coas-33-02-10 1. · geoform and landform classiﬁcation of continental shelves using geospatially...

Geoform and Landform Classification of ContinentalShelves using Geospatially Integrated IKONOS SatelliteImagery

Christopher Makowski†‡*, Charles W. Finkl‡§, and Heather M. Vollmer†

†Coastal Education and ResearchFoundation, Inc. (CERF)

Coconut Creek, FL 33073, U.S.A.

‡Department of GeosciencesFlorida Atlantic UniversityBoca Raton, FL 33431, U.S.A.

§Coastal Education and ResearchFoundation, Inc. (CERF)

Fletcher, NC 28732, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

Makowski, C.; Finkl, C.W., and Vollmer, H.M., 2017. Geoform and landform classification of continental shelves usinggeospatially integrated IKONOS satellite imagery. Journal of Coastal Research, 33(1), 1–22. Coconut Creek (Florida),ISSN 0749-0208.

Geomorphological characterization of coastal environments along continental shelves depends on accurate interpretationof mesoscale lithic and clastic benthic geoforms and landforms. Using the Geospatially Integrated Seafloor ClassificationScheme (G-ISCS), cognitive visual interpretations of seafloor geoforms and their associated landforms were conductedalong a diverse segment of the southeast (SE) Florida continental shelf. GeoEye IKONOS-2 satellite imagery providedthe remotely sensed visual medium on which interpretations were based. With ESRI ArcGISt ArcMap software,classification maps were created from the cognitive interpretations to show spatial distribution results of geoform andlandform features throughout the study area. Additionally, smaller-scale ‘‘call-out figures’’ documented specificgeomorphological associations among the classified units. Analysis attribute tables compared and contrasted theabundance (i.e. number of classifying vector polygons) and calculated areas for each geoform and landform classified. Itwas determined that classification of geoform and landform benthic features along continental shelves can be achievedwhere water clarity conditions allow for the cognitive visual interpretation of such seafloor formations. Future studiesmay build upon the classification of continental shelf geoforms and landforms to integrate more transientbiogeomorphological features of the marine environment (e.g., sediment distribution, biological species identification,density of flora and fauna present), thus creating a more detailed and inclusive classification of a selected coastal region.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Remote sensing, seafloor mapping, submarine geomorphology, benthic interpretation,Florida Reef Tract, IKONOS, Florida Bay, Florida Keys, geographic information systems, ESRI ArcGISt.

INTRODUCTIONOne of the standard components of classifying continental

shelf coastal environments is the demarcation of spatially

distributed geomorphological signatures along the seafloor,

commonly known as geoforms and landforms. The interpreta-

tion of these general-to-specific benthic features provides a

‘‘structural framework’’ of the seascape topology by which a

hierarchical census of biophysical units can be compiled for a

given shelf region (see, for example, Fairbridge, 2004; Finkl,

2004); the ultimate result then allowing for hierarchical

classifications to be extrapolated over large coastal areas and

applied to corresponding mapping units. This, in return, would

potentially elucidate spatial relationships between geoforms

and landforms of a given area by showing how exposed lithic

structures, unconsolidated clastic materials, and other geo-

morphological substrates available to sessile biological com-

munities are universally distributed and interconnected. By

accurately interpreting geoform and landform-based forma-

tions over a select region of continental shelf, the delineation of

coastal environments and creation of a comprehensive geo-

spatially referenced classification map can be achieved (e.g.,

Achatz, Finkl, and Paulus, 2009; Finkl and Banks, 2010; Finkl,

Benedet, and Andrews, 2004, 2005a,b; Finkl and Vollmer,

2011; Lidz, Reich, and Shinn, 2003; Lidz et al., 2006; Makowski,

2014; Makowski, Finkl, and Vollmer, 2015, 2016; Steimle and

Finkl, 2011).

In the past few decades, multispectral satellite senor images

have been among the most preferred mediums by which visual

interpretation of coastal environments are carried out (e.g.,

Andréfouët et al., 2001, 2003; Bouvet, Ferraris, and

Andréfouët, 2003; Dial et al., 2003; Dobson and Dustan, 2000;

Finkl, Makowski, and Vollmer, 2014; Finkl and Vollmer, 2011;

Hochberg, Andréfouët, and Tyler, 2003; Klemas, 2011; Klemas

and Yan, 2014; Makowski and Finkl, 2016; Makowski, Finkl,

and Vollmer, 2015, 2016; Manson et al., 2001; Mumby and

Edwards, 2002; Palandro et al., 2003; Steimle and Finkl, 2011).

Specifically, GeoEye IKONOS-2 satellite images can offer an

enhanced view of benthic geomorphological features along

those continental shelf regions where optimal water clarity

permits it. In conjunction with specialized spatial analysis

software applications, such as ESRI’s ArcGISt 10.3 ArcMap

program, IKONOS-2 images provide the visual means to

cognitively identify, delineate, and classify seafloor geoforms

and landforms along coastal shelf environments.

The objective of this study was to cognitively interpret,

classify, and map geoforms and associated landforms along a

segment of the southeast (SE) Florida continental shelf (Figure

1) using IKONOS-2 satellite imagery and the Geospatially

DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-16A-00003.1 received 29 January 2016;accepted in revision 21 February 2016; corrected proofs received22 July 2016; published pre-print online 1 September 2016.*Corresponding author: [email protected]�Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc. 2017

Journal of Coastal Research 33 1 1–22 Coconut Creek, Florida January 2017

Integrated Seafloor Classification Scheme (G-ISCS) method

(Makowski, Finkl, and Vollmer, 2015). By doing so, analysis of

geomorphological attributes can aid in determining how the

‘‘structural framework’’ over a given shelf area is spatially

distributed and interrelated. Overall, the goal is to potentially

expand upon the results presented in this paper, as well as

other studies (e.g., Makowski, Finkl, and Vollmer, 2016), in an

effort to create an inclusive classification of this continental

shelf segment by integrating more transient biogeomorpho-

logical features of the marine environment (e.g., sediment

distribution, biological species identification, density of flora

and fauna present) with larger-scale physiographic realms and

morphodynamic process zones.

METHODSGeoEye IKONOS-2 (i.e. IKONOS-2) multispectral satellite

images were acquired, processed, and visually interpreted

using the study methods derived from the Geospatially

Integrated Seafloor Classification Scheme (G-ISCS), as devel-

oped by Makowski, Finkl, and Vollmer (2015). Specialized

processing software (IDRISI� Taiga, Clark Labs, Worcester,

Massachusetts, U.S.A.; Environmental Systems Research

Institute’s [ESRI] ArcGIS 10.3 ArcMap geographical informa-

tion system program, Redlands, California, U.S.A.) allowed for

appropriate digital enhancement techniques to the IKONOS-2

images, which then provided the required raster-based GIS

and image processing modules for cognitive interpretation.

Using the G-ISCS method, each geoform and associated

landforms were interpreted in tandem to describe the benthic

substrate framework by which surface sediments accumulate

upon and biological communities grow (Table 1). For

example, in the case of the Coral Reef Geoform, which

contains ridge-like structures throughout the Florida Reef

Tract (FRT) Physiographic Realm built from living coral,

coral skeletons, calcareous algae, mollusks, and protozoans,

the corresponding landforms of Barrier Reef, Patch Reef,

Aggregated Reef, Coral Apron, and Reef Gap were found

(Banks et al., 2007; Cronin et al., 1981; Finkl, 2004; Finkl and

Andrews, 2008; Finkl, Benedet, and Andrews, 2005a; Finkl et

al., 2008; Hoffmeister, 1974; Jaap, 1984; Lidz, 2004, 2006;

Lidz, Hine, and Shinn, 1991; Lidz et al., 1997). Hardbottom

Geoforms, conversely, are exposed Pleistocene limestone

(e.g., bedrock, boulders, rubble), including reef debris and

dredged spoil piles, that are found intermittently in the

Atlantic Ocean Morphodynamic Zones, Hawk Channel

Physiographic Realm, Biscayne Bay Physiographic Realm,

and along the leeward and windward sides of the Florida

Keys Physiographic Realm (Chiappone and Sullivan, 1994;

Finkl, 2004; Finkl et al., 2008; Lidz et al., 2006). Associated

Hardbottom landforms include flat, generally featureless,

continuous platforms in the form of Subtidal Pavement and

conically shaped Rubble Fields and Dredged Spoil Piles

(Buddemeier, Smith, and Kinzie, 1975; Finkl et al., 2008;

Lidz et al., 2006; Lirman and Fong, 1997; Selkoe et al., 2009).

When Islands associated with the coral and mud-based

Florida Keys Physiographic Realm archipelago are classified

as the predominant geoform, the resultant landforms include

Bay Key, Karst Island, and Salina (Finkl, 2004; Hoffmeister,

1974; Lidz, Hine, and Shinn, 1991; Lidz et al., 1997; Nunn,

1994). Sediment Flat Geoforms, which constitute extensive,

unconsolidated seafloor sediments composed of sand and mud

combinations, are divided among the landforms of Intertidal

Sand Flat and Planar Bed Forms and Ripples (Davis, Hine,

and Shinn, 1992; Duane and Meisburger, 1969; Finkl, 2004;

Finkl and Andrews, 2008; Finkl and Warner, 2005; Finkl,

Benedet, and Andrews, 2005b; Finkl et al., 2008; Hoffmeister,

1974; Lidz, Hine, and Shinn, 1991; Lidz, Robbin, and Shinn,

1985). The geoform of Dune and Beach is a geomorphologi-

cally coupled coastal system consisting of Holocene dune

fields, foredunes, and beach berms. The associated landforms

include Bay Beach and Ocean Beach (Finkl, 1993, 2004; Finkl

and Restrepo-Coupe, 2007; Finkl, Benedet, and Andrews,

2006; Hoffmeister, 1974; Wright and Short, 1984). Ridge

Fields are geoforms where continental shelf sand waves

display parallel long-axis alignment on sandy seafloors and

contain landforms that are designated as either Discrete

Ridges or Complex Ridges (Ashley, 1990; Duane and Meis-

burger, 1969; Finkl, 2004; Finkl and Andrews, 2008; Finkl,

Andrews, and Benedet, 2006; Finkl, Benedet, and Andrews,

2005b; Finkl et al., 2007, 2008; Stapor, 1982). Channel

Geoforms are low relief, elongated tidal conduits cut into

seafloor bank sediments or karst bedrock. The associated

landforms are Neochannel, Paleochannel, and Seafloor

Channel (Davis and Fitzgerald, 2004; Finkl, 2004; Finkl

Figure 1. LANDSAT satellite imagery zoomed in over the southern region of

peninsular Florida, U.S.A. The red polygon outlines the segment of

continental shelf used in this study. Included in the area of investigation is

a diverse mix of coastal environments, including highly urbanized Miami,

Florida; the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS); Everglades

National Park; Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve; Biscayne Bay National Park;

and John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park. Source: Googlee Earth (2015).

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2017

2 Makowski, Finkl, and Vollmer

Figure 2. Exported view of cognitive delineation results from interpreting enhanced IKONOS-2 satellite imagery. Of the 3888 vector polygons digitally created in

the study area (outlined in magenta), note the increase in complexity of benthic features with the westward distance offshore of the Florida Keys and toward the

Florida Reef Tract (FRT). Conversely, nearshore rock shelves, sediment flats, and offshore banks display more monotypic patterns of benthic habitats. A nominal

scale of 1:230,000 was set for this image export out of ArcMap.


Classification of Continental Shelves: Geoforms and Landforms 3

Table

1.

Def

init

ion

sta

ble

for

geo

form

sa

nd

ass

ocia

ted

lan

dfo

rms

alo

ng

the

SE

Flo

rid

aco

nti

nen

tal

shel

f,in

clu

din

glo

cati

ons,

def

init

ion

s,d

escr

ipti

ons,

an

dre

fere

nce

s.

Geo

form

Lan

dfo

rmL

ocati

onD

efin

itio

ns,

Des

crip

tion

s,an

dR

efer

ence

s

Cor

al

Ree

fT

he

Flo

rid

aR

eef

Tra

ct(F

RT

),a

shel

f-ed

ge

barr

ier

reef

syst

em,

lies

seaw

ard

ofH

aw

kC

han

nel

an

d

the

Atl

an

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

lZ

one

Th

eon

lyli

vin

gco

ral

barr

ier

reef

inth

eco

nti

nen

tal

Un

ited

Sta

tes,

the

FR

Tm

imic

sth

ep

lan

form

arc

ofth

eF

lori

da

Key

s,bu

tth

ere

ctil

inea

r

sect

ion

inB

isca

yn

eN

ati

onal

Park

isor

ien

ted

nor

th–so

uth

;th

ese

reef

s,

wh

ich

occu

rin

azo

ne

that

isabou

t6–7

km

wid

e,are

rid

ge-

lik

e

stru

ctu

res

bu

ilt

from

livin

gco

ral,

cora

lsk

elet

ons,

calc

are

ous

alg

ae,

mol

lusk

s,an

dp

roto

zoan

s;arr

an

ged

insu

cces

sive

layer

sof

lim

esto

ne

an

dd

row

ned

by

Qu

ate

rnary

sea-l

evel

flu

ctu

ati

ons,

cora

lre

efs

(i.e

.

barr

ier,

aggre

gate

d,

patc

hre

efs)

ofth

eF

RT

(als

ok

now

nas

the

Gre

at

Flo

rid

aR

eef,

Flo

rid

aR

eefs

,an

dF

lori

da

Key

sR

eef)

exte

nd

alo

ng

the

20

mis

obath

into

dee

per

wate

r(e

.g.,

Ban

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Cro

nin

eta

l.,

1981;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Lid

z,2004,

2006;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Lid

z

eta

l.,

1997)

Barr

ier

Ree

fL

ies

para

llel

toth

em

ain

lan

dan

dth

eF

lori

da

Key

s,fo

llow

ing

the

shel

fed

ge

abov

eth

e

con

tin

enta

lsl

ope

an

dse

para

ted

from

lan

dby

Bis

cayn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,H

aw

kC

han

nel

,an

d

the

Atl

an

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

lZ

one

Ase

ries

ofbarr

ier

reef

segm

ents

lyin

gof

fsh

ore,

sep

ara

ted

by

reef

gap

s,

that

para

llel

the

shel

fed

ge

an

dm

imic

the

gen

eral

con

figu

rati

onof

main

lan

dan

dk

eys;

als

ok

now

nas

con

tin

enta

lsh

elf

orp

latf

orm

reef

s,

thes

ebarr

ier

reef

sare

stro

ngly

asy

mm

etri

cin

cros

s-se

ctio

n,

bei

ng

stee

p-t

oon

seaw

ard

marg

ins

an

dgen

tly

slop

ing

shor

eward

toa

sed

imen

tw

edge

inH

aw

kC

han

nel

;sh

orew

ard

marg

ins

ofth

eF

RT

are

dec

orate

dby

cora

lh

ead

s,p

atc

hre

efs,

cora

lap

ron

s,an

daggre

gate

ban

kre

efs

(e.g

.,B

an

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Jaap

,1984;

Lid

z,2006;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Lid

zet

al.

,1991,

1997;

Sh

inn

,1963)

Patc

hR

eef

Isol

ate

dre

efp

atc

hes

scatt

ered

inback

reef

,in

tra-

reef

al,

inn

erre

ef,

an

dou

ter

reef

zon

es

Isol

ate

dp

atc

hes

oreq

uan

tp

latf

orm

ssc

att

ered

thro

ugh

out

the

FR

T;

patc

hre

efs,

com

mon

lyfo

un

din

shel

tere

den

vir

onm

ents

that

are

un

att

ach

edto

oth

erm

ajo

rre

efst

ruct

ure

s,are

typ

icall

ysu

rrou

nd

edby

san

dor

seagra

ssh

alo

s;th

eyoc

cur

inop

enoc

ean

an

dh

igh

-en

ergy

reef

gap

are

as,

as

wel

las

shel

tere

dback

reef

zon

esan

dra

nge

insi

zefr

om

afe

wsq

uare

met

ers

tola

rger

reef

form

s(e

.g.,

Ban

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005a;

Jaap

,1984;

Lid

z,

2006;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Lid

zet

al.

,1991,

1997;

Sh

inn

,

1963)

Aggre

gate

dR

eef

Occ

up

ies

the

back

reef

zon

ebet

wee

nth

ese

aw

ard

marg

ins

ofH

aw

kC

han

nel

an

dth

ein

tra-r

eefa

l

sed

imen

tfl

ats

Isol

ate

dgro

up

sof

coale

sced

patc

hre

efs,

occu

rrin

gin

vari

able

shap

es

wit

hou

tm

ajo

rsa

nd

chan

nel

s(e

.g.,

Ban

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Jaap

,1984;

Lid

z,2006;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Lid

zet

al.

,1991,

1997;

Mu

mby

an

dH

arb

orn

e,1999;

Sh

inn

,1963)

Cor

al

Ap

ron

Del

toid

al

shap

edacc

um

ula

tion

sof

cora

lsc

ree

an

d

fin

er-g

rain

edca

rbon

ate

sed

imen

tsalo

ng

the

lee

sid

eof

aggre

gate

dan

dbarr

ier

reef

s

Over

wash

stor

md

epos

its

con

tain

ing

fin

e-gra

inco

mm

inu

ted

carb

onate

s

an

dla

rger

cora

lfr

agm

ents

der

ived

from

stor

mw

aves

an

dsu

rge;

ap

ron

mate

rials

mig

rate

dow

nth

ele

eward

sid

eof

aggre

gate

dan

d

barr

ier

reef

san

dacc

um

ula

tein

back

reef

trou

gh

sad

jace

nt

toin

tra-

reef

al

sed

imen

tfl

ats

(e.g

.,F

ink

l,2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008)

Ree

fG

ap

Per

pen

dic

ula

rto

shor

e-p

ara

llel

an

dsh

elf-

para

llel

barr

ier

reef

sse

para

tin

gth

emin

totr

act

sor

segm

ents

Sed

imen

tary

spil

lways

com

pos

edof

eros

ion

al

reli

cts

ofp

ale

o-in

lets

or

river

chan

nel

scu

tin

toth

eu

nd

erly

ing

subst

rate

;re

efgap

s,w

hic

h

segm

ent

barr

ier

reef

sin

totr

act

s,fo

rmvari

able

-wid

thco

rrid

ors

that

lin

kth

eop

enoc

ean

wit

hla

goo

nal

wate

rsof

Haw

kC

han

nel

an

d

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

(e.g

.,B

an

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

d

An

dre

ws,

2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b)

Hard

bot

tom

Isol

ate

dou

tcro

ps

ofli

mes

ton

ebed

rock

,d

ebri

s

fiel

ds,

an

dd

red

ge

spoi

ld

isp

erse

din

term

itte

ntl

y

thro

ugh

out

the

Atl

an

tic

Oce

an

zon

es,

Haw

k

Ch

an

nel

,B

isca

yn

eB

ay,

an

dalo

ng

the

leew

ard

an

dw

ind

ward

sid

esof

the

Flo

rid

aK

eys

Exp

osed

Ple

isto

cen

eli

mes

ton

e(e

.g.,

bed

rock

,bou

lder

s,ru

bble

)in

clu

din

g

reef

deb

ris

an

dd

red

ged

spoi

lp

iles

;th

ese

featu

res

have

low

reli

efw

ith

smoo

thor

rou

gh

surf

ace

san

dty

pic

all

yca

rry

ath

inven

eer

(afe

w

cen

tim

eter

s)of

surf

ace

sed

imen

tw

ith

macr

oalg

ae

(e.g

.,C

hia

pp

one

an

d

Su

lliv

an

,1994;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Lid

zet

al.

,2006)



Table

1.

Con

tin

ued

.

Geo

form

Lan

dfo

rmL

ocati

onD

efin

itio

ns,

Des

crip

tion

s,an

dR

efer

ence

s

Su

bti

dal

Pavem

ent

On

the

con

tin

enta

lsh

elf,

shor

eward

ofth

eF

RT

in

the

Atl

an

tic

Oce

an

zon

es,

exte

nsi

vel

yin

the

nor

ther

np

art

sof

Haw

kC

han

nel

,an

dalo

ng

the

flan

ks

ofth

eF

lori

da

Key

s

Fla

t,gen

erall

yfe

atu

rele

ssco

nti

nu

ous

hard

bot

tom

that

isty

pic

all

y

part

iall

ym

an

tled

wit

ha

thin

san

dven

eer

an

dm

acr

oalg

ae

that

part

iall

yob

scu

reth

en

atu

reof

the

un

der

lyin

gsu

rface

;p

avem

ents

may

occu

ras

isol

ate

dro

ckou

tcro

ps

offs

hor

eor

as

nea

rsh

ore

pla

tfor

ms

alo

ng

the

lan

dw

ard

an

dse

aw

ard

marg

ins

ofth

eF

lori

da

Key

s(e

.g.,

Bu

dd

emei

er,

Sm

ith

,an

dK

inzi

e,1975;

Lid

zet

al.

,2006;

Sel

koe

eta

l.,

2009)

Ru

bble

Fie

lds

an

dD

red

ged

Sp

oil

Pil

es

Dep

osit

sin

the

Atl

an

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

lZ

one,

offs

hor

eof

Fis

her

Isla

nd

,an

din

nor

ther

n

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

Con

icall

ysh

ap

edru

bble

fiel

ds

an

dd

red

ged

spoi

lp

iles

der

ived

from

the

dre

dgin

gof

Bis

cayn

eB

ay,

Por

tof

Mia

mi,

an

dB

ear

Cu

t;sp

oil

pil

es

occu

rin

des

ign

ate

dd

epos

itio

nal

zon

esan

dp

rovid

esu

bst

rate

sfo

r

macr

oalg

ae

(e.g

.,F

ink

let

al.

,2008;

Lir

man

an

dF

ong,

1997)

Isla

nd

Cor

al

an

dm

ud

-base

dF

lori

da

Key

arc

hip

elago

that

sep

ara

tes

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

from

Haw

kC

han

nel

Lan

dth

at

isco

mp

lete

lysu

rrou

nd

edby

wate

ran

did

enti

fied

as

Flo

rid

a

Key

s(l

imes

ton

e-co

red

kars

tk

eys,

wit

hm

an

gro

ves

,m

ars

hes

,an

d

sali

nas)

an

dm

ud

dy-s

an

dy

isla

nd

s(B

ay

Key

s)(e

.g.,

Fin

kl,

2004;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Lid

zet

al.

,1997;

Nu

nn

,1994)

Bay

Key

Sm

all

,co

mp

act

edm

ud

isla

nd

sbet

wee

nk

ars

t

isla

nd

sor

as

soli

tary

subaer

ial

lan

dfo

rms

(exp

osed

ban

ks)

inB

isca

yn

eB

ay

Alo

w-l

yin

g,

com

pact

edm

ud

isla

nd

(em

erged

ban

k)

inth

eF

lori

da

Key

s

arc

hip

elago

oras

isol

ate

dst

ruct

ura

lban

ks

inB

isca

yn

eB

ay

an

dC

ard

Sou

nd

;d

evel

oped

from

coars

erse

dim

ent

acc

um

ula

tion

str

an

spor

ted

abov

em

ean

hig

hti

de

du

rin

gst

orm

s,bay

key

sco

nta

inor

gan

ic-r

ich

mu

dd

ysu

rfic

ial

mate

rials

stabil

ized

by

man

gro

ves

(e.g

.,E

nos

,1989;

Hall

ey,

Vach

er,

an

dS

hin

n,

1997;

Sw

art

an

dK

ram

er,

1997)

Kars

tIs

lan

dL

imes

ton

e-co

red

key

sth

at

sep

ara

teB

isca

yn

eB

ay

an

dC

ard

Sou

nd

from

Haw

kC

han

nel

Isla

nd

sin

the

Flo

rid

aK

eys

com

pos

edof

ooli

tic

gra

inst

one

(i.e

.M

iam

i

Lim

esto

ne)

,fo

ssil

cora

lre

efro

ck(i

.e.

Key

Larg

oL

imes

ton

e),

an

d

coqu

ina

shel

lbed

rock

(i.e

.A

nast

asi

aF

orm

ati

on);

kars

tis

lan

ds

are

typ

icall

yco

lon

ized

by

man

gro

ves

an

dw

etla

nd

sbu

tm

ay

have

are

as

of

exp

osed

bed

rock

inh

igh

erel

evati

ons

wit

hli

ttle

veg

etati

ve

cover

(e.g

.,

Fin

kl,

2004;

Hall

ey,

Vach

er,

an

dS

hin

n,

1997;

Hin

e,2013;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Lid

z,R

eich

,an

dS

hin

n,

2003;

Mu

lter

eta

l.,

2002;

Wan

less

eta

l.,

1988)

Sali

na

Low

-lyin

gd

epre

ssio

ns

ink

ars

tis

lan

ds

orbay

key

sE

ncl

osed

orse

mi-

encl

osed

dep

ress

ion

sin

kars

tis

lan

ds

wit

hn

om

ajo

r

sou

rce

offr

esh

gro

un

dw

ate

ror

surf

icia

lfr

esh

wate

rin

pu

tso

that

evap

orati

onex

ceed

sra

infa

ll,

all

owin

gfo

rbri

nes

an

dot

her

evap

orit

es

tofo

rm;

thes

esh

all

ow,

inla

nd

dep

ress

ion

sare

fill

edw

ith

salt

wate

r

dir

ectl

yfr

omth

ese

aor

from

salt

ygro

un

dw

ate

r(e

.g.,

Hof

fmei

ster

,

1974;

Wan

less

eta

l.,

1988;

Wan

less

eta

l.,

1989)

Sed

imen

tF

lat

Un

con

soli

date

dse

afl

oor

exte

nsi

vel

yfo

un

d

thro

ugh

out

Bis

cayn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,H

aw

k

Ch

an

nel

,th

eA

tlan

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

lZ

one,

an

d

inin

tra-r

eefa

lp

ock

ets

ofth

eF

RT

Exte

nsi

ve,

un

con

soli

date

dse

afl

oor

sed

imen

tsco

mp

osed

ofsa

nd

an

dm

ud

that

are

usu

all

ysu

bm

erged

,ex

cep

ton

inte

rtid

al

san

dfl

ats

;se

dim

ents

that

are

subje

ctto

tran

spor

tfr

omw

aves

an

dcu

rren

tsoc

cur

in

vari

able

thic

kn

ess

over

kars

tifi

edbed

rock

;se

dim

ent

flat

lan

dfo

rms

are

chara

cter

ized

by

pla

nar

bed

form

s,ri

pp

les,

an

din

tert

idal

san

dfl

ats

(e.g

.,B

an

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Davis

,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1992;

Du

an

ean

d

Mei

sbu

rger

,1969;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Fin

kl

an

dW

arn

er,

2005;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Lid

z,R

obbin

,an

dS

hin

n,

1985;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991)

Inte

rtid

al

San

dF

lat

Per

iod

icall

yex

pos

edse

dim

ent

flats

fou

nd

in

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

Inte

rtid

al

flats

ass

ocia

ted

wit

hst

ruct

ura

lban

ks

inB

isca

yn

eB

ay;

thes

e

flats

may

have

bare

surf

ace

sor

be

colo

niz

edw

ith

seagra

ssor

macr

oalg

ae

(e.g

.,D

avis

,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1992;

Du

an

ean

d

Mei

sbu

rger

,1969;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b)



Table

1.

Con

tin

ued

.

Geo

form

Lan

dfo

rmL

ocati

onD

efin

itio

ns,

Des

crip

tion

s,an

dR

efer

ence

s

Pla

nar

Bed

For

ms

an

dR

ipp

les

Fla

t,sm

ooth

,or

rip

ple

dsa

nd

an

dm

ud

shee

ts

occu

rrin

gin

Bis

cayn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,H

aw

k

Ch

an

nel

,th

eA

tlan

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

lZ

one,

an

d

inin

tra-r

eefa

lp

ock

ets

ofth

eF

RT

Carb

onati

can

dsi

lici

-cla

stic

seafl

oor

sed

imen

tary

dep

osit

sra

ngin

gin

gra

insi

zefr

omsa

nd

tom

ud

,w

ith

ad

mix

ture

sof

organ

icm

att

er;

thes

e

sed

imen

tfl

ats

may

be

un

colo

niz

edor

colo

niz

edw

ith

seagra

ss

mea

dow

s;alt

hou

gh

seafl

oor

surf

ace

sed

imen

tsare

typ

icall

y

featu

rele

ss,

sed

imen

tth

ick

nes

svari

esw

ith

the

irre

gu

lar

kars

tifi

ed

bed

rock

top

ogra

ph

y(e

.g.,

Davis

,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1992;

Du

an

ean

d

Mei

sbu

rger

,1969;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl

an

d

Warn

er,

2005;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Lid

z,R

obbin

,an

dS

hin

n,

1985;

Lid

z,

Hin

e,an

dS

hin

n,

1991)

Du

ne

an

dB

each

Cou

ple

dd

un

ean

dbea

chsy

stem

fron

tin

gH

aw

k

Ch

an

nel

,th

ebay

sid

esof

Fis

her

Isla

nd

,V

irgin

ia

Key

,an

dK

eyB

isca

yn

e,an

dth

eoc

ean

icsi

de

of

the

SE

Flo

rid

aC

oast

al

Zon

en

orth

ofB

ear

Cu

t

Ageo

mor

ph

olog

icall

yco

up

led

syst

emco

nta

inin

gH

oloc

ene

du

ne

fiel

ds,

fore

du

nes

,an

dbea

chber

ms;

salt

-tol

eran

ttr

ees,

shru

bs,

gra

sses

,an

d

oth

erveg

etati

onch

ara

cter

ize

du

ne

an

dback

-bea

chgeo

form

s;so

ils

are

thin

,w

eak

lyd

evel

oped

,co

ars

eto

fin

ete

xtu

red

,an

dex

cess

ivel

y

dra

ined

carb

onate

san

ds;

ocea

nbea

ches

are

freq

uen

tly

rew

ork

edby

win

dan

dw

aves

,w

hil

ebay

bea

ches

are

rela

tivel

yu

nd

istu

rbed

an

d

con

tain

ah

igh

ersi

ltco

nte

nt

(e.g

.,F

ink

l,1993,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

d

Res

trep

o-C

oup

e,2007;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2006;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Wri

gh

tan

dS

hor

t,1984)

Bay

Bea

chL

owen

ergy

bea

chsy

stem

salo

ng

the

bay

sid

eof

Fis

her

Isla

nd

,V

irgin

iaK

ey,

an

dK

eyB

isca

yn

e

Carb

onate

bea

chse

dim

ents

ram

ped

up

alo

ng

the

bay

sid

eof

Fis

her

Isla

nd

,V

irgin

iaK

ey,

an

dK

eyB

isca

yn

e;lo

wen

ergy

con

dit

ion

s,

alo

ngsh

ore

rock

ysu

bst

rate

s,an

dlo

w-e

levati

onk

ars

th

ead

lan

ds

hel

p

pro

tect

thes

ebea

ches

;d

un

ed

evel

opm

ent

isin

cip

ien

tor

abse

nt

(e.g

.,

Fin

kl,

2004;

da

Fon

tou

raK

lein

,B

ened

et,

an

dS

chu

mach

er,

2002)

Oce

an

Bea

chH

igh

-en

ergy

du

ne

an

dbea

chsy

stem

alo

ng

the

ocea

nsi

de

ofF

ish

erIs

lan

d,

Vir

gin

iaK

ey,

Key

Bis

cayn

e,an

dth

eS

EF

lori

da

Coa

stal

Zon

e

nor

thof

Bea

rC

ut

Natu

ral

an

dre

nou

rish

edoc

ean

bea

ches

,w

hic

hfr

ont

the

nor

ther

n

sect

ion

sof

Haw

kC

han

nel

an

dth

esh

ore

nor

thof

Bea

rC

ut,

con

tain

inci

pie

nt

fore

du

nes

beh

ind

bea

chber

ms

that

hel

pp

rote

ctth

eback

-

shor

efr

omst

orm

surg

ean

dov

erw

ash

;th

ed

un

e-bea

chco

nfi

gu

rati

on

dis

sip

ate

sw

ave

ener

gy

(e.g

.,F

ink

l,2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Gin

sbu

rgan

dJam

es,

1974;

Hin

e,2013;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Sh

ort,

1999;

Wri

gh

tan

dS

hor

t,1984)

Rid

ge

Fie

ldO

ffsh

ore

lin

ear

san

dri

dges

(waves

)oc

curr

ing

in

Haw

kC

han

nel

an

dth

eA

tlan

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

l

Zon

e,bet

wee

nth

eF

lori

da

Key

san

dth

eF

RT

,in

SW

Bis

cayn

eB

ay,

an

dw

ith

inth

eS

Ep

orti

onof

the

FR

T

Sh

elf

san

dri

dges

(waves

)sh

owp

ara

llel

lon

g-a

xis

ali

gn

men

ton

san

dy

seafl

oors

inH

aw

kC

han

nel

;th

ese

rid

ges

are

chara

cter

isti

cof

tid

e-an

d

stor

m-d

omin

ate

dsh

elves

wh

ere

ther

eis

suff

icie

nt

sed

imen

tsu

pp

lyto

acc

um

ula

tein

mou

nd

sse

ver

al

met

ers

thic

k;

the

rid

ges

are

orie

nte

din

dis

tin

ctp

att

ern

s:N

Wby

SE

,N

Eby

SW

,an

dN

-NW

by

S-S

E;

the

du

ne

fiel

ds

rest

onsa

nd

flats

lyin

gov

erli

mes

ton

ebed

rock

;th

ese

san

d

rid

ges

are

con

fin

edto

the

Haw

kC

han

nel

mor

ph

odyn

am

iczo

ne,

wh

ere

tid

al

an

dst

orm

curr

ents

pro

du

ceth

ed

iffe

ren

tri

dge

fiel

dor

ien

tati

ons;

seagra

ssm

ead

ows

may

occu

rin

the

swale

sbet

wee

nsa

nd

rid

ges

(e.g

.,

Ash

ley,

1990;

Du

an

ean

dM

eisb

urg

er,

1969;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

d

An

dre

ws,

2008;

Fin

kl,

An

dre

ws,

an

dB

ened

et,

2006;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2007,

2008;

Sta

por

,1982)

Dis

cret

eR

idges

Isol

ate

d,

sin

gle

san

dri

dges

orie

nta

ted

inth

esa

me

dir

ecti

onw

ith

inth

efi

eld

inB

isca

yn

eB

ay,

Haw

k

Ch

an

nel

,an

dth

eF

RT

Ou

tlie

rsof

the

com

ple

xri

dge

fiel

dw

her

ein

div

idu

al

rid

ges

are

isol

ate

d

onth

ese

afl

oor

inH

aw

kC

han

nel

an

dth

eF

RT

;d

iscr

ete

rid

ges

mod

ifie

dby

tid

al

curr

ents

als

ooc

cur

inB

isca

yn

eB

ay

an

din

reef

gap

s

ofth

eF

RT

(e.g

.,A

shle

y,

1990;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl,

An

dre

ws,

an

dB

ened

et,

2006;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2007;

Sta

por

,1982)

Com

ple

xR

idges

Fie

ldof

cris

scro

ssin

gsa

nd

rid

ges

inH

aw

k

Ch

an

nel

an

dth

eA

tlan

tic

Oce

an

Lit

tora

lZ

one

An

are

aw

her

em

ult

iple

subp

ara

llel

rid

ges

are

form

edalo

ng

mor

eth

an

one

axis

tocr

eate

aco

mp

lex

cris

scro

ssp

att

ern

ofri

dge

an

dsw

ale

top

ogra

ph

yon

the

seafl

oor

(e.g

.,A

shle

y,

1990;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

d

An

dre

ws,

2008;

Fin

kl,

An

dre

ws,

an

dB

ened

et,

2006;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2007,

2008;

Sta

por

,1982)



Table

1.

Con

tin

ued

.

Geo

form

Lan

dfo

rmL

ocati

onD

efin

itio

ns,

Des

crip

tion

s,an

dR

efer

ence

s

Ch

an

nel

Intr

a-k

eyco

nd

uit

sco

nn

ecti

ng

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

an

d

Card

Sou

nd

wit

hH

aw

kC

han

nel

,or

as

soli

tary

gro

oves

cut

wit

hin

the

offs

hor

eban

kof

Bis

cayn

e

Bay

Low

reli

ef,

elon

gate

dti

dal

con

du

its

that

are

cut

into

seafl

oor

ban

k

sed

imen

tsor

kars

tbed

rock

that

faci

lita

teth

eex

chan

ge

ofw

ate

r

bet

wee

nB

isca

yn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,an

dH

aw

kC

han

nel

;n

eoch

an

nel

s

are

mod

ern

-day

tid

al

chan

nel

sth

at

are

cut

into

sed

imen

tary

ban

d

dep

osit

s,w

her

eas

pale

och

an

nel

sare

old

erfe

atu

res,

pro

bably

inle

ts,

that

wer

eass

ocia

ted

wit

hlo

wer

sea

level

san

dcu

tin

tobed

rock

(e.g

.,

Ban

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Davis

an

dF

itzg

erald

,2004;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

d

An

dre

ws,

2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Lid

z,2006;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Lid

z,R

obbin

,an

dS

hin

n,

1985;

Lid

zet

al.

,1997,

2006)

Neo

chan

nel

Tid

al

san

dch

an

nel

sin

the

Safe

tyV

alv

ean

don

sed

imen

tary

ban

ks

sou

thof

Key

Bis

cayn

e,an

d

tran

siti

onal

bet

wee

nB

isca

yn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,

an

dH

aw

kC

han

nel

Dis

trib

uta

ryor

stra

igh

tch

an

nel

scu

tth

rou

gh

un

con

soli

date

dca

rbon

ate

ban

kd

epos

its;

thes

esu

bti

dal

chan

nel

sfa

cili

tate

tid

al

flow

sbet

wee

n

Bis

cayn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,an

dH

aw

kC

han

nel

(e.g

.,D

avis

an

d

Fit

zger

ald

,2004;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Lid

z,2006;

Lid

zet

al.

,1997,

2006)

Pale

och

an

nel

Bed

rock

chan

nel

sse

para

tin

gth

eF

lori

da

Key

sC

han

nel

scu

tth

rou

gh

the

kars

tifi

edbed

rock

ofth

eF

lori

da

Key

s

arc

hip

elago;

thes

ep

ale

och

an

nel

s,fo

rmer

inle

tsor

Ple

isto

cen

eri

ver

s,

are

stable

con

du

its

bet

wee

nB

isca

yn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,an

dH

aw

k

Ch

an

nel

;p

ale

och

an

nel

sty

pic

all

yd

isp

lay

floo

d-

an

deb

b-t

idal

del

tas

an

dm

ay

have

ass

ocia

ted

sed

imen

tfl

ats

(e.g

.,B

an

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Davis

an

dF

itzg

erald

,2004;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Lid

z,2006;

Lid

zet

al.

,1997,

2006)

Sea

floo

rC

han

nel

Tid

al

chan

nel

scu

tw

ith

inth

eban

ks

ofB

isca

yn

e

Bay

Low

reli

efti

dal

chan

nel

scu

tin

toca

rbon

ate

san

dfl

ats

ofB

isca

yn

eB

ay;

thes

ese

afl

oor

chan

nel

sm

ay

be

stra

igh

tor

bif

urc

ate

into

com

ple

x

dis

tal

segm

ents

bef

ore

mer

gin

gim

per

cep

tibly

wit

hsa

nd

y-m

ud

dy

bot

tom

s;th

eym

ay

be

un

colo

niz

edor

con

tain

seagra

ssm

ead

ows

(e.g

.,

Ban

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Bib

er,

2007;

Davis

an

dF

itzg

erald

,2004;

Fin

kl,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Lid

z,2006)

Del

taA

tria

ngu

lar

tract

ofse

dim

ent

dep

osit

edat

the

term

ini

ofti

dal

pale

och

an

nel

sth

at

are

tran

siti

onal

bet

wee

nB

isca

yn

eB

ay,

Card

Sou

nd

,

an

dH

aw

kC

han

nel

Ad

epos

itio

nal

geo

form

pro

du

ced

from

the

shoa

lin

gse

dim

enta

tion

at

the

term

ini

oftr

an

siti

onal

pale

och

an

nel

tid

al

pass

esbet

wee

nB

isca

yn

e

Bay,

Card

Sou

nd

,an

dH

aw

kC

han

nel

;p

ale

och

an

nel

sty

pic

all

yco

nta

in

ebb-

an

dfl

ood

-tid

al

del

tas,

dep

end

ing

onth

esh

oali

ng

loca

tion

(e.g

.,

Ban

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Davis

an

dF

itzg

erald

,2004;

Davis

,H

ine,

an

d

Sh

inn

,1992;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,

2005b;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991;

Sch

wart

z,

2005)

Ebb-T

idal

Del

taD

elta

icfo

rmati

ons

intr

an

siti

onal

pale

och

an

nel

s

onse

aw

ard

term

ini

inH

aw

kC

han

nel

Atr

ian

gu

lar-

shap

edacc

um

ula

tion

ofse

dim

ent

at

the

seaw

ard

term

inu

s

tid

al

pale

och

an

nel

sin

Haw

kC

han

nel

;th

ese

small

ebb-t

idal

del

tas

are

mod

ifie

dby

ocea

nw

aves

an

dcu

rren

tsth

at

cros

sov

erth

eF

RT

to

pro

du

ceasy

mm

etri

cal

del

tafo

rms

(e.g

.,B

an

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Davis

an

d

Fit

zger

ald

,2004;

Davis

,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1992;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,

2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Lid

z,

Hin

e,an

dS

hin

n,

1991)

Flo

od-T

idal

Del

taD

elta

icfo

rmati

ons

intr

an

siti

onal

pale

och

an

nel

s

onsh

orew

ard

term

ini

inB

isca

yn

eB

ay

an

dC

ard

Sou

nd

Atr

ian

gu

lar-

shap

edacc

um

ula

tion

ofse

dim

ent

at

the

shor

eward

term

inu

sti

dal

pale

och

an

nel

sin

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

an

dC

ard

Sou

nd

;th

ese

small

floo

d-t

idal

del

tas

are

mod

ifie

dby

fetc

h-l

imit

edbay

waves

an

d

curr

ents

top

rod

uce

asy

mm

etri

cal

del

tafo

rms

(e.g

.,B

an

ks

eta

l.,

2007;

Davis

an

dF

itzg

erald

,2004;

Davis

,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1992;

Fin

kl

an

d

An

dre

ws,

2008;

Fin

kl,

Ben

edet

,an

dA

nd

rew

s,2005b;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Lid

z,H

ine,

an

dS

hin

n,

1991)



and Andrews, 2008; Finkl, Benedet, and Andrews, 2005b;

Finkl et al., 2008; Hoffmeister, 1974; Lidz, 2006; Lidz, Hine,

and Shinn, 1991; Lidz, Robbin, and Shinn, 1985; Lidz et al.,

1997, 2006). Deltas are depositional geoforms produced from

the shoaling sedimentation of paleochannel tidal passes.

Representative landforms include Ebb-Tidal Deltas and

Flood-Tidal Deltas (Davis and Fitzgerald, 2004; Davis, Hine,

and Shinn, 1992; Finkl and Andrews, 2008; Finkl, Benedet,

and Andrews, 2005b; Finkl et al., 2008; Lidz, Hine, and

Shinn, 1991; Schwartz, 2005). The final geoform identified

was categorized as the Peninsula and Coastal Plain, which

includes the low-lying marshlands of the Everglades within

the Southeast Distal Florida Physiographic Realm and such

morphodynamic zones as Tree Island Biohydrologic Systems,

Marsh Prairie Regimes, Mangrove Forest Biomes, and

Everglades Swampland Systems (Makowski, Finkl, and

Vollmer, 2016). Landforms include Intertidal Mud Flat,

Supratidal Mud Flat, and Anthropogenic Modified Coastal

Plain (Finkl, 1994; Finkl and Makowski, 2013; Finkl and

Restrepo-Coupe, 2007; Finkl et al., 2008; Gorsline, 1963;

Hoffmeister, 1974; White, 1970). Locations, definitions, and

descriptions of all interpreted geoforms and associated

landforms along the continental shelf study area are

provided in Table 1.

For the purposes of onscreen cognitive interpretation of

geoforms and landforms, enhanced IKONOS-2 satellite

images were imported into ESRI’s ArcGIS 10.3 ArcMap

program and displayed on a 1.2 m interactive SmartBoardt

Table

1.

Con

tin

ued

.

Geo

form

Lan

dfo

rmL

ocati

onD

efin

itio

ns,

Des

crip

tion

s,an

dR

efer

ence

s

Pen

insu

laan

dC

oast

al

Pla

inL

ow-l

yin

g,

mars

hla

nd

s(E

ver

gla

des

)of

Sou

thea

st

Dis

tal

Flo

rid

aan

dth

eS

outh

east

Flo

rid

aC

oast

al

Zon

ead

jace

nt

toB

isca

yn

eB

ay

an

dC

ard

Sou

nd

Fla

t,lo

w-l

yin

gp

oin

tof

lan

dth

at

incl

ud

esth

esa

lien

tan

dce

ntr

al

exte

nsi

ons

of

Sou

thea

stD

ista

lF

lori

da

an

dth

eS

outh

east

Flo

rid

aC

oast

al

Zon

ead

jace

nt

to

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

an

dC

ard

Sou

nd

;th

isgeo

form

isd

omin

ate

dby

an

thro

pog

enic

mod

ifie

d

urb

an

an

dagri

cult

ura

lare

as,

exce

pt

for

are

as

inth

eso

uth

,w

her

eth

eyare

com

pos

ed

ofin

tert

idal

an

dsu

pra

tid

al

mu

dfl

ats

wit

hor

gan

ic-r

ich

sed

imen

ts(F

ink

lan

d

Mak

owsk

i,2013;

Fin

kl

an

dR

estr

epo-

Cou

pe,

2007;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Gor

slin

e,1963;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Wh

ite,

1970)

Inte

rtid

al

Mu

dF

lat

Sh

all

ow,

mu

dd

y,

carb

onate

shor

esalo

ng

the

frin

ges

ofth

eE

ver

gla

des

fron

tin

glo

wer

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

an

din

toC

ard

Sou

nd

Sh

all

ow-s

lop

ed,

low

ener

gy

mu

dd

ysh

orel

ines

ad

jace

nt

tolo

wer

Bis

cayn

eB

ay

an

din

to

Card

Sou

nd

;in

tert

idal

mu

dfl

ats

con

tain

poo

rly

sort

ed,

silt

y,

carb

onate

sed

imen

ts

wit

hh

igh

organ

icco

nte

nts

;m

an

gro

ves

an

dot

her

wet

lan

dveg

etati

onare

ofte

n

pre

sen

t(e

.g.,

Fin

kl,

1994,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

dA

nd

rew

s,2008;

Fin

kl

an

dR

estr

epo-

Cou

pe,

2007;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Hof

fmei

ster

,1974;

Wh

ite,

1970;

Wol

an

ski,

2007)

Su

pra

tid

al

Mu

dF

lat

Back

shor

em

ud

flats

lan

dw

ard

ofin

tert

idal

mu

dd

y

are

as

that

mer

ge

wit

hS

outh

east

Dis

tal

Flo

rid

a

ecot

onal

succ

essi

ons

Low

gra

die

nt,

mu

dd

yback

shor

esly

ing

lan

dw

ard

ofin

tert

idal

mu

dfl

ats

;th

ese

mu

d

flats

,w

hic

hco

nta

inor

gan

ic-r

ich

mu

dso

ils

an

dare

seld

omin

un

date

d,

sup

por

ta

vari

ety

ofw

etla

nd

veg

etati

on,

incl

ud

ing

mars

hp

rair

iere

gim

esan

dtr

eeis

lan

d

bio

hyd

rolo

gic

syst

ems

ofS

outh

east

Dis

tal

Flo

rid

a(e

.g.,

Fin

kl,

1994,

2004;

Fin

kl

an

d

An

dre

ws,

2008;

Fin

kl

an

dR

estr

epo-

Cou

pe,

2007;

Fin

kl

eta

l.,

2008;

Hof

fmei

ster

,

1974;

Wh

ite,

1970;

Wol

an

ski,

2007)

An

thro

pog

enic

Mod

ifie

d

Coa

stal

Pla

in

Urb

an

dev

elop

men

tan

dagri

cult

ura

lla

nd

son

the

Atl

an

tic

Coa

stal

Pla

inan

dd

rain

edE

ver

gla

des

inth

eS

outh

east

Flo

rid

aC

oast

al

Zon

e

Urb

an

dev

elop

men

t(i

.e.

citi

esan

dsu

bu

rbs

tofo

rma

con

urb

ati

on)

mix

edw

ith

com

mer

cial

agri

cult

ura

lla

nd

s,sm

all

farm

plo

ts,

an

dop

ensp

ace

inth

eE

ver

gla

des

an

dalo

ng

the

Atl

an

tic

Coa

stal

Pla

inw

ith

inth

eS

outh

east

Flo

rid

aC

oast

al

Zon

e(e

.g.,

Fin

kl,

1994;

Fin

kl

an

dM

ak

owsk

i,2013)

Table 3. Quantity of cognitively classified vector polygons (n) and

calculated areas (km2) for seven selected landforms interpreted from the

IKONOS-2 satellite imagery. Each individual percentage from the total is

listed in brackets below.

Landform

Quantity of Vector

Polygons, n [%]

Calculated

Area, km2 [%]

Patch Reef 2705 [69.5] 119.7 [8.5]

Subtidal Pavement 44 [1.1] 31.0 [2.2]

Bay Key 77 [2.0] 5.3 [0.4]

Karst Island 54 [1.4] 37.4 [2.6]

Planar Bed Forms

and Ripples 429 [11.0] 681.5 [48.4]

Discrete Ridges 7 [0.2] 21.0 [1.5]

Complex Ridges 13 [0.3] 36.8 [2.6]

Table 2. Quantity of cognitively classified vector polygons (n) and

calculated areas (km2) for nine geoforms interpreted from the IKONOS-2

satellite imagery. Each individual percentage from the total is listed in

brackets below.

Geoform

Quantity of Vector

Polygons, n [%]

Calculated

Area, km2 [%]

Coral Reef 2824 [72.6] 119.7 [8.5]

Hardbottom 63 [1.6] 32.7 [2.3]

Island 135 [3.5] 44.5 [3.1]

Sediment Flat 474 [12.3] 692.2 [49.2]

Dune and Beach 7 [0.2] 1.4 [0.1]

Ridge Field 20 [0.5] 57.8 [4.1]

Channel 63 [1.6] 44.4 [3.2]

Delta 5 [0.1] 12.6 [0.9]

Peninsula and

Coastal Plain 297 [7.6] 402.1 [28.6]

Total 3888 [100] 1407.4 [100]



overlay system. This allowed for the real-time, onscreen

digitization of geoform and landform features based on

varying color tones, saturations, textures, and relative

spectral reflectance signatures. Closed vector polygons were

drawn around areas of similar visual composition, thereby

cognitively delineating the boundaries of specific geoforms

and landforms as defined in Table 1. A nominal scale of

1:6000 was selected when cognitively digitizing boundaries,

Figure 3. Geographic representation of geoforms from the interpreted IKONOS-2 satellite imagery (viz. Figure 2). The legend identifies nine (9) geoforms

classified from the imagery and are color coded to show the spatial relationships among them. The broader-scale geoforms allow for a more detailed delineation

with associated landforms (viz. Figure 4). A nominal scale of 1:230,000 was set for this image export out of ArcMap.



as no minimum mapping unit (MMU) was designated for this

study. Individual geoform and landform thematic-layered

maps, along with associated legends, were created, with

vector polygons being assigned a specific classifying color

that corresponded to the appropriate cognitive interpretation

mapping unit.

Attribute tables of all interpreted geoforms and landforms

were complied for the purpose of analysis and directly

Figure 4. Geographic distribution of landforms as interpreted from IKONOS-2 satellite imagery, subdividing the larger-scale geoforms (viz. Figure 3). The

legend provides a color distinction for each classified landform interpreted from the imagery (viz. Figure 2) and allows for visual understanding of spatial

parameters, as related to the 24 landforms identified. This image export was set at a 1:230,000 nominal scale within the layout view feature of ArcMap.



corresponded to the cognitively digitized polygons. By doing so,

a multitude of spatially queried information, including the

areal extents of each classified geoform and landform, could be

stored for further investigation and analysis.

RESULTSApplication of the previously described methods resulted in a

classification of possible geoforms and landforms occurring

along the SE Florida continental shelf. In addition to providing

full-extent area maps showing the distribution of cognitively

interpreted geoforms and landforms, those classifying units

that recorded the highest and lowest number of vector

polygons, as well as the greatest and smallest calculated areas,

are reported. Furthermore, smaller-scale call-out figures are

shown to provide side-by-side results of IKONOS-2 image

interpretation by comparing annotated images with those

containing superimposed color coded classifying units.

An amalgamation of 14 GeoEye IKONOS-2 satellite scenes

resulted in a platform of high-resolution, multispectral images

for the purposes of classifying 1407.4 km2 of the study area. A

total of 3888 cognitive vector delineations were interpreted

from the IKONOS-2 imagery (Figure 2). The boundaries of nine

(9) geoforms and 24 associated landforms, with corresponding

legends, are shown with color-assigned visual representations

exported from ArcMap (Figures 3 and 4).

Among all the classifying units, the Coral Reef Geoform and

associated Patch Reef Landform recorded the highest number

of cognitively delineated vector polygons, with 2823 and 2705,

respectively. The lowest number of vector polygons were tallied

by Delta Geoforms (n¼5) and the Ebb-Tidal Delta Landform (n¼ 2). Additionally, the Sediment Flat Geoform and associatedPlanar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform recorded the greatest

total areas, with 692.3 km2 and 681.5 km2, respectively, while

the Dune and Beach Geoform (1.4 km2) and associated Bay

Figure 5. In order to interpret and classify the separate components of the Coral Reef Geoform, the left panel shows associated landform examples of Barrier

Reef, Patch Reef, Aggregated Reef, Coral Apron, and Reef Gap within the IKONOS-2 satellite image. The right panel overlays color coordinated classification

units, as show in the legend, on top of the IKONOS-2 to visually demonstrate the spatial distribution of landforms. In addition to the colors and units provided in

the legend, yellow areas in the right panel represent the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of the Sediment Flat Geoform.

The blacked out portion on the right-hand side of both panels represents where the water depth exceeded the threshold by which the IKONOS-2 sensor could

visually register any benthic spectral signatures. The satellite image and interpretive overlay panel were exported out of ArcMap program at a nominal scale of

1:24,000 within the layout view feature.



Figure 6. Example of the Hardbottom Geoform in relation the Port of Miami. The IKONOS-2 satellite image in the left panel shows the benthic signature

differences between the Subtidal Pavement Landform versus the Rubble Fields and Dredged Spoil Piles Landform, while the right panel overlays color coded

classification units to visually demonstrate the interpreted features. In addition to the colors and units provided in the legend, yellow areas in the right panel

represent the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of the Sediment Flat Geoform, and tan areas represent the

Anthropogenic Modified Coastal Plain Landform associated with the Port of Miami. Both panels were exported out of ArcMap at a nominal scale of 1:8000 within

the layout view feature.

Figure 7. Detailed example showing visual spectral characteristics of the IKONOS-2 imagery (left panel) when identifying the Island Geoform and the associated

landform examples of Bay Key, Karst Island, and Salina in relation to Biscayne Bay. The right panel overlays landform classification units assigned by color to

visually demonstrate spatial distribution of interpreted features. In addition to the colors and units provided in the legend, yellow areas in the right panel

represent the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of the Sediment Flat Geoform; orange areas represent Paleochannel

Landforms; and teal areas represent Flood-Tidal Delta Landforms. The sharp contrast in the top left-hand corner of the left panel is indicative of merging two

separate IKONOS-2 satellite images from the same sampling area. Both panels were exported out of ArcMap in the layout view feature at a nominal scale of

1:8000.



Figure 8. Zoomed in example of an IKONOS-2 satellite image (left panel) and the superimposed classifying units (right panel) that represent the breakdown of

the Sediment Flat Geoform into two (2) associated landforms: Intertidal Sand Flat and Planar Bed Forms and Ripples. The Intertidal Sand Flat Landform

occasionally breaches the water’s surface in relation to the tides, whereas the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform constitutes the majority of the

surrounding benthos. A nominal scale of 1:9000 was used for both panels exported out of ArcMap.

Figure 9. Detailed example of two (2) landforms associated within the Dune and Beach Geoform in relation to Biscayne Bay and Hawk Channel. Spectral

reflectance patterns in the left panel (IKONOS-2 image) show the terrestrial and supratidal signatures of both the Bay Beach Landform and Ocean Beach

Landform. The right panel contains color coded mapping units from the landform legend (viz. Figure 4) that are an interpretation of the left panel, where

classifications are placed on top of the satellite imagery for visual comparison and analysis. In addition to the colors and units provided in the legend above, yellow

areas in the right panel represent the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of the Sediment Flat Geoform; orange areas

represent Paleochannel Landforms; dark purple areas represent Karst Island Landforms; light purple areas represent Intertidal Sand Flat Landforms; dark blue

areas represent Subtidal Pavement Landforms; light green areas represent Rubble Fields and Dredged Spoil Pile Landforms; and tan areas represent the

Anthropogenic Modified Coastal Plain Landform. Both panels were exported out of ArcMap at a nominal scale of 1:20,000 within the layout view feature.



Beach Landform (0.1 km2) recorded the smallest total areas.

Figures 5 through 14 illustrate specific small-scale results

when applying geoform and landform classifying units to the

raw, uninterpreted IKONOS-2 satellite imagery.

ANALYSIS

Analysis of interpreted geoforms along the SE Florida

continental shelf showed that the Coral Reef Geoform was

among the most optimal for cognitive recognition in the

IKONOS-2 imagery. When compared with other geoforms

identified, Coral Reef recorded the greatest quantity of vector

polygons, with over 72% of the overall total, but only

constituted less than 10% of the total study area (Table 2).

This was possible because of specific recognition of color, tone,

texture, pattern, and spectral reflectance from the Coral Reef

Geoform benthic signatures allowing for a more precise

delineation without grossly overestimating the size of such

features along the seafloor.

Further examination of the landforms associated with the

Coral Reef Geoform shows that geomorphological recognition of

Patch Reef was the most optimal. With nearly 70% of all the

vector polygons drawn in the study area and less than 2% of the

total area classified (Table 3), Patch Reef Landform interpre-

tation can be considered precise due to specific tone, hue, and

spectral reflectance differences when the sunlight hits the sand

or seagrass halos that usually surround these isolated reef

patches. The IKONOS-2 imagery provides the visual means to

discern these differences when interpreting the various

landforms associated with geoforms such as Coral Reefs

(Figure 15).

When analyzing the Hardbottom Geoform, a greater recog-

nition of structural textures and color saturations was shown

for Subtidal Pavement Landforms. This is because distinct

Figure 10. Detailed example showing distinctive spectral reflectance patterns for landforms associated with Coral Reef, Sediment Flat, Hardbottom, and Ridge

Field Geoforms. The largest benthic feature identified in the left panel is the Complex Ridge Landform, which is located between the Hardbottom Geoforms of

Hawk Channel and the Barrier and Patch Reef Landforms of the Florida Reef Tract (FRT). Notice how the high-resolution of the IKONOS-2 imagery is able to

capture the characteristic crisscrossing pattern along the seafloor. The right panel overlays color-assigned classification units on top of the satellite imagery to

visually demonstrate the distribution of landforms along the benthos. In addition to Complex Ridges, yellow areas in the right panel represent the Planar Bed

Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of the Sediment Flat Geoform; dark blue areas represent Subtidal Pavement Landforms; dark red

areas represent Patch Reef Landforms; and bright red areas represent Barrier Reef Landforms. Both panels were exported out of ArcMap at a nominal scale of

1:19,000 within the layout view feature.



Figure 11. Detailed example of Channel Geoform interpretations using IKONOS-2 satellite imagery. The left panel shows the identification of associated

landforms, which include Neochannel and Paleochannel, while the right panel overlays mapping units of specific color (viz. Figure 4) on top of the satellite

imagery to visually demonstrate spatial dynamics. In addition to the colors and units provided in the legend above, yellow areas in the right panel represent the

Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of the Sediment Flat Geoform; dark purple areas represent Karst Island Landforms;

and dark blue areas represent Subtidal Pavement Landforms. A nominal scale of 1:16,000 was used for both panels when exported out of ArcMap.

Figure 12. Detailed example of a Channel Geoform (as interpreted by the Seafloor Channel Landform) in relation to the Sediment Flat Geoform (as interpreted

by the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform) in Biscayne Bay. The left panel shows the high-resolution IKONOS-2 satellite image by which the color coded

classification units were overlaid (right panel). The sharp contrast along the top portion of the left panel is indicative of merging two separate IKONOS-2 satellite

images from the same sampling area. Both panels were exported out of ArcMap at a nominal scale of 1:20,000 within the layout view feature.



tones and spectral reflectance of the rigid exposed Pleistocene

limestone outcrops allowed for a higher level of textural

contrast and color saturation characteristics to be identified

in the IKONOS-2 imagery and demarcated along the seabot-

tom. Similarly, Bay Key and Karst Island Landforms, both

associated with the Island Geoform, showed individual

recognition from one another during cognitive interpretation.

Specific visual cues in the IKONOS-2 imagery allowed for

identification of small, compact mud islands (i.e. Bay Key)

versus those main islands formed from oolitic grainstone, fossil

coral reef rock, and coquina shell bedrock (i.e. Karst Island).

However, analysis of landforms associated with the Sediment

Flat Geoform showed that Planar Bed Forms and Ripples were

grossly recognizable within the IKONOS-2 imagery mainly

because of the general tone and spectral reflectance of the

unconsolidated materials. This then provided a basis for large-

scale differentiation of seafloor sedimentary deposits versus

rigid, hard structures, such as reef or hardbottom. Further

analysis of unconsolidated materials in the IKONOS-2 imagery

allowed for the detection of shelf sand waves, also known as

Ridge Field Geoforms, and the discernment between those

landforms oriented in the same direction (i.e. Discrete Ridges)

and those forming a crisscrossing pattern of ridge and swale

topography along the seafloor (i.e. Complex Ridges). This is

because the spectral reflectance of light and the contrasting

pattern of shadows along the benthic plane allow for interpre-

tation of Discrete Ridges, which are aligned along one axis,

versus Complex Ridges, which form along more than one axis to

create a compound field of ridges (Figure 16).

DISCUSSIONUsing GeoEye IKONOS-2 satellite imagery and the Geo-

spatially Integrated Seafloor Classification Scheme (G-ISCS)

method, cognitive interpretation of continental shelf geo-

forms and associated landforms was conducted over a coastal

segment off SE Florida. Classification of benthic components

Figure 13. Detailed example of IKONOS-2 satellite imagery (left panel) showing the two (2) landforms associated with the Delta Geoform, along with

surrounding features. The left panel shows Ebb-Tidal Delta Landforms and Flood-Tidal Delta Landforms, while the right panel represents interpreted

distribution of features by overlaying color coded mapping units from the landform legend (viz. Figure 4) on top of the satellite imagery. In addition to the colors

and units provided in the legend above, yellow areas in the right panel represent the Planar Bed Forms and Ripples Landform, which is a subclassification unit of

the Sediment Flat Geoform; orange areas represent Paleochannel Landforms; dark purple areas represent Karst Island Landforms; brown areas represent Bay

Key Landforms; and grey areas represent the Salina Landform. The sharp contrast in the top left-hand corner of the left panel is indicative of merging two

separate IKONOS-2 satellite images from the same sampling area. A nominal scale of 1:23,000 was used for both panels exported out of ArcMap.



along continental shelves is predicated upon the interpreta-

tion of these standard geomorphological structural frame-

works known as geoforms and landforms. The identification

of such spatially distributed biophysical features potentially

allows coastal researchers and resource managers to bridge

the classification of larger-scale physiographic realms and

morphodynamic process zones (Makowski, Finkl, and Vollm-

er, 2016) with more temporally influenced characteristics,

such as unconsolidated sediment accumulations (e.g., sand,

mud), sessile biological assemblages (e.g., scleractinian coral

growth), and flora proliferations (e.g., seagrass and macro-

algae cover). Hierarchical approaches to continental shelf

classification prove to be most effective in locations where

optimal water clarity is present, for example, along the coast

of SE Florida. In addition to exhibiting favorable visual

properties of the water column, the continental shelf off SE

Florida contains a diverse mix of coastal environments (e.g.,

highly urbanized Miami, Florida; Florida Keys National

Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS); Everglades National Park;

Biscayne Bay Aquatic Preserve; Biscayne Bay National

Park; John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park) in which

numerous geoforms and landforms could be identified and

delineated along the seafloor.

Previous studies have attempted to interpret and classify

benthic geoform and landform attributes in marine environ-

ments using various remotely sensed platforms (e.g., Ansari et

al., 2014; Costello, 2009; Finkl and Andrews, 2008; Finkl,

Benedet, and Andrews, 20

coas-33-02-10 1. · geoform and landform classiﬁcation of continental shelves using geospatially...

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