade.

The archive has been elevated to new theoretical status, with enough cachet

to warrant distinct billing, worthy o f scrutiny on its own. Jacques Derrida's

Arch ive Fever compellingly captured that impulse by giving it a name and by

providing an explicit and evocative vocabulary for its legitimation in crit-

ical theory.21 But Natalie Zemon Davis'

Fict ion in the Archives

Roberto

Ecchevaria's M yt h a n d A r ch i ve Thomas Richards' Imper ia l Arch ive and

Sonia Coombe's Archives Interdi tes to name but a few, suggest that Derrida's

splash came only after the archival turn had already been made. 22

18 See Andrew Ashfo r th , The Politics of Official Discourse in Twentieth Century South

Africa

(Oxford: Clare ndon P ress, 1990), p . 5 .

19 De Certeau (1988 [1974]) , p. 75.

20 A ph rase used by Jane Sher ron De H ar t t o under sco re the p rob lem at i cs o f ev idence

in con tempora ry h i s to r i ca l r econs t ruc tion : see Ora l Sources and Con tem pora ry Hi s to ry :

D i s p e l l i n g O l d A s s u m p t i o n s ,

Journal of American History

(Sep tem ber 1993) , p . 582.

21 Jacques Den-ida, Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression (Ch icago : Ch icago Univer s i ty

Press, 1995).

22 Na ta l i e Zemon Dav i s , Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in

Sixteenth Century France (S tan fo rd : S tan fo rd Univer s i ty P ress, 1987); Thom as Richards , The

Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire (London: Verso, 1993) ; Rober to

Gon za lez Echevar r i a ,

Myth and Archive: A Theory o f Latin American Narrative

(Cambr idge :

Cam br idge Univer s i ty P ress , 1990) ; Son ia Coom be ,

Archives lnterdites: Les peurs franfaises


7/23

COLONIALARCHIVESAND THE ARTS OF GOVERNANCE 93

T h i s m o v e f r o m a r c h i v e - a s - s o u r c e t o a rc h i v e - a s - s u b j e c t g a in s i ts c o n t e m -

p o r a r y c u r r e n c y f r o m a r a n g e o f d i ff e r e n t a n a l y t i c s h i ft s, p r a c t i c a l c o n c e r n s ,

a n d p o l i t ic a l p r o j e c ts . F o r s o m e , a s in th e n u a n c e d a r c h i v a l f o r a y s o f G r e g

D e n i n g , i t r e p r e s e n t s a t u r n b a c k t o t h e m e t i c u l o u s p o e t i c s o f de ta i l. '23 T o

o t h e r s , l ik e M i c h e l - R o l p h T r o u i l lo t , i n h is t r e a t m e n t o f t h e a r c h i v a l s il e n c e s

o f t h e H a i t i a n R e v o l u t i o n , a n d D a v i d W i l l i a m C o h e n , i n h i s c o m b i n g s o f

h i s to r y , i t s i g n a ls a n e w g r a p p l i n g w i t h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h i s to r y , w h a t

a c c o u n t s g e t a u th o r iz e d , w h a t p r o c e d u r e s w e r e r e q u i re d , a n d w h a t a b o u t t h e

p a s t i t is p o s s i b l e t o k n o w . 24 F o r B o n n i e S m i t h , r e s e a r c h i n a r c h i v e s , l i k e th e

u n i v e r s i t y s e m i n a r , w e r e t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s it e s w h e r e h i s t o r ic a l s c i e n c e

w a s m a r k e d w i t h g e n d e r e d c r e d e n t ia l s . 25 A r c h i v i s t s o b v i o u s l y h a v e a l s o b e e n

t h i n k i n g a b o u t t he n a t u r e a n d h i s t o r y o f a r c h i v e s f o r s o m e t i m e . 26 W h a t m a r k s

t hi s m o m e n t a r e t he p r o f u s i o n o f f o r u m s i n w h i c h h i s t o r ia n s a r e j o i n i n g

a r c h iv i st s i n n e w c o n v e r s a t io n s a b o u t d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e , r e c o r d k e e p i n g ,

a n d a r c h i v a l t h eo r y . 27 B o t h a r e w o r r y i n g a b o u t t h e p o l i t ic s o f s t o r a g e , w h a t

face ?t l Histoire contemporaine (Paris: Albin Michel, 1994). See also Dominick LaCapra,

History, Language, and Reading , American Historical Review 100 .3 (June 1995): 807,

where he also notes that the problem o f reading in the archives has increasingly b ecom e

a concern of those doing archival research.

23 See, for example, Greg Dening, The Death of William Gooch: A History s Anthropology

(Honolulu: University o f Hawaii Press, 199 5).

24 Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History

(Boston: Beacon Press, 1995); The Combing of History (Chicago: Chicago University P ress,

1994).

25 B onnie G. Sm ith, Gen der and the Practices of Scientific History , American Historical

Review 100(4-5) (1995): 1150-1176.

26 On the history of archives and how archivists have thought about it , see Ernst Posner's

classic essay, So m e Aspects of Archival Developm ent since the French Revolution , in

M aygene D aniels and Timothy W alch (eds.),

A Modern Archives Reader

(Washington, D .C.:

National Archives and Record Service, [ 1940] 1984), pp. 3-21 ; Michel Duchein, The H istory

of European Archives and the Development of the Archival Profession in Europe , American

Archivist 55 (Winter 1992): 14-25; and Terry Cook, W hat is Past is Prologue: A History

of Archival Ideas Since 1898, and the Future Paradigm S hift , Archivaria 43 (Spring 1997):

17 63.

27 Se e, for example, Richard Berner, Archival Theoo~ and Practice in the United States: An

Historical Analysis (Seattle: University o f W ashington Press, 198 3); Kenneth E. Foote, To

Remember and Forget: Archives, Memory, and Culture , American Archivist 53(3) (1990):

378-393; Terry Cook, Mind over Matter: Tow ards a New Theory of Archival Appraisal , in

Barbara Craig (ed.),

The Archival Imagination: Essays in Honour of Hugh A. Taylor

(Ottawa:

Association o f Canadian Archivists, 199 2), pp. 38-69; James M . O'T oole, On the Idea of

Uniqueness , American Amhivist 57(4) (1994): 632-659. For some sense of the changes in

how archivists themselves have fra m ed their w ork over the last fifteen years, see m any o f the

articles in The American Archivist and Arehivaria.


8/23

9 NN L UR STOLER

i n f o r m a t i o n m a t t e r s , a n d w h a t s h o u l d b e r e t a i n e d i n t h e a r c h i v e a s p a p e r

c o l l e c t i o n s g i v e w a y t o d i g i t a l f o r m s . 28

I n c u l t u r a l t h e o r y , t h e a r c h i v e h a s a c a p i t a l A , i s f i g u r a ti v e , a n d

l e a d s e l s e w h e r e . I t m a y r e p r e s e n t n e i t h e r m a t e ri a l s i te n o r a s e t o f d o c u -

m e n t s . R a t h e r , i t m a y s e r v e a s a s t r o n g

metaphor

f o r a n y c o r p u s o f s e l e c t iv e

f o r g e t t i n g s a n d c o l l e c t i o n s - a n d , a s i m p o r t a n t l y , f o r t h e s e d u c t i o n s a n d l o n g -

i n g s th a t s u c h q u e s t s f o r , a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n s o f , t h e p r i m a r y , o r i g i n a r y , a n d

u n t o u c h e d e n ta il . 29 F o r t h o s e i n s p i re d m o r e d i r e c t ly b y F o u c a u l t ' s

Archae-

ology of Knowledge, t h e a r c h i v e is n o t a n i n s t it u t io n , b u t t h e la w o f w h a t c a n

b e s a id , n o t a l i b r a r y o f e v e n t s , b u t t h a t s y s t e m t h a t e s t a b l i s h e s s t a t e m e n t s

a s e v e n t s a n d th i n g s , t h a t s y s t e m o f t h e i r e n u n c i a b i l i t ie s . '3 ~

F r o m w h i c h e v e r v a n t a g e p o i n t - a n d t h e r e a r e m o r e th a n t h e s e - t h e

a r c h i v a l t u r n r e g i st e r s a r e t h i n k i n g o f th e m a t e r i a l i t y a n d i m a g i n a r y o f

c o l l e c t i o n s a n d w h a t k i n d s o f t r o t h - c l a i m s l ie in d o c u m e n t a t i o n . 31 S u c h a

a r c h i v a l t u r n c o n v e r g e s w i th a p r o f u s i o n o f n e w w o r k i n t h e h i s t o r y o f

s c i e n c e , t h a t i s n e i t h e r f i g u r a t i v e l y o r l i t e r a l l y a b o u t a r c h i v e s a t a l l . I t h i n k

h e r e o f I a n H a c k i n g ' s s t u d ie s o f th e p o l it ic a l h i s t o r y o f p r o b a b i l i ty t h e o r y

a n d s ta t e i n v e s t m e n t s i n t h e t a m i n g o f c h a n c e ; S t e v e n S h a p i n ' s a n a ly s i s o f

t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f sc i e n t if i c t r u th s w h e r e h e t r a c e s t h e p o w e r t o p r e d i c t a s

o n e e n j o y e d b y , a n d r e s e r v e d fo r , c u l t u r e d a n d re l i a b le m e n ; M a r y P o o v e y ' s

w o r k o n h o w t h e n o t i o n o f t h e m o d e r n fa c t w a s h is t o r ic a l ly p r o d u c e d ;

A l a i n D e s r o s i 6 r e s s t u d y ( a m o n g m a n y o t h e r s ) o n s ta t is t ic s a s a s c i e n c e o f t h e

s ta te a n d S i l v a n a P a t r ia r c a ' s o n s t a ti st ic s a s a m o d e m m o d e o f r e p r e s e n t a t io n ;

L o r r a i n e D a s t o n ' s a n a l y s is o f th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c l a ss i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y th e o r y

a s a m e a n s o f m e a s u r i n g t h e i n c e r ti tu d e s o f a m o d e r n i z i n g w o r l d . 32 O n e c o u l d

28 Terry Cook, Electronic Records, Paper M inds: The Revolution in Information Manage-

ment and Archives in the Post-Custodial and Post-Modernist Era ,

Archives and Manuscripts

22(2) (1994): 300-329.

29 This me taphoric move is mo st evident in contributions to the two special issues

of History

of the Human Sciences

devoted to Th e Archive , 11(4) (Novem ber 1998) and 12(2) (May

1999). Derrida's valorization o f the archive as imaginary and metaph or predom inates both.

On the archive as metaphor, also see A llan Sekula. Th e Body and the Archive , October 39

(Winter 19 86): 3-64.

30 M ichel Foucault , Th e Statement and the Archive ,

The Archaeology of Knowledge and

the Discourse on Language,

especially Part III (1972), pp. 79-134.

31 See, for exam ple, Patrick Geary,

Phantoms of Remembrance: Memory and Oblivion a

the End of the First Millennium

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), especially

Archival Mem ory and the Destruction o f the Past , pp. 81-114.

32 fan Hacking,

The Taming of Chance

(N ew Y ork: Cambridge U niversity P ress , 1990);

Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century

England (Chicago: Chicago University Pres s, 1994); Mary Poovey,A History of the Modern

Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society

(Chicago: Chicago

Un iversity Press, 1998 ); Alain D esrosibres,

The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statis-


9/23


9

a l s o ad d A n t h o n y G r a f t o n ' s e s s ay s o n f o o t n o t e s a s t h e l i n e s t h a t l e ad i n t o

mo r a l co m m u n i t i e s an d t h e i r c l a i ms t o au t h o r i t y an d t ru th . 33

W h a t d o t h e s e s t u d i e s a l l h a v e i n c o m m o n ? A l l a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

l e g it im a t i n g s o c ia l c o o r d in a t e s o f e p i s te m o l o g i e s : h o w p e o p l e i m a g i n e t h e y

k n o w w h a t th e y k n o w a n d w h a t i n s ti tu t io n s v a l id a t e th a t k n o w l e d g e , a n d h o w

t h ey d o s o . N o n e t r ea t t h e co n v en t i o n s an d ca t eg o r i e s o f an a l y s i s ( s t a t i s t i c s ,

f ac t s , t ru t h s, p r o b ab i l i t y , f o o t n o t e s , an d s o o n ) a s in n o c u o u s o r b en ig n . A l l

co n v e r g e o n q u es t i o n s ab o u t r u le s o f r e l iab i l i ty an d t r u s t, c r i t e ri a o f c r ed en c e ,

an d w h a t m o r a l p r o j ec t s an d p o l i t ic a l p r ed i c t ab i li t ie s a r e s e r v ed b y t h e s e

co n v e n t i o n s an d c a t eg o r i e s . A l l a s k a s i m i l a r s e t o f h is t o r ica l q u es t i o n s a b o u t

a c c r e d i te d k n o w l e d g e a n d p o w e r - w h a t p o l it ic a l f o rc e s , s o c i a l c u e s , a n d

mo r a l v i r t u e s p r o d u ce q u a l i f i ed k n o w l ed g es t h a t , i n t u r n , d i s q u a l i f i ed o t h e r

w a y s o f k n o w i n g , o t h e r k n o w l e d g e s . T o m y m i n d , n o o n e s e t o f c o n c e r n s i s

m o r e r e l ev an t t o th e co l o n i a l p o l i ti c s o f a r ch i v es an d t h e i r ( p a r en t ) a r ch i v i n g

states .

B u t t h e a r ch i v a l t u r n can b e t r aced t h r o u g h o t h e r v en u e s a s w e l l ,

s u g g es t i n g t h a t s o me t h i n g r e s emb l i n g e t h n o g r ap h y i n an a r ch i v a l mo d e h as

b e e n a r o u n d f o r s o m e t i m e . C a r l o G i n z b u r g ' s m i c r o - h is t o r y o f a s ix t e en t h -

cen t u r y m i ll e r, l i k e N a t a l i e D av i s ' u s e o f p a r d o n t a le s i n Fict ion in the

Arch ives d r e w o n h o s t il e d o c u m e n t s o f t h e e l it e s t o r e v e a l t h e g a p b e t w e e n

t h e im ag e u n d e r l y i n g t h e i n t e r ro g a t i o n s o f j u d g es an d th e ac t u a l t e s t i mo n y o f

t h e accu s ed . '3 4 N e i t h e r w e r e i n t en d ed a s e t h n o g r ap h i e s o f t he a rch ive , bu t

b o t h g e s t u r e in t h a t d i r ec ti o n . I n D a v i s ' ex p l i c i t a t ten t i o n t o h o w p eo p l e

t o l d s t o r i e s , w h a t t h ey t h o u g h t a g o o d s t o r y w as , h o w t h ey acco u n t ed f o r

m o t i v e , t h e s e s i x teen t h - cen t u r y l e tt e r s o f r em i s s i o n a r e s h o w n to r eco u n t

m o r e t h an t h e b a r e f ac t s o f t h e ir p e a s an t au t h o r s ' s o b e r ta l e s . 35 P a r d o n t a le s

a l s o r eg i s t e r ed t h e co n s t r a i n t s o f t h e l aw , t h e m o n o p o l y o n p u b l i c j u s t i c e o f

r o y a l p o w er , an d t h e m er c y t h a t t h e mo n a r c h y i n c r ea s i n g l y c l a i med . 36 D a v i s '

f i c ti o n i n t h e a r ch i v es d em o n s t r a t ed f a s h i o n ed s t o r ie s th a t s p o k e t o m o r a l

tical Reasoning (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998); Silvana Patriarca, Numbers

and Nationhood: Writing Statistics in Nineteenth Century Italy (Cambridge and New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1998). On the power of suasive utterance in the making of

scientific truth-claims, see Christopher Norris, Truth, Science, and the Growth of Knowl-

edge , New Left Review 210 (1995): 105-123; and Benedict Anderson, Census, Map,

Museum , in the revised second edition of Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin

and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991), pp. 163-186.

33 Anthony Grafton, The Footnote: A Curious History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press, 1997).

34 Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth Century Miller

(London: Penguin, 1982), pp. xvii, xviii.

35 Davis, 1987, p. 4.

36 Ibid.


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9 N N L U R S T O L E R

t r u t h s , d r e w o n s h a r e d m e t a p h o r s a n d h i g h l i t e r a r y c u l t u r e , a n d d e p e n d e d o n

t h e p o w e r o f th e s t a t e a n d t h e a r c h i v e d i n s c r i p t i o n s o f it s a u th o r i t y .

W h i l e r e c e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e a r c h i v a l t u r n h a v e b e e n t a k e n w i t h

D e r r i d a ' s c o n t e n t i o n th a t t h e r e is n o p o l it i c a l p o w e r w i t h o u t c o n t r o l o f t h e

a r c h i v e , i n fa c t , t h i s i n s i s t e n c e o n th e l i n k b e t w e e n w h a t c o u n t s a s k n o w l -

e d g e a n d w h o h a s p o w e r h a s l o n g b e e n a f o u n d i n g p r in c i p le o f c o lo n i a l

e t h n o g r a p h y . 37 R o l p h T r o u i l l o t 's i n s i s t e n c e i n h i s s t u d y o f th e H a i t i a n R e v o l u -

t i o n t h a t h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t iv e s a re p r e m i s e d o n p r e v i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s ,

w h i c h a re t h e m s e l v e s p r e m i s e d o n t h e d is t ri b u ti o n o f a r c h iv a l p o w e r a l lo w s

h i m t o tr a c k t h e e f f a c e m e n t o f a rc h i v a l tr a c e s, a n d t h e i m p o s e d s i le n c e s t h a t

p e o p l e h a v e m o v e d a r o u n d a n d b e y o n d . 38 N i c h o l a s D i r k ' s o b s e r v a t io n t h a t

e a r l y c o l o n i a l h i s t o r i o g r a p h i e s i n B r i t i s h I n d i a w e r e d e p e n d e n t o n n a t i v e

i n f o r m a n t s , w h o w e r e l a t e r w r i t t e n o u t o f t h o s e h i s to r i e s , d r a w s o u r a t t e n t i o n

t o th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r c h i v i n g , e x p e r ts , a n d k n o w l e d g e p r o d u c t i o n . 39

C h r i s t o p h e r B a y l y ' s m o r e r e c e n t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e B r i t i s h

i n t e l l i g e n c e s e r v i c e i n c o l o n i a l I n d i a w o r k e d t h r o u g h n a t i v e c h a n n e l s p l a c e s

t h e s t a te ' s a c c e s s to i n f o r m a t i o n a s a n o d a l p o i n t i n t h e a r t o f g o v e r n a n c e

a n d a s a h i g h l y c o n t e s t e d t e r ra i n . 4 ~ M y o w n w o r k o n t h e h i e r a r c h i e s o f

c r e d i b i l i t y t h a t c o n t a i n e d c o l o n i a l n a rr a t iv e s i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s I n d i e s , a s

t h e s e c o n s t r a i n e d w h a t w e r e c o u n t e d a s h a v i n g p l a u s i b l e p lo t s , r e a d s c o l o n i a l

p o l i t ic s o f f t h e s t o r e y e d d i s t r ib u t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e 's p a p e r p r o d u c t i o n a n d

t h r o u g h t h e r u m o r s ( s p r e a d b y a b e l e a g u e r e d n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n ) t h a t w e r e

w o v e n t h r o u g h i t. 41

A s F o u c a u l t p r o v o c a t i v e l y w a r n e d , t h e a r c h i v e i s n e i t h e r t h e s u m o f a l l

t e x t s t h a t a c u l t u r e p r e s e r v e s n o r t h o s e i n s t i t u t io n s t h a t a l l o w f o r t h a t r e c o r d ' s

p r e s e r v a t io n . T h e a r c h i v e i s r a t h e r t h a t s y s t e m o f s t a t e m e n t s , t h o s e r u l e s o f

p r a c t i c e , t h a t s h a p e t h e s p e c i f i c r e g u l a r i ti e s o f w h a t c a n a n d c a n n o t b e s a i d . 42

S t u d e n t s o f c o l o n i a l is m h a v e w r e s tl e d w i t h th i s f o r m u l a t i o n t o c a p t u r e w h a t

r e n d e r s c o l o n ia l a r c hi v e s as b o th d o c u m e n t s o f e x c l u s i o n s a n d a s m o n u m e n t s

t o p a r t ic u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f p o w e r .

37 De rrida, 1995 , p. 4.

38 M ichel-Rolph Trou illot, 1995, p. 55.

39 Nicholas B. D irks, Colonial Histories and Native Informants: Biography of an Archive ,

in C arol A. B reckenridge and P eter van der V eer (eds.), Orientalism and the Postcolonial

Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,

1993), pp. 279 -313.

40 Christopher Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social

Communication in India 1780-1870 (Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press, 1996).

41 Ann L aura Stoler, In Cold Blood: Hierarchies of Credibility and the Politics of Colonial

Narratives , Representations 37 (1992): 151-189.

42 See M ichel Foucault, The Statement and the Archive , The Archaeology of Knowledge

pp. 79-134.


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C OLO NIAL AR C HIVES AND THE AR TS OF GOVER NANC E 97

B o t h G o n z a l e z E c h e v v a r i a a n d T h o m a s R i c h a r d s f o l l o w F o u c a u l t in

t r ea ti n g t h e i mp e r i a l a r ch i v e a s t h e fan t a s t ic r ep r e s en t a t i o n o f an ep i s t emo -

log i ca l m as t e r pa t t e rn . '43 Fo r R ichard s , t ha t a rch ive i s m ater i a l a nd f i gu ra t i ve ,

a m e t ap h o r o f an u n f u l f i ll ed b u t s h a r ed B r i ti s h i m p e r i a l i mag i n a t i o n . Th e

i mp er i a l a r ch i v e w a s b o t h th e s u p r em e t ech n o l o g y o f t h e la t e n i n e t een t h -

cen t u r y i mp e r i a l s t a t e and t h e t e ll in g p r o t o t y p e o f a p o s t mo d e r n o n e , p r ed i -

ca t ed o n g l o b a l d o m i n a t i o n o f i n f o r ma t i o n an d t h e c i r cu it s th r o u g h w h i ch

f ac t s m o v e . E ch ev v a r i a l o ca t e s th e a r ch i v e a s b o t h r e l ic an d ru i n, a r ep o s i -

t o r y o f co d i f i ed b e l i e f s , g en r e s f o r b ea r i n g w i t n e s s , c l u s t e r ed co n n ec t i o n s

b e t w e e n s e c r e c y , p o w e r , a n d t h e l a w . 4 4 I t w as t h e l eg i t i ma t i n g d i s co u r s e s o f

t h e S p an i s h co l o n i a l a r ch i v es , h e a r g u es , t h a t p r o v i d ed t h e La t i n A mer i can

n o v e l w i t h it s s p ec i f i c co n t en t an d t h ema t i c f o r m . F o r b o t h R i ch a r d s an d

Ech ev v a r i a , t h e a r ch i v e i s a t emp l a t e t h a t d eco d es s o me t h i n g e l s e . B o t h p u s h

us t o t h ink d i f f e ren t ly abou t a rch iva l f i c t i ons , bu t r eserve t he i r f i ne-g ra ined

analys i s fo r l it e r a tu re , no t t he co lon i a l a rch ives t hem selve s . 45

W h e t h e r t h e a r ch i v e s h o u l d b e t r ea ted a s a s e t o f d i s cu r s i v e r u le s , an

u t o p i an p r o j ec t , a d ep o t o f d o cu m en t s , a co r p u s o f s ta t emen t s , o r al l o f

t h e ab o v e , i s n o t r ea l l y t h e q u es t i o n . C o l o n i a l a r ch i v es w e r e b o t h s i t e s o f

t h e i m a g i n a r y and i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t f a s h i o n ed h i s t o r i e s a s t h ey co n cea l ed ,

r ev ea l ed , an d r ep r o d u c ed t h e p o w er o f th e s ta t e. 46 P o w er an d co n t r o l, a s

m a n y s c h o la r s h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e e t y m o l o g y o f t h e

t e r m . 4 7

F r o m t h e L a t i n arch ivum r e s i d e n c e o f t h e m a g i s t ra t e , a n d fr o m t h e

G r e e k arkhe t o co mman d o r g o v e r n , co l o n i a l a r ch i v es o r d e r ed ( i n b o t h t h e

i mp e r a t i v e an d t ax o n o m i c s en s e ) t h e c ri te r i a o f ev i d en ce , p r o o f , t e s ti mo n y ,

an d w i t n e s s i n g t o co n s t r u c t m o r a l n a r r at io n s . F ac t u a l s t o r y te l l in g , mo r a l -

i z i n g s t o r i e s , an d mu l t i p l e v e r s i o n s - f e a t u r e s t h a t H ay d en W h i t e a s c r i b e s

t o w h a t c o u n t s a s h i s to r y - m a k e s e n s e o f w h i c h s p e c i fi c p l o ts w o r k e d i n

the co lon i a l a rch ives as wel l . 48 I t was i n f ac tua l s t o r i es t ha t t he c o lon i a l s t a t e

af f i rmed i t s f i c t i ons t o i t se l f , i n mora l i z ing s to r i es t ha t i t mapped the scope o f

43 Richards, 1993, p. 11.

44 Echevvar ia , 1990, p . 30 .

4 5 T h u s f o r T h o m a s R i c h a r d s , H i l t o n ' s Lost Horizon a n d K i p l i n g ' s Kim a re e n t r i e s i n

a V i c t o r i a n a rc h i v e t h a t w a s th e p r o t o t y p e f o r a g l o b a l s y s t e m o f d o m i n a t i o n t h r o u g h

c i rc u l a t ion , a n a ppa ra tu s fo r c on t ro l l i ng te r r i t o ry by p rodu c i ng , d i s t r ibu t i ng a nd c ons um i ng

i n fo rma t i on a bou t i t .

4 6 T h i s l i n k b e t w e e n s t a t e p o w e r a n d w h a t c o u n t s a s h i s to r y w a s l o n g a g o m a d e b y H e g e l i n

The Philosophy of History a s Ha yd e n W hi t e po i n t s ou t : I t i s on l y t he s t at e wh i c h f i r s t p re se n t s

sub j e c t -ma t t e r t ha t i s no t on l y a da p t e d t o t he p rose o f Hi s t o ry , bu t i nvo l ve s t he p roduc t i on o f

s u c h h is t o r y i n t h e v e r y p ro g r e s s o f it s o w n b e i n g . S e e H a y d e n W h i t e ,

The Content of the

Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation

(B a l t i mo re : Johns Hop k i ns , 1987) ,

p. 12.

4 7 S e e E c h e v v a r i a ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p . 3 1 , f o r a d e t a i le d e t y m o l o g y o f th e t e rm .

48 S e e W hi t e , 1987, e spe c i a l l y , pp . 26 -57 .


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9 8

NN L UR STOLER

i ts p h i lan t h r o p i c mi s s i o n s , an d i n m u l t i p l e an d co n t e s t ed v e r s i o n s t h a t cu lt u r a l

acco u n t s w e r e d i s c r ed i t ed o r r e s t o r ed .

V i ew ed i n t h i s p e r s p ec t i v e , i t i s c l ea r t h a t t h e n i n e t een t h - an d ea r l y -

t w en t i e t h - cen t u r y a r ch i v es o f t h e D u t ch ad m i n i s tr a t io n i n t h e In d i e s w e r e n o t

t o b e r e a d ra n d o m l y i n a n y w h i c h w a y . I s s u e s w e r e r e n d e r e d i m p o r t a n t b y

h o w t h e y w e r e c l a s s e d a n d d i s c u r s i v e l y f r a m e d . O f f i c i a l e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n

t h e G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l a n d h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s , b e t w e e n t h e G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l

a n d t h e M i n i s t e r o f C o l o n ie s , a n d b e t w e e n t h e M i n i s te r a n d t h e K i n g, w e r e

r e f e r en ce g u i d es t o ad mi n i s t r a t i v e t h i n k i n g . O r g an i zed i n f o l i o f o r ms , t i t l e

p a g e s p r o v i d e d l o n g l is ts o f c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d d o s s i e r s a n d d e c i s i o n s t h a t

w e r e a b b r e v i a t e d g e n e a l o g i e s o f w h a t c o n s t i t u te d r e l e v a n c e , p r e c e d e n t, a n d

r e a s o n s o f s ta te . W i th a p p e n d e d e v i d e n c e t ha t m i g h t i n c l u d e te s t im o n i e s o f

e x p e r ts a n d c o m m i s s i o n e d r e p o rt s, s u c h f o l i o s c o n t a i n e d a n d c o n f i r m e d w h a t

c o u n t e d a s p r o o f a n d w h o c r i b b e d f r o m w h o m in t he c h a in o f c o m m a n d .

A t t en t i o n t o m o m en t s o f d i s tr u s t an d d i s p e r s i o n , r ev e r s a l s o f p o w er , ru p t u r e s

i n co n t r ac t, h av e b een t h e t rad e m ar k s o f c r it ic a l p o l i t ic a l an d s o c i a l h i s t o r y

f o r s o m e t im e . W h a t h a s c h a n g e d i s a n a p p r e c ia t io n o f h o w m u c h t h e a rc h iv a l

p r a c ti c e s o f t h e s e p a p e r e m p i r e s s i g n a le d c h a n g e s in t h e ir t e c h n o l o g i e s o f

rule . 49

I f it i s o b v i o u s t h a t co l o n i a l a r ch i v es a r e p r o d u c t s o f s t a te m ach i n es , i t

i s l e s s o b v i o u s t h a t t h ey a r e , i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t , t e ch n o l o g i e s t h a t b o l s t e r ed

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h o s e s t a t e s t h ems e l v es . 5 ~ S y s t em s o f w r i t t en ac co u n t ab i l i ty

w er e t h e p r o d u c t s o f i n s ti tu t io n s , b u t p ap e r t ra i ls ( w eek l y r ep o r t s t o s u p e r io r s ,

s u m m a r i e s o f r e p o rt s o f r e p o rt s, r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s b a s e d o n r e p o r ts ) c a l l e d

f o r a n e l a b o r a t e c o d i n g s y s t e m b y w h i c h t h e y c o u l d b e t r a c k e d . C o l o n i a l

s t a t ec r a f t w a s b u i l t o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f s t at is t ic s an d s u r v ey s , b u t a l s o o u t o f

t h e ad mi n i s t ra t i v e a p p a r a t u s t h a t p r o d u ce d t h a t i n f o r ma t i o n . M u l t i p l e c i rcu i t s

o f co m m u n i ca t i o n - s h i p p i n g li n e s, co u r r i e r s e r v ice s , an d t e l eg r ap h s - w e r e

f u n d ed b y s t a te co f f e r s an d s y s t em s o f t ax a t io n t h a t k ep t t h em f lu s h . C o l o n i a l

p u b l is h i n g h o u s e s m a d e s u r e th a t d o c u m e n t s w e r e s e l e c ti v e ly d u p li c a te d ,

d i s s emi n a t ed , o r d e s t r o y ed . C o l o n i a l o f f i ce b u i l d i n g s w e r e co n s t r u c t ed t o

m a k e s u r e th e y w e r e p r o p e r l y c a t a l o g u e d a n d s t o re d . A n d n o t u n l ik e t h e

b r o a d e r ra c i a li z e d r e g i m e in w h i c h a r c h i ve s w e r e p ro d u c e d , t h e m i x e d -

b l o o d , I n d o y o u t h s , b a r r ed fr o m ri s in g in t h e c i v i l s e r v i ce r an k s , w e r e t h e

s c r i b e s t h a t m a d e t h e s y s t e m r u n . E m p l o y e d a s c l e r k s a n d c o p y i s t s i n t h e

c o l o n i a l b u r e a u c ra c y , t h e y w e r e c o m m o n l y r e f e rr e d to a s c o p y m a c h i n e s ,

an d t h en d i s d a i n ed f o r t h e i r l a ck o f i n it ia t iv e , t h e i r p o o r co m m an d o f D u t ch ,

49 On this point, see Trouillot, 1995. On the relationship between state formation and

archival production, see Duch ein (1992), cited above.

50 See my Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth ,

olitical ower and Social

Theory 11 (1997): 183-255.


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9 9

an d t h e i r e a s y ad ap t a t i o n t o s u ch i m i t a t i v e an d d eg r ad ed r o l e s . A t t en t i o n t o

t h is s o r t o f s ca f f o l d i n g o f th e co l o n i a l s t a te r en d e r s an e t h n o g r ap h i c r ead i n g

o f th e a r ch i v es v e r y d i ff e r en t f r o m w h a t h i s t o r ie s o f t h e co l o n i a l l o o k ed l i k e

s ev e r a l d ecad es ag o .

A l o n g t h e a r c h i v a l g r a i n

I f o n e w e r e t o ch a r ac t e r i ze w h a t h a s i n f o r m ed a c r i ti c a l ap p r o ach t o t h e

co l o n i a l a r ch i v es o v e r t h e l a s t f i f t e en y ea r s , i t w o u l d b e a co mmi t men t t o t h e

n o t i o n o f r ead i n g co l o n i a l a rch i v es ag a i n s t t h e ir g r a in . S t u d en t s o f co l o n i -

a l is m , i n s p i r ed b y p o l i t ic a l e co n o m y , w e r e s ch o o l ed t o w r i t e p o p u l a r h i s t o r ie s

f r o m t h e b o t t o m u p , h i st o ri e s o f r e s is t a n c e t h at m i g h t l o c a te h u m a n a g e n c y

i n s ma l l g e s t u r e s o f r e f u s a l an d s i l en ce a m o n g t h e co l o n i zed . 51 A s s u ch ,

e n g a g e m e n t w i th th e c o lo n i a l ar c h iv e s w a s d e v o t e d to a r e a d in g o f u p p e r

c l a ss s o u r c e s u p s i d e d o w n i n o r d e r to r ev e a l t h e la n g u a g e o f r u le a n d t h e

b i as es i nheren t i n s t a t i s t percep t ions . 52

Th e p o l i t ic a l p r o j ec t w a s t o w r i t e u n - S t a t e - d h i s to r i e s t h a t m i g h t d em o n -

s tr a te t h e w a r p e d r e a li ty o f o ff ic i a l k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e e n d u r i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s

o f s u ch p o l i t ic a l d i s to r t io n s . I n R an a j i t G u h a ' s f o r m u l a t i o n , co l o n i a l d o cu -

m en t s w e r e r h e t o r i ca l s l e i g h ts o f h an d t h a t e r a s ed t h e fac t s o f s u b j u g a -

t io n , r ec l a s s i f ied p e t t y c r i me a s p o l it i c a l s u b v e r s i o n , o r s i mp l y e f f ac ed th e

co l o n i zed . Th e p o l i ti c a l s t ak es w e r e p u t o n t h e an a l y t i c t a c t i c s o f in v e r s i o n

an d r ecu p e r a t io n : an e f f o r t t o r e - s i tu a t e t h o s e w h o ap p ea r e d a s o b j ec t s o f

co l o n i a l d i s c i p li n e a s s u b a l t e rn s u b j ec t s an d ag en t s o f p r ac t i ce w h o ma d e

a l b e i t co n s t r a i n ed - ch o i ce s o f th e i r o w n . W i t h in t h is f r ame , a r ch i v a l

d o c u m en t s w e r e co u n t e r w e i g h t s t o e t h n o g r ap h y , n o t t h e s i te o f it. 53

B u t co l o n i a l au t h o r i t y , an d t h e p r ac t i ce s t h a t s u s t a i n ed i t , p e r mea t ed mo r e

d i v e r s e s i te s t h an t h o s e p u r s u i n g th i s r o m an c e o f r e s i s t an ce o n ce im ag i n ed .

I f M ar x ' s i n s i s t en ce , th a t p eo p l e ma k e t h e i r o w n h i s to r y , b u t n o t ex ac t l y a s

t h ey p l ea s e , i n f o r m ed t h e s e ea r l y e f fo r t s t o w r i t e h is t o r ie s o f p o p u l a r ag en cy ,

t h ey a l s o u n d e r s co r ed t h a t co l o n i a l r u l e r e s t ed o n mo r e t h an t h e ca l cu l a t ed

i n eq u i t ie s o f s p ec i f i c r e l a ti o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n an d ex ch a n g e . I n lo o k i n g m o r e t o

t h e ca r e f u l l y h o n ed cu l t u ra l r ep r e s en t a t i o n s o f p o w er , s t u d en t s o f t h e co l o n i a l

have t u rned the i r a t t en t ion t o t he p rac t i ces t ha t p r iv i l eged cer t a in soc i a l

51 F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e s e c h a n g e s i n r e s e a r c h a g e n d a , s e e t h e n e w p r e f a c e

t o m y

Capitalism and Confrontation in Sum atra s Plantation, 187 0-1 979

( A n n A r b o r :

U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n P r e s s , 1 9 9 5 ) .

5 2 I d i s c u s s s o m e o f t h e s e i s s u e s i n P e r c e p t i o n s o f P r o t e s t : D e f i n i n g t h e D a n g e r o u s i n

C o l o n i a l S u m a t r a , Am erican Ethnologist 1 2 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 6 4 2 - 6 5 8 .

5 3 F o r a r e c e n t a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d v e r s i o n o f t h i s c u l l i n g p r o j e c t , s e e S h a h i d A m i n , Event,

Metaphor, Memory: 1922-1992 ( B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P re s s , 1 9 9 5 ) .


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c a t e g o ri e s a n d m a d e t h e m e a s y t o t h i n k . N o t le a st , w e h a v e b e c o m e m o r e

s u s p e c t o f c o l o n i a l v o c a b u l a r i e s t h e m s e l v e s t h a t s u r r e p t i ti o u s l y s l ip a w a y

f r o m t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l m o o r i n g s a n d r e a p p e a r a s o u r e x p l a n a t o r y c o n c e p t s o f

h i s t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e , r a t h e r t h a n a s f o l k c a t e g o r i e s t h a t n e e d t o b e e x p l a i n e d . 54

F o c u s i n c o l o n i a l s tu d i e s o n t h o s e t e n s i o n s o f e m p i r e t h a t w e r e a t

o n c e i n t i m a t e a n d b r o a d h a s p l a c e d s e x a n d s e n t i m e n t n o t a s m e t a p h o r s

o f e m p i r e , b u t a s i ts c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t s . 55 A p p r e c i a t i n g h o w m u c h t h e

p e r s o n a l w a s p o l i ti c a l h a s r e v a m p e d t h e s c o p e o f o u r a r c h i v a l f r a m e s : h o u s e -

k e e p i n g m a n u a l s , c h i l d - r e a r i n g h a n d b o o k s , a n d m e d i c a l g u i d e s s h a r e s p a c e

w i t h c l a s s i f i e d s t a t e p a p e r s , c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s , a n d c o m m i s s i o n r e p o r t s

a s d e f i n in g t ex t s i n c o l o n i a l is m ' s c u l tu r e s o f d o c u m e n t a t io n . R a y m o n d

W i l l i a m s ' p i o n e e r i n g t r e a t m e n t o f c u lt u r e a s a s i te o f c o n t e s t e d , n o t s h a r e d ,

m e a n i n g h a s p r o m p t e d s t u d en t s o f t he c o l o n i a l to d o t h e s a m e . I n tu r n i n g

f r o m r a c e a s a t h i n g t o r a c e a s a p o r o u s a n d p r o t e a n s e t o f r e la t i o n s , c o l o n i a l

h i s to r i es i n c r e a s i n g l y d w e l l o n t h e s e a m s o f a r c h iv e d a n d n o n - a r c h i v e d

a s c r i p t io n s t o re d e f i n e c o l o n i a l s u b s u m p t i o n s o n a b r o a d e r t e r r a in . 56 H o w e v e r

w e f r a m e i t, th e i s s u es t u r n s o n r e a d i n g s o f th e a r c h i v e s b a s e d o n w h a t w e

t a k e t o b e e v i d e n c e a n d w h a t w e e x p e c t t o fi n d . H o w c a n s t u d e n t s o f c o l o n i -

a l i s m s s o q u i c k l y a n d c o n f i d e n t l y t u r n t o r e a d i n g s a g a i n s t t h e g r a i n w i t h o u t

m o v i n g a l o n g t h e ir g r a in f i rs t ? H o w c a n w e b r u s h a g a i n s t th e m w i t h o u t a p ri o r

s e n s e o f t h e ir te x t u r e a n d g r a n u l a r it y ? H o w c a n w e c o m p a r e c o l o n i a l i s m s

w i t h o u t k n o w i n g t h e ci r cu i ts o f k n o w l e d g e p r o d u c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e y o p e r a t e d

a n d t h e r a ci a l c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t ie s o n w h i c h t h e y re l i e d ? I f a n o t i o n o f c o l o n i a l

e t h n o g r a p h y s t ar ts f r o m t h e p r e m i s e t h a t a r c h i v a l p r o d u c t i o n i s i t s e l f b o t h a

p r o c e s s a n d a p o w e r f u l t e c h n o l o g y o f ru l e, t h e n w e n e e d n o t o n l y to b r u s h

a g a i n s t

t h e a r c h i v e ' s r e c e i v e d c a t e g o r i e s . W e n e e d t o r e a d f o r i ts r e g u l a r it i e s,

f o r i ts l o g i c o f r e c a ll , f o r i t s d e n s i t i e s a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n s , f o r i ts c o n s i s t e n c i e s

o f m i s i n f o r m a t i o n , o m i s s i o n , a n d m i s t a k e -

a l o n g

t h e a r c h i v a l g r a i n .

A s s u m i n g w e k n o w t h o s e s c ri p ts , I w o u l d a r g u e , d i m i n i s h e s o u r a n a l y t ic

p o s s i b i li t ie s . I t r e s t s t o o c o m f o r t a b l y o n p r e d i c t a b l e s t o r ie s w i t h f a m i l i a r

p l o t s . I t d i v e r t s o u r a t t e n t i o n f r o m h o w m u c h c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y - w r i t i n g h a s

b e e n s h a p e d b Y n a t i o n a l i s t h i s t o r i o g r a p h i e s a n d n a t i o n - b o u n d p r o j e c t s . I t

l e a v e s u n q u e s t i o n e d t h e n o t i o n t h a t c o l o n i a l s t a t e s w e r e f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t

i n f o r m a t i o n - h u n g r y m a c h i n e s i n w h i c h p o w e r a c c r u e d f r o m t h e m a s s i v e

a c c u m u l a t i o n o f e v e r - m o r e k n o w l e d g e r a th e r t h a n f r o m t h e q u a l i ty o f i t.

54 See the introduction, Genealogies of the Intimate , in m y Carna l Knowledge and

Imper ia l Power Race and the In t ima te in Co lon ia l Ru le

(Berkeley: University of California

Press, 2002).

55 See my Sexual Affronts and Ra cial Frontiers , Compara t i ve S tud ies in Soc ie t y and

His tory 34(3) (1992): 514-551.

56 See J. Chandler, A. Da vidson, and H. Haroo tunian (eds.),

Ques t ions o f Ev idence Pro o f

Prac t i ce and Persuas ion across the Di sc ip l ines

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).


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C OLO NIAL AR C HIVES AND THE AR TS OF GOVER NANC E 101

I t t ak es a s a g i v en t h a t co l o n i a l s t a t ec r a f t w as mo t i v a t ed an d f u e l ed b y a

r ed u c t i v e eq u a t i o n o f k n o w l ed g e t o p o w er , an d th a t co l o n i a l s ta t e s s o u g h t

m o r e o f b o t h . N o t l e a st , i t m ak e s i r r e lev an t f a i l ed p r o p o s a l s , u t o p i an v i s i o n s ,

a n d i m p r o b a b l e p r o j e c ts b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e n o n - e v e n ts . R e a d i n g o n l y

ag a i n s t t h e g ra i n o f t h e co l o n i a l a r ch i v e b y p as s e s th e p o w er i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n

of t he a rch ive i t se l f .

iv i l i t ie s and cred ib i l i t ie s in arch ival product ion

I f c o l o n i a l d o c u m e n t s r e f le c t e d th e s u p r e m a c y o f re a s o n , t h e y a l s o r e c o r d e d

a n e m o t i o n a l e c o n o m y m a n i f e s t in d is p a r a te u n d e r s t a n d in g s o f w h a t w a s

i m a g i n e d , w h a t w a s f e a r e d , w h a t w a s w i t n e s s e d , a n d w h a t w a s o v e r h e a r d .

S u c h a r ead i n g t u r n s u s to th e s t r u c t u re s o f s en t im en t t o w h i ch c o l o n i a l

b u r eau c r a t s s u b s c r i b ed , t o t h e f o r mu l a i c b y w h i ch t h ey ab i d ed , t o t h e mi x o f

d i s p as s i o n a t e r ea s o n , i mp as s i o n ed p l ea , cu l t u r a l s c r i p t , an d p e r s o n a l ex p e r -

i en ce t h a t mad e u p w h a t t h ey ch o s e t o w r i t e t o t h e i r s u p e r i o r s an d t h u s

p l ace i n t h e f o l d s o f o f f i c i a l v i ew . D u t ch co l o n i a l d o cu men t s r eg i s t e r t h i s

emo t i o n a l e co n o my i n s ev e r a l w ay s : i n t h e meas u r ed a f f ec t o f o f f i c i a l t ex t s ,

i n th e b i t i n g c r i t i q u e r e s e r v ed f o r mar g i n a l ia , i n f o o t n o t e s t o o f f i c i a l r ep o r t s

w h e r e a s s e s s m e n t s o f c u lt u ra l p r a c t i c e w e r e o f t e n r e le g a t e d a n d l o c a l k n o w l -

ed g e w as s t o red . S t ev en S h ap i n ' s s e t o f co m p e l l i n g q u es t i o n s i n h i s s o c i a l

h i s t o r y o f tr u th co u l d b e t h a t o f co l o n i a l h i s t o r ian s a s w e l l . W h a t , h e a s k s ,

c o u n t e d a s a c r e d i b le p i e c e o f in f o r m a t io n ; w h a t w a s g r a n te d e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l

v i r t u e an d b y w h a t s o c i a l c r i t e r i a? W h a t s en t i men t s an d c i v i l i t i e s mad e f o r

e x p e r t c o l o n ia l k n o w l e d g e t h at e n d o w e d s o m e p e r s o n s w i t h t h e c r e d e n ti a ls

t o g en e r a t e t r u s t w o r t h y t r u t h - c l a i ms t h a t w e r e n o t co n f e r r ed o n o t h e r s ?

C o l o n i a l a r ch i v es w e r e , a s Ech ev v a r i a n o t e s , leg a l rep o s i t o r i e s o f k n o w l -

ed g e an d o f f i c ia l r ep o s i t o r i e s o f p o l icy . B u t t h ey w e r e a l s o r ep o s i t o r i e s o f

g o o d t a s t e a n d b a d f a i t h . S c r i b e s w e r e c h a r g e d w i t h m a k i n g f i n e - p e n n e d

co p i e s . B u t r ep o r t s o n t h e co l o n i a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s t o th e G o v e r n o r G en e r a l i n

B a t a v ia , a n d t o t h e M i n i st e r o f C o l o n i e s in T h e H a g u e , o f t e n w e r e c o m p o s e d

b y m e n o f le tt e rs , w h o s e s t a tu s i n th e c o l o n i a l h ie r a r ch y w a s f o u n d e d a s m u c h

o n th e i r d i s p l ay o f Eu r o p e an l ea r n in g a s o n t h e ir s t u d i ed i g n o r an c e o f lo ca l

k n o w l ed g e , o n t h e i r s k i l l a t co n f i g u r i n g ev en t s i n t o f ami l i a r p l o t s , an d o n

t h e i r cu l t iv a t i o n o f t h e f in e a r ts o f d e f e r en c e , d i s s em b l an ce , an d p e r s u as i o n .

A l l re s t ed o n t h e s u b t l e u s e o f t h e i r cu l t u ra l k n o w - h o w an d cu l t u r a l w a r e s .

A s F a n n y C o l o n n a o n c e n o t e d f o r F r e n c h A l g e r i a , t h e c o l o n i a l p o l i t i c s o f

k n o w l e d g e p e n a l i z e d t h o s e w i t h t o o m u c h l o c a l k n o w l e d g e a n d t h o s e w i t h

n o t en o u g h . 57 I n t h e I n d ie s , c i v i l s e r v an t s w i t h t o o m u ch k n o w l ed g e o f t h in g s

5 7 S e e F a n n y C o l o n n a , E d u c a t i n g C o n f o r m i t y i n F r e n c h C o l o n i a l A l g e r i a , i n F r e d e r i c k

C o o p e r a n d A n n L a u r a S t o l e r ( ed s .) , Tensions of mpire (1997) , pp . 346 -370 .


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102 A N N L A U R A S T O L ER

J a v a n e s e w e r e c o n d e m n e d f o r n o t a p p re c i a ti n g t h e v ir tu e s o f l im i t e d a n d

se l ec t i ve f ami l i a r i ty .

C h r i s t o p h e r B ay l y , in a th o u g h t f u l s t u d y o f th e d ev e l o p m en t o f an i n te l li -

g en ce s y s t em b y t h e B r i t is h i n I n d ia , a r g u es t h a t t h e m as t e r y o f a f f ec t i v e

k n o w l ed g e w a s an ea r l y co n c e r n o f t h e B r i t is h co l o n i a l s ta t e , t h a t d i m i n i s h ed

t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t een t h cen t u r y a s t h a t s t a t e b ecame mo r e h i e r a r ch i ca l an d

g o v e r n i n g b e ca m e a ma t t e r o f r o u t in e . 58 B u t I w o u l d a r g u e t h e o p p o s i t e : t h a t

a f f ec t i v e k n o w l ed g e w a s a t t h e co r e o f p o l i ti c a l r a t i o n a l it y i n it s l a te co l o n i a l

f o r m. C o l o n i a l mo d e r n i t y h i n g ed o n a d i s c i p li n i n g o f o n e ' s ag en t s , o n a p o l i c -

i n g o f t h e f ami l y , o n O r w e l l i an v i s i o n s o f in t e r v en t i o n i n t h e cu l t iv a t i o n o f

co mp as s i o n , co n t emp t , an d d i s d a i n .

T h e a c c u m u l a t io n o f a f fe c t iv e k n o w l e d g e w a s n o t th e n a

s t a g e

o u t o f

w h i ch co l o n i a l s t a t e s w e r e ev en t u a l l y t o p a s s . K e y t e r ms o f t h e d eb a t e s o n

p o o r w h i t e s an d ch i l d - r ea r in g p r ac t i ce s f r o m as l a te a s t h e 1 9 3 0 s , j u s t b e f o r e

t h e o v e r t h r o w o f D u t ch r u le , ma k e t h a t p o i n t ag a i n an d ag a in . W h e n c l a s s i f i ed

c o l o n i a l d o c u m e n t s a r g u e d a g a i n s t t h e s u p p o rt o f a b a n d o n e d m i x e d - b l o o d

ch i l d r en - th a t m o t h e r ca r e m o e d e r z o r g ) s h o u l d n o t b e r e p l a c e d b y c a r e o f

the s t a t e

s t a a t s z o r g ) -

t h ey w er e p u t t i n g a f f ec t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a t t h e h ea r t

o f t h e ir p o l it i c a l p r o jec t s . W h e n t h e s e s am e h i g h o f f ic i a l s w r o t e b ac k an d

f o rt h a b o u t h o w b e s t t o s e c u r e s t ro n g a t t a c h m e n t s t o t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a m o n g

a d i s a f f ec t ed , e s t r an g ed , an d g r o w i n g l o ca l Eu r o p ea n p o p u l a t i o n , f ee l i n g

i s t h e w o r d t h a t p e r v ad es t h e i r co r r e s p o n d en ce . D u t ch au t h o r i ti e s m ay n ev e r

h av e ag r ee d o n h o w t o cu l ti v a t e Eu r o p e an s en s i b i li t ie s i n t h e i r y o u n g , an d j u s t

h o w e a r ly i n a c h il d 's d e v e l o p m e n t t h e y i m a g i n e d t h e y n e e d e d t o d o s o . B u t a t

s t ak e i n t h e s e d e l i b e r a t i o n s o v e r u p b r i n g i n g an d r ea r i n g w e r e d i s q u i e t ed

r e f le c t io n s o n w h a t i t t o o k t o m a k e s o m e o n e m o v e d b y o n e s e t o f s e n s o r y

r eg i mes an d e s t r an g ed f r o m o t h e r s . C o l o n i a l s t a t e s an d t h e i r au t h o r i t i e s , n o t

u n l i k e m e t r o p o l i t an o n es , h ad s t r o n g mo t i v a t i o n f o r t h e ir ab i d i n g i n t e r e s t in

t h e d i s tr i b u ti o n o f a f f ec t an d a s tr o n g s en s e o f w h y i t m a t t e r ed t o co l o n i a l

po l i t i cs .

u l t u r a l l o g i c s a n d a r c h i v a l c o n v e n t i o n s

Th e a r ch i v e d o es n o t h av e t h e w e i g h t o f t rad i ti o n ; an d i t d o e s n o t co n s t i-

t u t e th e l i b r a ry o f li b ra r ie s , o u t s i d e t i m e an d p l ace - i t r ev ea l s t h e r u l e s o f

p r a c t i c e . . , i ts th r e s h o ld o f e x is t e n c e i s e s t a b l is h e d b y t h e d i s c o n ti n u it y

t h a t s ep a r a t e [ s] u s f r o m w h a t w e can n o l o n g e r s ay. 59

58 C hr i s t op he r B a y l y mpire and Information 1996.

59 Fo uca ult 1972 p. 130.


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C OL ONIAL AR C HIVES AND THE AR TS OF GOVER NANC E

103

One way to re-configure our uses o f the colonial archive is to pause at, rather

than bypass, its conventions, those practices that make up its unspoken order,

its rubrics of organization, its rules of placement and reference. Archival

conventions might designate who were reliable sources, what constituted

enough evidence and what - in the absence of information - could be filled

in to make a credible plot. Conventions suggest consensus, but it is not clear

what colonial practitioners actually shared. Archival conventions were built

upon a changing collection of colonial truths about what should be classified

as secrets and matters of state security, and what sorts of actions could be

dismissed as prompted by personal revenge and ad hoc passion or accredited

as a political subversion against the state. 6~ Such conventions exposed the

taxonomies of race and rule, but also how skilfully, awkwardly, and unevenly

both seasoned bureaucrats and fledgling practitioners knew the rules of the

game.

Attention to these conventions may lead in two directions: to the consen-

sual logics they inscribed, but also much more directly to their arbitrary

rules and multiple points of dissension. Political conflicts show up in the

changing viability of categories and disagreements about their use. But as

Paul Starr suggests, informat ion out of place - the failure of some kinds of

practices, perceptions, and populations to fit into a state's ready-made system

of classification - may tell as much or more. 61 Commentar ies on European

nurseries in the colonies might be expected to turn up in reports on education,

but the very fact that they consistently showed up elsewhere - in reports on

European pauperism and white poor relief, or in recommendations to quell

creole discontent, suggest that what was out of place was often sensitive,

and that is was children cued to the wrong cultural sensibilities that were

dangerously out o f place.

o l o n i a l c o m m i s s i o n s a s s t o r ie s t h a t s ta t e s t e l l t h e m s e l v e s

As Ian Hacking says of social categories, archives produced as much as

they recorded the realities they ostensibly only described. They told moral

stories, they created precedent in the pursuit of evidence, and not least they

create carefully tended histories. Nowhere is this history-making work more

60 On t he a dm i n i s t r a t i ve d i s t i nc t i ons be t w e e n t he po l i t i c a l a nd t he p r i va t e , a nd t he

c r i m i n a l v e r s u s t h e s u b v e r s i v e , s e e m y P e r c e p t i o n s o f P r o t e st : D e f i n i n g t h e D a n g e r o u s

i n C o l o n i a l S u m a t r a , A m e r i c a n E t h n o l o g i s t 12(4 ) (1985) : 642 -658 ; a nd La b or i n t he

R e v o l u t i o n , J ourna l o f As i a n S t ud i e s 4 7 ( 2 ) : 2 2 7 - 2 4 7 .

61 P a u l S t ar r , S oc i a l C a t e g o r i e s a nd C l a i ms i n t he L i be ra l S t a t e , i n M a ry D oug l a s a nd

Da v i d Hu l l ( e ds . ) , H o w C l a s s if ic a ti o n W o r ks N e l s o n G o o d m a n a m o n g t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s

(Ed i nburgh : Ed i nburgh U n i ve r s i t y P re s s , 1992) , pp . 154 -179 .


18/23

1 4

NN L UR STOLER

evident than in the form of the commiss ion of inquiry or state commissio n. By

definition, commissions organized knowledge, rearranged its categories, and

prescribed what state officials were charged to know. As the anthropologist,

Frans Husken, notes of Dutch comm ission s in colonial Java, 'w he n nothing

else works and no decision can be reached, appoint a commission' was a

favorite response of colonial authorities. '62 But co mmissi ons were not just

pauses in poli cy and tactics of delay. Like statistics, they helped dete rmine

.. . the character of social facts and produc ed new truths as they produ ced

new social realities. 63 The y wer e respon ses to crisis that generated increased

anxiety, substantiating the reality o f that crisis itself. 64 By the ti me mos t

commissions had run their course (or spawned their follow-up generation),

they could be credited with having defined turning points, justifications for

intervention, and, not least, expert knowledge.

The various commissions produced on the problem of poor whites in

the Indies between the 1870s and early 1900s, and those carried out in

South Africa between the early 1900s and the late 1920s, are exemplary of

what I have in mind. There are certain gene ral features whic h they share. 65

Both produced published and publicized volumes: P a u p e r i s m a m o n g t h e

E u r o p e a n s

(published 1901-1902), and

T h e P r o b l e m o f P o o r W h i t e s i n S o u t h

A f r i c a

(published 1929-1932 ). 66 Both commi ssions were about indigent

62 Frans Husken, Declining Welfare in Java: Government and Private Inquiries, 1903-

1914 , in Robert Cribb (ed.),

The Late Colonial State in Indonesia

(Leiden: KITLV, 1994),

p. 213.

63 Ian Hacking, How Should We Do the History of Statistics? , in Graham Burchell, Colin

Gordon, and Peter Miller (eds.),

The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality

(Chicago:

Chicago University Press, 1991), p. 181.

64 A good example of what tan Hacking calls dynamic nominalism or the looping effect

in categorization.

65 I discuss the politics of colonial comparisons elsewhere and therefore will not do so here.

I have used the 1902 Indies Pauperism Commission, commentaries around it, and enquiries

that preceded it, in much of my writing over the last fifteen years on the construction of

colonial racial categories. The South African Carnegie Commission and the enquiries that

preceded it are compared in a chapter in my forthcoming book,

Along the Archival G rain. A

more general discussion of the politics of comparison can be found in my Tense and Tender

Ties: American History meets Postcolonial Studies, paper delivered to the Organization of

American Historians in April 2000; and in my Beyond Comparison: Colonial Statecraft

and the Racial Politics of Commensurability, paper delivered as a keynote address to the

Australian Historical Association in Adelaide, July 2000.

66 Students of colonialism could come up with a host of others. For an unusual example of

someone who deals with the commission as a particular form of official knowledge, in this

case with the South African Native Affairs Commission, see Adam Ashforth, The Politics of

Official Discourse in Tw entieth Century South A frica

(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990). Also

see Frans Husken's discussion of the Declining Welfare Commission in Java, cited in footnote

62.


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105

E u ro p ean s an d t h e i r i n ap p ro p r i a t e d i s p o s i t i o n s t o ward wo rk , r ac i a l d i s t an ce ,

s ex u a l p ro p r i e ty , an d m o ra l i t y . E ach r eq u i s i t i o n ed ad m in i s t r a t i v e en e rg y an d

ex p e r t i s e , en t a i l ed s ev e ra l y ea r s o f l ab o u r, p ro d u ced t h o u s an d s o f p ag es o f

t ex t, an d i n v o lv ed s co re s o f in t e rv i ew ers an d h u n d red s o f i n t e rv i ewees . In t h e

cas e o f t h e In d i e s , i t s p ro b in g q u es t i o n n a i r e s o n s ex u a l u n io n s , i l l eg i t im a t e

c h i ld r e n , a n d d o m e s t i c a r r a n g e m e n t s s p a r k e d t h e w r a t h o f h u n d r e d s o f i r a te

c o l o n i al E u r o p e a n s , w h o c o n d e m n e d th e In d i e s g o v e r n m e n t a s a n i n qu i si -

t i o n a ry s ta t e . B o th co m m is s io n s w ere r ep o s i t o r ie s o f co lo n i a l an x i e ti e s -

u n s e t t l i n g t e s t im o n ie s t o t h e i n s ecu r i t y o f wh i t e p r i v i l eg e , t o t h e am b ig u -

i ti e s o f m e m b e r s h i p i n t h e p r i v il e g e d c a t e g o r y o f E u r o p e a n , a n d to th e

m a k i n g o f a p u b li c w e l f a r e p o l i c y s o l id l y b a s e d o n r a c e . B o t h w o r r i e d o v e r

i n c r e a s in g n u m b e r s o f i m p o v e r i s h e d w h i t e s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e w o r r i e d a b o u t

s o m e t h i n g e ls e . A s s ta t e d in th e C a r n e g i e C o m m i s s i o n , t h e i r p r o p i n q u i t y

o f . . . d w e l l i n g s t o n o n - E u r o p e a n s t e n d e d t o b r i ng n a t iv e a n d w h i t e i n to

c o n t a ct , c o u n t e r a c t m i s c e g e n a t i o n , w e a k e n t h e c o l o r l in e , a n d p r o m o t e

soc ial equa l i ty . '67

T h e s e c o m m i s s i o n s c o u l d a n d s h o u l d b e r e a d f o r t h e i r e x t r a o r d i n a r y

e th n o g rap h i c co n t en t , b u t a l s o fo r t h e co n t en t ev id en t i n th e i r fo rm . L ik e o th e r

c o l o n ia l c o m m i s s i o n s , t h e y m a r k e d o f f c lu s te r s o f p e o p l e w h o w a r r a n t e d s ta t e

in t e re s t an d s t a t e ex p en s e . Seco n d ly , t h ey were r ed em p t iv e t ex t s , s t ru c tu red

to o f f e r p red i c t i o n s b as ed o n cau s a l a cco u n t s o f ex o n e ra t i o n an d b l am e .

A n d t h i r d l y , b o t h c o m m i s s i o n s w e r e d o c u m e n t s t o t h e m a k i n g o f s t a t e

h i s to r i o g r a p h y a n d m o n u m e n t s t o w h y h i s to r y m a t t e r e d t o c o n s o l id a t i n g a n d

im p e r i a l s t at e s. In wr i t i n g t h e p as t, t h e y p ro d u ced d ram a t i c n a r ra t i v e h i s t o r ie s

b as ed o n s e l ec t ch ro n o lo g i e s , c ry s t a l l i z i n g m o m en t s , an d s i g n i f i can t ev en t s .

In d e f i n in g p o v e r ty i n t h e p re s en t , t h ey a l s o d i c t a t ed wh o i n fu tu re wo u ld

c o u n t a s w h i t e - a n d t h e r e f o r e w h o w o u l d b e e l i g i bl e f o r s ta t e a id .

In d o in g a l l o f t h e ab o v e , t h ey w ro t e , r ev is ed , an d o v e r -w ro t e g en ea lo -

g i e s o f r a c e . N e i t h e r o f t h e s e c o m m i s s i o n s w e r e t h e f i r s t o f t h e i r k i n d . O n

t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y w e r e m a d e c r e d i b l e b y h o w t h e y m a p p e d t h e p a s t o n t o

p re s c r i p t i o n s fo r t h e p re s en t an d p red i c t i o n s o f t h e fu tu re . T h e y a l s o s h o w ed

s o m e t h i n g m o r e . H o w s o c ia l p r a c t ic e s w e r e h i s t o r ic a l ly c o n g e a l e d i n t o e v e n ts

a n d m a d e i n t o th in g s: h o w a n i n c r e a s e o f u n e m p l o y m e n t a n d i m p o v e r i s h m e n t

a m o n g E u r o p e a n c o l o n ia l s b e c a m e a p r o b l e m c a l le d p o o r w h i t e i sm , w i t h

a t tr i b u te s o f i ts o wn , Po o r w h i t e i s m d e f in ed , p h y s io lo g i ca l l y an d p s y ch o -

lo g ica l ly , d i s ti n c t s o r ts o f p e r s o n s , w i th ag g re g a t ed w ay s o f b e in g i n t h e

wo r ld , w i th s p ec i f i c d i s p o s i ti o n s a n d s ta t e s o f m in d . L ik e o th e r co lo n i a l

c o m m i s s io n s , t h e se c o m m i s s i o n w e r e c o n s u m m a t e p r o d u c e r s o f so c ia l k in d s

an d s o c i a l c a t eg o r i e s.

67

The Poor W hi te Prob lem in Sou th A f i i ca Repo r t o f t he Carnegie Comm iss ion

Stellen-

bosch: Pro Ecc lesia Drukkerij, 1932), p. xx.


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1 6

A N N LA U RA S TO LER

C o m m i s s i o n s an d s t a t i s t i c s we re f ea t u re s o f s t a t ec ra f t i n s i m i l a r way s .

B o t h a r e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i n v en t io n s c o n s o l i d a t e d b y t h e n i n e t e e n th -

cen t u ry l i b e ra l s ta t e. 68 B o t h w ere p ro d u c t s an d i n s t an ti a t io n s o f t h e s t a t e 's

i n v e s t m e n t i n p u b l ic a c c o u n t a b il it y . B u t c o m m i s s i o n s c o m m a n d e d m o r e

m o ra l au t h o r i t y a s t h ey p u rp o r t ed t o s c ru t i n ize s t a t e p rac ti ce , r ev ea l b u reau -

c ra t i c m i s t ak es , a n d p ro d u ce n ew t ru t h s ab o u t t h e w o rk i n g s o f t h e s t a te i ts e lf .

M o r e o v e r , t h e s e p o o r w h i t e c o m m i s s i o n s w e r e q u i n te s s e n ti a l p r o d u c t s o f

b i o p o l i t ic a l t e ch n o l o g i e s . No t o n l y d i d t h ey l i n k t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w een

p a ren t an d ch i l d , n u r s em a i d an d i n fan t , t o t h e s ecu r i t y o f t h e s t a t e ; t h ey

s o u g h t e t h n o g rap h i c s u b s t an t ia t i o n , ey e -w i t n es s te s t i m o n i e s f ro m

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