Cognitive)Psychology))

History)of)Cognitive)Psychology))Behaviourism)(Watson)and)Skinner)))

• Cognition'is'purely'the'stimuli1response'effect'• We'pursue'stimuli'that'will'have'a'positive'effect'and'avoid'stimuli'that'will'have'

a'negative'effect'• The'behaviour'of'animals'can'be'investigated'without'considering'the'existence'

of'a'conscience')Tolman)and)‘Cognitive)Maps’))

Tolman'believed'that'there'is'more'to'animals'that'beahviourists'suggest'and'that'animals'have'cognitive'processes'He'created'a'maze'for'mice'and'divided'the'mice'into'three'groups'

1. Went'into'the'maze'one'per'day'and'found'food'in'the'goal'box'2. Not'fed'at'all'whilst'in'the'maze'for'7'days'but'rewarded'after'that'3. Not'fed'at'all'whilst'in'the'maze'for'3'days'but'rewarded'after'that'

If'animals'had'no'cognition'it'would'be'concluded'that'whilst'in'the'maze'for'the'first'seven'days'without'food'the'mice'would'learn'nothing'and'following'the'placement'of'food'would'learn'the'maze'at'the'same'rate'as'those'who'always'had'food.'However'upon'the'placement'of'the'food'Group'2'learnt'the'maze'significantly'faster'than'Group'1'and'thus'Tolman'proved'that'whilst'the'mice'were'wandering'aimlessly'for'the'first'seven'days'they'were'making'a'mental'map'and'thus'were'able'to'perform'faster.'This'proved'the'theory'of'mental'cognition.'

)Mental)Chronometry:)Methods)of)measuring)the)speed)and)organisation)of)mental)processes))Comparing'behaviour'in'two'tasks'that'differ'in'only'one'mental'process.'E.g'choice'vs'reaction'time.'Simple'reaction'time'is'the'time'it'takes'to'press'a'button'when'they'see'a'light.'Choice'reaction'time'is'the'time'it'takes'to'press'a'button'when'they'see'a'red'light'but'not'a'green'light.'Choice'RT'–'Simple'RT'='Estimate'of'stimulus'evaluation'time.''It'can'be'used'to'infer'the'nature'of'processes''Stemburg'paradigm:'subjects'memorise'a'short'list'of'items'(set1size)'and'are'then'asked'later'if'a'particular'item'called'the'‘probe’'(usually'a'number)'is'one'of'them.'There'are'two'dimensions:'searching'parallel'or'serially'and'stopping'once'item'is'found'(self1terminating)'or'searching'through'the'whole'set'regardless'(exhaustive).''Parallel'Self1Terminating'–'Flat'positive'response'over'the'set1size'but'a'varied'and'longer'negative'response'time'Serial'Self1Terminating'–'the'time'taken'for'a'positive'response'gradually'increases'as'the'set'size'increases'till'all'numbers'have'been'reached'(depends'on'how'far'in'the'probe'is),'the'negative'response'also'increases'steadily'over'the'set'size'Serial'Exhaustive'Search'–'Both'negative'and'positive'response'times'increase'steadily'over'the'set'size'and'at'the'same'rate''

Humans'use'the'serial'exhaustive'search'method'even'though'it'is'the'least'logical'and'high'functioning'computers'use'a'parallel'self1terminating'search'as'it'is'the'most'efficient'and'logical.'')Framing)Effects)and)Cognitive)Bias))Framing'refers'to'the'wording'of'the'problem'and'cognitive'bias'refers'to'how'we'are'influenced'by'the'framing.'E.g'the'game'Caleb'referred'to'where'there'was'the'same'likelihood'of'achieving'either'$300'or'$450'we'are'more'likely'to'take'the'25%'then'100%'chance'of'$300'than'just'a'25%'chance'as'we'see'100%'and'like'the'idea'of'certainty.'''Attention))Attentional)Limits))

• At'any'one'time'we'can'only'pay'attention'to'a'limited'amount'of'available'information'!'these'limitations'are'a'major'constraint'on'human'information'processing'

• All'information'can'be'briefly'registered,'the'amount'that'can'be'reported'is'limited'

• The'amount'of'information'that'can'be'selected'for'‘high'level’'processing'is'limited'!'can'information'be'meaningfully'processed'without'attention'being'directed'to'it?'

• The'amount'of'resources'available'for'cognitive'processing'is'limited'!'there'appears'to'be'a'limit'to'the'amount'of'processing'that'we'a'consciously'aware'of'

• Inattention'blindness'!'We'are'not'aware'of'unexpected'stimuli'is'our'attention'is'focused'elsewhere'–'Gladiator'jean'guy'when'focusing'on'Russell'Crowe''

)Selective)Attention))

• Filter'models'(Broadbent)'–'We'can'only'process'a'single,'or'limited'number'of'inputs'and'a'filter'prevents'further'processing'of'irrelevant'inputs'

• Early'Filter'(Broadbent)'–'attend'to'a'single'physical'channel'and'reject'others'• Late'Filter'(Treisman)'–'process'multiple'channels'and'select'on'the'basis'of'

meaning.'Cocktail'Party'Effect.'We'process'the'meaning'but'don’t'remember'it'unless'we'select'it'as'the'most'necessary'

• Dichotic'listening'!'a'person'listens'to'two'different'paragraphs'through'a'different'headphone'on'each'ear'and'are'told'to'remember'what'they'hear'in'only'the'left'ear.'Half1way'through'the'logical'paragraphs'swap'headphones'and'the'person'unknowingly'swaps'the'ear'they'are'listening'to'and'recalls'the'rest'of'the'paragraph'from'the'right'ear.'This'was'evidence'for'a'late'filter.'

)Control)of)Attention))Involuntary,'exogenous'(controlled'from'outside),'stimulus1driven:'When'an'object'or'feature'‘pops'out’'or'captures'our'attention.'An'easy'and'parallel'search.'Red'dot'in'blue'dots.''

Voluntary,'endogenous,'goal1directed:'When'we'try'to'find'an'object'or'feature.'An'effort'consuming'and'serial'search.'Red'dot'in'blue'dots'and'red'squares.''Sometimes,'even'when'we'are'looking'for'something'strange'it'takes'longer'than'expected'to'find'it.'When'we'make'a'saccade'(jumping'eyes)'the'input'blurs'motion'sensors,'this'can'be'simulated'by'inserting'‘blanks’'between'pictures')Resource)Models)of)Attention)'

• Limitations'in'processing'are'due'to'a'limitation'on'the'Attentional'resources'available'for'all'cognitive'processes'

• Additional'resources'can'be'directed'towards'any'stage'of'processing'(not'just'filtered'information)'

• Availability'and'allocation'of'Attentional'resources'depends'on'task'demands,'individual'motivations,'abilities'etc.'

'What'are'Attentional'resources'needed'for?'

• Automatic'perceptual'processes'–'Stroop'effect,'subliminal'priming,'identifying'familiar'patterns'automatically'

• Automatic'skills'–'typing,'driving,'sport'• Perceptuo1motor'skills'can'become'automated'with'practice'

'Short)Term)and)Working)Memory))What)is)memory?)

• An'active'process'that'stores'knowledge'• Iconic'and'Echoic'–'Literal'copies'of'sensory'events'• STM'–'buffer'for'the'temporary'maintenance'of'information,'sensory'memory'is'

very'short'term'• LTM'–'facts,'episodes'and'procedures'

)Iconic)and)Echoic)Memory)

• Uncompressed'–'what'you'have'is'stored'and'unlimited'it'just'has'to'make'it'past'sensory'systems'

• Literal'copies'of'visual'and'auditory'events'• Unlimited'capacity'• Very'short'duration:'iconic'(501500ms),'echoic'(8110s)'• Explanations'for'time'difference'–'iconic'memory'has'less'space'in'the'brain,'

need'longer'for'auditory'processing'due'to'it’s'sequential'nature'• Sperling'(1960)'–'subjects'could'recall'314'items'if'asked'to'recall'all'of'them'but'

any'314'if'only'asked'to'report'a'single'row')Traditional)approach)to)Short)Term)Memory)(STM))and)Long)Term)Memory)(LTM)))

• STM'–'Capacity'of'7+12,'decays'within'30s'if'not'rehearsed,'phonological'code'(remember'sounds)'

• LTM'–'Unlimited'capacity,'forgetting'due'to'interference'and'not'decay,'semantic'code'(remember'the'meaning)'

• Primacy'of'STM'–'things'you'saw'first'will'move'into'long1term'memory'• Recency'of'STM'–'things'you'saw'last'remain'in'STM'• The'middle'things'get'lost'in'between'STM'and'LTM'

• Damage'to'hippocampus'causes'no'acquisition'of'new'information'but'retention'of'existing'memory'

)Clive)Wearing)

• No'ability'to'encode'long1term'memories'• No'memory'of'his'previous'life'• Has'a'memory'span'of'30'seconds'

)Working)Memory)

• Working'memory'system'consists'of:'central'executive'&'episodic'buffer'• Slave'systems:'phonological'loop,'visuo1spacial'scratch'pad'

)Phonological)Loop)

• Information'is'rehearsed'in'a'speech'code'• Memory'span'depends'on'how'long'it'takes'to'repeat'the'information'• Digit'span'task'speed'varies'across'different'languages'

)Central)Executive)

• Manipulation'of'information,'elaborative'processing'required'for'long1term'retention,'reasoning,'planning'

• Attentional'resources'required'to'manipulate'information'in'working'memory'• Is'working'memory'the'basis'of'Attentional'limitations,'or'the'site'of'‘conscious'

awareness’?''The)Structure)of)Long)Term)Memory))Explicit)Memory)'Episodic'Memory'

• Memory'of'your'life'history'• Important'occasions:'birthdays,'weddings,'tragedies,'achievements'• Specific'memories'of'learning'new'things'• Memory'of'what'happened'each'day,'each'month,'each'year'

'Explicit'Memory'

• Explicit'knowledge'of'the'meanings'of'words,'facts'and'ideas'• A'sense'of'‘knowing’'rather'than'remembering'• There'is'a'difference'between'remembering'and'knowing'

)Hierarchical)Network)Models)(Theory))

• Collins'&'Quinlan'(1969),'and'Loftus'(1972)'believed'that'memory'was'logical'and'hierarchical'

• Superset:'animal!bird!canary'• Property:'animals'have'skin'!'birds'can'fly!'canaries'can'sing'• Spreading'activation:'presenting'a'concept'leads'to'activation'of'the'appropriate'

node'and'to'spread'through'related'nodes'• Properties'are'stored'at'the'highest'level'of'network'• Tested'through'a'sentence'verification'task:'A'robin'is'a'bird,'a'robin'can'

breathe,'a'robin'swim.'The'further'through'you'move'the'longer'it'takes'because'you'have'to'move'backwards'through'the'nodes'to'get'to'animal'

• If'two'concepts'are'related'spreading'activation'from'the'two'concepts'will'intersect'

Lecture)Three))Pathways)in)the)Brain)

• Ventral:'temporal,'tells'us'what'things'are,'parvo'cells'(look'like'pavers)'• Dorsal:'parietal,'tells'us'where'things'are'in'relation'to'us,'magno'cells'• White'matter:'axons'(myelin'sheath)'• Grey'matter:'nucleus'of'neurons'

'Split)Brain)Patients)

• The'corpus'callosum'joins'the'two'hemispheres'of'the'brain'via'massive'connection'of'neurons'

• Split'brain'patients'have'had'the'corpus'callosum'cut'(usually'to'prevent'epilepsy'from'spreading'through'their'entire'body)'

• As'a'result'the'two'hemispheres'of'their'brain'can’t'communicate''Blindsight)

• When'part,'or'all'of'the'primary'visual'cortex'is'destroyed'• Although'subjects'report'not'being'able'to'see'anything,'they'are'above'chance'

for'many'normal'tasks'–'the'can'usually'reach'out'and'grab'an'object'on'a'stick,'they'will'even'change'the'shape'of'their'hands'to'be'suited'to'the'object'that'they'are'grabbing'

• Women'who'goes'bushwalking'and'will'walk'over'logs'and'rocks'but'wouldn’t'be'able'to'tell'you'that'they'are'there'

• Interesting'because'it'tells'us'something'about'visual'awareness''The)auditory)system)

• Hearing,'language'acquisition,'music'etc.'• If'a'tree'falls'and'there'is'no'one'around'does'it'make'a'sound?'No'• Amplitude'–'loudness:'high'amplitude'='louder'• Frequency'–'pitch:'high'frequency'='high'pitch'

• '• Balance:'fluid'in'the'semicircular'canals'• Low'frequency'sounds'travel'through'the'cochlear'to'the'back,'the'higher'the'

frequency'(pitch)'the'earlier'the'representation'in'the'cochlear'• Conduction'deafness:'when'there'is'damage'to'one'of'the'ossicles'(responsible'

for'amplifying'sound)'–'solution:'hearing'aid.'Hearing'aids'amplify'the'sound'• Sensori1neural'deafness:'the'cochlear'is'damaged'–'solution:'cochlear'implant'

which'send'electrical'signals'to'the'brain'based'on'information'received'from'a'microphone'worn'on'the'outside'of'the'head'