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Psychology 213

Exam Summary

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Psychology 213

Summary of ALL content for exam

Chapter 9: The Radical Behaviourism of BF Skinner

Chapter 10: The Social Cognitive Learning Approach

Chapter 11: The Self-Actualisation Theory of Abraham Maslow

Chapter 12: The Self Concept Theory of Carl Rogers

Chapter 14: The Existential Theory of Viktor Frankl

Chapter 6: The Socially-orientated Psychoanalytical Theories

Chapter 17: African Perspectives

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Summaries of All 5 Essay Questions

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Page Chapter Section

1 - 7 9 The Radical Behaviourism of BF Skinner

8 - 13 10 The Social Cognitive Learning Approach

14 - 21 11 The Self-Actualisation Theory of Abraham

Maslow

22 - 32 12 The Self Concept Theory of Carl Rogers

33 - 40 14 The Existential Theory of Viktor Frankl

41 - 45 6 The Socially-orientated Psychoanalytical Theories

46 - 48 17 African Perspectives

49 - EXTRA Summary of Essay Questions

* NOTE: The section on Jacques Lacan is not included as there is only one essay question on

his work, it is covered in the Summary of Essay Questions.

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Chapter 9

The Radical Behaviourism of BF Skinner

1. Introduction to Behavioural and Learning Theory Approaches

Behaviourism rooted in specific philosophical and historical origins:

1. Empiricism

2. Environmental determinism

3. Positivism

4. Elementalism

5. Evolutionism

Empiricism (John Locke) holds that at birth the human mind is without knowledge or

any other content, and that all knowledge is acquired by means of sensory

experience

Environmental determinism holds that environmental influences account for all of

an individual's attributes and behaviour

Evolutionism (Charles Darwin) states that human behaviour can be explained along

the same principles as lower animals, and it should be studied in the same way

Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov

John Watson is the father of behaviourism, which views psychology as a purely

experimental branch of natural science

Positivism - science can concern itself only with knowable matters. Behaviourists

therefore only study observable behaviour

Elementalism - holds that a phenomenon is explained by analysing it until its

smallest, simplest building blocks have been uncovered

The goal of positivist scientific practice is to predict and control relevant events

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Chapter 10

The Social Cognitive Learning Approach

1. Background

Social cognitive learning theory regards behaviour as primarily learnt and focuses on

studying observable behaviour. However, it is not radical as it takes in to account

several unobservable matters

Observational learning - the behaviour of a person which changes as a result of

observing other people's behaviour

Julian Rotter:

Behaviour is mainly learnt

Salience given to expectations and values attached to outcome of specific

behaviour

Behaviour acquired mainly in social situations and though the mediation of

other individuals

Internal locus of control - people believe that they can exercise considerable

control over what happens to them

External locus of control - people who believe that circumstances beyond

their control determine their fate

Prediction formula BP = f(E,RV)

Behaviour potential (BP) is a function of expectancy (E) and reinforcement

value (RV)

Albert Bandura:

Most important representative of SCLT

Social cognitive learning theory - an individual's behaviour is the outcome of

a process of interaction between the person, the environment and the

behaviour itself

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Chapter 11

The Self-actualisation Theory of Abraham Maslow

1. Background to Person-Orientated Approaches

Existentialism - a human being who is becoming or emerging; humans can be more

than what they are and they can transcend their limitations and rise above their

circumstances

Phenomenology- explores phenomena as they manifest – reality is the world that

we perceive it to be, hence it emphasises the importance of subjectivity in

experience

Holism - emphasises an integrated view of the person

Humanism - humans are seen as beings with worth and dignity who, as a whole,

integrated persons, actively and consciously strive towards the actualisation of their

potential

2. Background of Abraham Maslow

Maslow founded the ‘third force’ of psychology the humanistic movement –

originated in America in 1955

Maslow was initially a behaviourist but Pearl Harbour left a deep impression on him

and encouraged him to rethink his views on human nature

Maslow emphasises the actualisation of human potential and possibility of humans

to influence their own behaviour by choice

Focuses on understanding why some people are exceptional (self-actualisers)

Healthy functioning forms the basis of his theory

3. The View of the Person

Maslow's view of the person is essentially optimistic as it acknowledges the positive

aspects of human nature

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Chapter 12

The Self Concept Theory of Carl Rogers

1. Background

Carl Rogers’ theory is based on three central assumptions:

The individual has constructive potential

The nature of the individual is goal-directed

The individual is capable of changing

Rogers emphasises the importance of people’s subject experience of themselves

(self-concept) and its influence on personality

Individual is central figure in actualisation of their potential with environment as

either a facilitating or inhibiting role

Only achieved in an environment in which the individual feels accepted

Rogers' theory originated mainly from his experience with people in a clinical

therapeutic situation and from his own personal life experiences

2. The View of the Person

Humanistic-phenomenological view - places a high premium on the freedom and

constructiveness of human nature and emphasises the person's role as the architect

of their life

Humanistic - emphasises the study of the individual as a whole and the

active role they play in actualising their own inherent potential

Healthy people are aware of their positive and negative attributes and his

theory is not deterministic

Phenomenological - stresses the importance of the individual's subjective

experience of their world and how this influences their self-concept

Individuals can be trusted to follow the best course in order to become the best they

can be

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Chapter 14

The Existential Theory of Viktor Frankl

1. Background

Frankl's whole life was earmarked by a deep contemplation of the meaning and

purpose of human existence

Frankl opposes efforts to reduce human functioning to the level of machines or

animals

He felt that Freud placed too much emphasis on the will to pleasure and Adler

overemphasised the will to power (Frankl was a student of both)

Frankl believed humans are primarily motivated by a will to meaning

His experiences as Jewish prisoner in WWII convinced him of the significant role of

values in people's lives

Frankl has a positive, transcendent view on existentialism

2. The View of the Person

1. The freedom to be responsible

Humans are primarily spiritual beings that have freedom and responsibility

Humans are not merely highly developed animals shaped by their genes and

their environment

We constantly face choices and have the freedom of choice and are thus not

compelled to act in a particular way

We have free will so can be held responsible for our choices and cannot

ascribe our actions to conditioning

This freedom to choose represents the spiritual or noögenic dimension of the

human being – it is what makes us human

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Chapter 6

The Socially-orientated Psychoanalytical Theories

1. Introduction

Socially-orientated psychoanalysis that rejects Freud's views of biological

determinism

Focuses on the social dimension of human existence and emphasise the roles of

social and cultural factors

Focus on the consciousness and its manifestation in the concept of the 'self'

Individuals can strengthen the self – and not be swamped by society’s demands for

conformity

Regarded more as philosophical theories than personality theories

2. Karen Horney

Background:

She is initially followed the Freudian beliefs of psychoanalysis and biological

determinism

When she moved to America her views changed from intrapsychic to an

interpersonal, even psychosocial foundation

People have an inherent drive and capacity to grow and realise their

potential to the fullest

Optimistic view of humanity - personality inherently tends towards

development, growth and realisation of potential. Individuals are able to

consciously change and shape their personalities

Neurotic people need to be liberated from that which blocks their growth

potential

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Chapter 17

African Perspectives

1. Introduction and Background

Various aspects of Western psychology resonate with Africans but some theories are

overly Western in their orientations, assumptions and focus

Indigenous psychology - the way people in other societies and from other cultures

make sense of themselves and their relationships and make sense of psychic distress

Scientific racism - the use of science to provide justification for racist ideas

Western culture has become the cultural norm

Scientific colonialism refers to the ethnocentric nature of psychology both in terms

of who produces it and where it is produced

African perspectives function to critique existing psychology and as an alternative

psychology responsive to Africans

A paradigm based on indigenous African concepts does not yet exist

Impetus for the quest to Africanise psychology:

Psychology collaborated in the oppression of American blacks and Africans

through the comparison between 'primitive' and 'modern'

Psychology has had little relevance to the problems facing the blacks and the

poor

Psychologies imported to Africa do not accurately portray African life and

mentality

2. The View of the Person

Anthropocentric ontology - implies that humans form the point of departure as well

as the centre of the universe

There are three cosmic orders of reality that can be distinguished, namely the

macro-, meso- and micro-cosmos

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PSYCHOLOGY 213 EXAM: ESSAY QUESTIONS:

Question 1:

Write as essay in which you discuss Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers as representatives of

humanistic psychology. Explain in your answer why both these figures are seen as humanistic

psychologists and focus in particular on both their views on the optimal development of the

personality.

The main points that need to be addressed for EACH Maslow and Rogers are:

A brief introduction of the theorist, their views and their contributions

The major aspects each theorists believes are behind the dynamics of the

personality

What each theorist believes constitutes ideal functioning

The various characteristics of a fully functioning person at optimal

development

A comparison between the two theories about optimal development, leading

to a conclusion backed up by evidence

MASLOW

Maslow emphasises the actualisation of human potential and possibility of humans

to influence their own behaviour by choice. Focuses on understanding why some

people are exceptional (self-actualisers)

Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs and that deficiency motives (physiological,

safety, love/belonging & esteem) must be met before growth motives (self-

actualisation) and optimal development can be achieved

Optimal development:

Ideal functioning characterised by the achievement of self-actualisation

which this requires that all four lower-level needs are regularly gratified

15 characteristics:

1. Accurate observation of reality

2. Self acceptance, accepting others and human nature

3. Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness

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Question 2:

Write an essay in which you discuss Viktor Frankl as a representative of existential philosophy in

psychology, with specific reference to his ideas about meaning and optimal development.

Basic points to discuss:

Give a brief introduction of Frankl, his views and his contributions

Define existential psychology

Describe what the dynamics of the personality are based on

Explain when optimal development is reached and why very few people

achieve it

Describe the different characteristics of optimal development

Evaluate the theory and come to a conclusion

FRANKL

Frankl believed humans are primarily motivated by a will to meaning

Existential psychotherapy is a philosophical method of therapy that operates on the

belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with

the givens of existence

His theory is based on the 4 basic assumptions:

1. The freedom to be responsible

2. A level of being beyond animal existence

3. The transhuman dimension

4. A personalised way of being

Dynamics of the personality are based on:

1. The freedom of the will

Each of us experiences our will as free and we continually face choices that

we have to make

2. The will to meaning

People want to experience their lives as meaningful and worthwhile in order

to find significance

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Question 3:

In reference to Augustine Nwoye’s theory of the African self, write an essay in which you critically

evaluate the ideal of an African perspective in the psychology of personhood. In your answer pay

attention to the following:

Why is the African perspective seen as necessary?

What is the world view that is held forth by the African perspective?

To what extent is the African perspective in general, and Nwoye’s theory in particular,

successful in overcoming scientific colonialism in psychology?

Basic ideas that should be discussed:

Define ethnocentrism and scientific colonialism

Discuss the impetus and functions of African perspectives

Give a brief introduction on Nwoye, views and contributions

Describe the importance of Nwoye's account of the fabric of the African self

Describe the eight personality dimensions and how they are linked

Why is the African perspective seen as necessary?

Various aspects of Western psychology resonate with Africans but some theories are

overly Western in their orientations, assumptions and focus

Indigenous psychology - the way people in other societies and from other cultures

make sense of themselves and their relationships and make sense of psychic distress

African perspectives function to critique existing psychology and as an alternative

psychology responsive to Africans

What is the world view that is held forth by the African perspective?

African worldview and view of the person is holistic and context dependent

Anthropocentric ontology - implies that humans form the point of departure as well

as the centre of the universe

There are three cosmic orders of reality that can be distinguished, namely the

macro-, meso- and micro-cosmos

Macro-cosmos - the domain of God and religion

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Question 4:

‘Lacan believed that even Freud had overestimated the powers and responsibilities of the ego.’

With this statement as point of departure, write an essay in which you discuss the work of Lacan as a critical reaction to the ego-/self-psychology of any or all of the theorists

covered in the module (Adler, Fromm and Horney). Focus especially on Lacan’s understanding of the ‘split subject’, the role of language in how he theorises the

unconscious, and how he understands the role of desire.

Basic ideas that should be discussed:

Give a brief introduction on the background, views and contributions of each

Lacan, Horney, Adler and Fromm

With regards to Lacan, discuss:

the “split subject”

the role of language in theorising the unconscious

the role of desire

Discuss how each theorist related their views to those of Freud

Describe the dynamics of each theorist's view on personality

Evaluate and compare the different views and come to a conclusion

LACAN

Background:

Developed a language-centred theory

Studied medicine and neuropsychiatry and focused on paranoia

Believed the unconscious is structured like a language

Departs from notions of “I think, therefore I am”

Seeks to undermine this view by relating the self to the other

Does not regard people as free agents

Relationship to Freud's work:

Lacan: theoretical views were not intended to cover the entire range of

human experience; developed with the goal of reinterpreting Freud’s work –

a return to the true spirit of Freud’s text

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Question 5:

Write an essay in which you discuss Lacan’s understanding of ‘subjectivity’ and how it departs from the dominant Cartesian image of personhood in psychology. Focus on the

role of language, the different orders of subjectivity, and the mirror phase.

Basic ideas that should be discussed:

Cartesian image of personhood

Lacan’s understanding of ‘subjectivity’

The different orders of subjectivity

The role of language

The mirror phase

Cartesian image of personhood:

René Descartes & his ‘thought experiment’

“I think, therefore I am”

Basic ability to think (rather than one’s actual thought content) = the ego

This view of the person leaves us with many problems to solve concerning freedom & responsibility, mainly because it leaves no room for a conception of the unconscious

Lacan challenged the Cartesian starting point for thinking about the nature of things, including persons

Subjectivity:

Signifier – the phonetic sound

Signified – the underlying concept

In language, there is a phonetic sound such as “tree” that signifies a corresponding meaning, the concept of what a tree actually is, and what a tree actually looks like

Besides the fact that the corresponding meaning is based on a random agreement within the language community, the meaning of the signifier is not fixed

The semantic content of the signifier is indeterminate and is determined only by context

No single signifier carries a singular meaning in a language system.