clean air brochure

Although the release of manyair pollutants has decreasedsince 1990, the quality of ourair has improved little in thepast decades. Poor air qualityremains a major public healthproblem, with concentrationsof particulate matter andozone remaining very high.The health cost of bad airquality is estimated to benearly half a millionpremature deaths each year inthe European Union1. Ineconomic terms, the annualcost to society of healthdamage from air pollution in2000 was estimated to amountto between €277 and €790billion2. The average lifeexpectancy in the mostpolluted cities in Europe isreduced by over two years3.However, local solutions doexist and some of them havealready been implementedwith success. This fact sheetprovides an overview of theseconcrete solutions and showsthat cutting air pollution ispossible and would improvethe lives of some 40 millionEuropeans exposed to highlevels of air pollution4.

The current legislation onambient air qualityThe 2008 Directive on Ambient Air Qualityand Cleaner Air for Europe5 is one of theEU’s main pieces of legislation on airpollution. It is the only legislation whichdirectly addresses the problem ofambient air pollution (the air we breathe)by setting a number of health-basedstandards and objectives for a number ofpollutants. Limit values vary from onepollutant to another and apply overdiffering periods of time, as summarisedin table 1.

Under EU air legislation, MemberStates must assess the airpollution levels throughout theirterritory. Where theconcentrations exceed limitvalues set in the Directive,Member States must preparean action plan showing howthe limit value will be achievedbefore its entry into force.Competent authorities also havethe obligation to inform the publicabout the assessment and managementof air pollution.

The new Directive includes a possibilityfor time extensions of three years(particulate matter) or up to five years(nitrogen dioxide, benzene) for complyingwith limit values, based on theassessment by the EuropeanCommission6. If, for instance, a timeextension for complying with PM10 isgranted, the country would have tocomply with PM10 standards by

June 2011 (extended deadline) instead of2005 (original deadline). In practice, thismeans that the country could not be

brought before the EuropeanCourt of Justice for its

infringement of limit valuesbetween 2005 and 2010.

The limit values andobjectives set out in theDirective are based onrecommendations made

by the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) which

are intended to minimise thehealth effects of air pollutants.

However, the EU standards are stilllagging behind: as shown in table 1,the EU standards are not sufficient forprotecting human health against theadverse impacts caused by the exposureto high concentrations of sulfur dioxide(SO2), particulate matter (PM2.5 andPM10) and ozone (O3). The scientificcommunity and civil society thereforebelieve a revision of current EU standardsis necessary.

?What can be done in our citiesto decrease air pollution?

Particulate matter<2.5μm (PM2.5)

Particulate matter<10μm (PM10)

Nitrogen dioxide(NO2)

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Ozone (O3)

Coughing; wheezing; shortness of breath:aggravations of respiratory conditionssuch as asthma; chronic bronchitis; lungdamage; premature death; risk ofcardiovascular and respiratory diseases;risk of mortality among young children;risk factor for chronic obstructivepulmonary disease, and lung canceramong adults

In the EU, the average life expectancyis 8.6 months lower due to exposure toPM2.5 produced by human activities.

Inflammation of the airways; reduced lungfunction growth; symptoms of bronchitis inasthmatic children; increased susceptibilityto respiratory infection; alterations, anddamage in the lung

Damage to the respiratory system and thelung functions; irritation of the eyes;inflammation of the respiratory tract;coughing; mucus secretion;aggravation of asthma and chronicbronchitis, and increased susceptibility toinfections of the respiratory tract

Breathing problems; asthma; reduction oflung function, and lung diseases

note: μg= microgram (one millionth of a gram)

* The percentage is based on the exposure indicator of 2010. If AEI in 2010 is assessed to be over 22 μg/m3, all appropriate measures need to be taken to achieve 18 μg/m3 by 2020

10 μg/m3 annual mean

25 μg/m3 24-hour mean






500 μg/m3 10-minutemean


25 µg/m3 annual mean to become alimit value in 2015

Exposure concentration obligation of 20µg/m3 based on a 3-year average(legally binding in 2015)

Exposure reduction target in percentageto be attained by 2020*

40 µg/m3 annual mean

50 µg/m3 24-hour mean with amaximum of 35 permitted exceedenceseach year

40 µg/m3 annual mean in force since2010

200 µg/m3 1-hour mean with amaximum of 18 permitted exceedenceseach year

125 µg/m3 24-hour mean withmaximum 3 permitted exceedenceseach year

350 µg/m3 1-hour mean with maximum24 permitted exceedences each year

120 µg/m3 8-hour mean with permittedexceedences of maximum 25 daysaveraged over 3 years

Health effects7

Table 1. Effects of major air pollutantson human health, recommendedguidelines and current EU standards

Guideline valuesrecommended bythe World HealthOrganisation (WHO)8

Current EU AirQuality standards9

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Graph 1. Population-weighted concentrationsof PM10 in urban agglomerations of morethan 250,000 inhabitants in the EU*compared with WHO guidelines

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PM10 annual mean μg/m3

WHO guidelines for PM10

* BASED ON EEA DATA, 2010

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10

15

20

25

30

35

1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008

PM10

What is ParticulateMatter?Particulate matter (PM) is a complexmixture of various things which aresuspended in the air.

It is made up of nitrates, sulfates, dust andsoot and is easily inhaled by humans,increasing the risk of respiratory andcardiovascular diseases. It also aggravatesrespiratory problems such as asthma andincreases the risk of mortality among youngchildren.

PM can come in different sizes (measuredin diameter). PM10 is for particles 10μm orless and PM2.5 for particles of 2.5μm orless.

In addition, ultra-fine particles (less than0.1μm) are particularly damaging to humanhealth as they have the ability to be inhaledmuch deeper into the lungs.

According to the WHO, there is no thresholdfor PM below which no damage to health isobserved. However, the organisation hasdeveloped standards aiming at achievingthe lowest health damage possible in thecontext of local constraints and publichealth priorities.

The graph on this page demonstrates howwe are still a long way from reaching theserecommendations.

A lot more still needs to be done.

Little progress inreducing particulatematter concentrations

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In most European cities, roadtransport is the predominantcause of air pollution and it isshown that living and workingnear busy roads substantiallyincreases the total amount ofdiseases attributed to airpollution. While technicalprogress has to be fostered atEU level to create thenecessary framework to cleanthe air, a lot remains to bedone locally to decrease airpollution and to meet the EUair quality standards. The poorreal-life performance of Eurostandards (emissions limitsfor vehicles) in controllingnitrogen dioxide (NO2)emissions in urbanenvironments across Europeclearly shows that technicalprogress is not sufficient toeffectively respond to airquality issues.

12 tips to reduceair pollution inyour cityThere are a variety of transport measuresto improve air pollution that can beimplemented at local level. Thesemeasures can, for example, aim atimproving traffic flows, decrease thenumber of vehicles, increase theattractiveness of sustainable modes oftransport, offer economic incentives forthe use of cleaner cars or alternativemodes of transport, etc. Such measuresare frequently integrated in an overallmobility management scheme developedby local authorities, transport suppliers,user organisations, car-sharing clubs,schools, businesses, etc. The moremeasures and the more partners thereare the greater the benefits to transport,health, and the environment. Theexamples below provide an overview ofwhat has been successful in a number ofEuropean cities and can be used asexamples of what can be achieved inyour city:

Low emission zonesLow Emission Zones (LEZs) are urbanareas or roads where the most pollutingvehicles are restricted from entering. Thismeans that vehicles are banned, or insome cases charged, if they enter theLEZ when they do not comply withcertain emission requirements. Theserequirements can be linked tocompliance with Euro Standards or toother criteria such as the existence of aparticulate filter or a catalytic converter.In Berlin, LEZs have been effective since2008, and their emission standardsrequirements have become stricter in2010. One year after entry into force,Berlin’s emissions of diesel exhaustparticulates had already decreased byone quarter and nitrogen oxide (NOx)emissions had fallen by 14%. In addition,LEZ requirements could be extended tooff-road transport such as rail (diesel railoperations) and inland shipping.

Encourage cyclingand walkingIt is important to ensure that cycling andwalking are both safe and convenientmeans of transport. There are many waysof promoting cycling and the mostimportant measure is to develop cyclepaths and lanes. Where separate pathsand lanes are not possible, traffic calmingmeasures, such as 30km/hr speed limit,can play an important role in cyclingsafety. Extensive bike-parking facilities,especially at train and tram stations andbus stops, and bike-sharing systems arealso an effective way to encourage 'bike-and-ride' travelling. The feeling of safetyis an important factor for the success ofany walking or cycling policy and it canbe achieved by giving cycling training toyoung children as well as training for cardrivers, as has happened in theNetherlands, Germany and Denmark10.

Things your citycan do to counterair pollution

53Addressing ultra-fineparticlesThe current approach onparticulate control is based on PMmass limit values. However, thesevalues may not be adequate to seta limit for the ultra-fine particlessince they are almost weightless.A more appropriate measuringmethod would use the referenceto particulate numberconcentration (PN). The US EPAhas already launched a studyprogramme looking in detail at theeffects of ultra-fine particles andexploring the possibility to regulateparticles based on number ratherthan size11.The European Unionshould follow suit and startpreparation for an appropriate PNlimit value.Benefits from going

down to WHOguidelines forParticulate MatterEU standards are still above theguidelines made by the WHO,both for PM10 and PM2.5. Recentresearch shows that a decrease toWHO’s annual air quality guidelinefor PM2.5 in 25 large cities couldadd up to 22 months of lifeexpectancy for persons 30 yearsof age and savings of €31.5 billionannually.12 There are currently nospecific standards for ultra-fineparticles.


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Land use planningLand use planning measures can also beconsidered to counter air pollution.Because their benefits are long term, landuse and accessibility issues should beworked out in planning strategies rightaway so as not to further delay theirpositive impacts. The integration of airpollution and health considerations inland use planning should becomesystematic: reducing commutingdistances and encouraging cycling andwalking should become priorities. Airquality must be part of a more globalstrategy which aims at achieving cleanand sustainable cities.

Congestion chargesA significant part of air pollution occurswhen cars are stopped in traffic jamsand reducing congestion is therefore akey action against air pollution. Inaddition, congestion pricing will alsocontribute to partly solve parkingproblems in cities. In Stockholm,where a congestion charge has beenimplemented since 2006, a significantdecrease of traffic has been observed(traffic entering inner city dropped by18%). Positive effects include reductionof air pollutants and CO2 emissions,fewer accident and road casualties, anddecrease of exposure to air pollution.Moreover, the congestion tax generatesrevenues, which can be reinvested intothe same locality, thereby increasingwelfare. This makes congestion pricingarguably the most cost-effective measureto be taken locally.

Lower urban speedlimitsIn many European cities lowering urbanspeed limits has been put in place,leading to a significant reduction inemissions. In Stockholm, the majority ofthe roads are now limited to 30km/h andare accompanied by a strongcommunication strategy as well asenforcement measures. Establishinglower speed limits also includes otherbenefits such as making roads lesshazardous and reducing noise, which inturn helps develop other transport modessuch as cycling and walking. While theimpact of low speed measures dependson enforcement and the compliance ofdrivers, its effects are immediate.

Restricting accessto carsRestricting car access to certain areas isuseful for diverting traffic from areaswith poor air quality. The effects on therestricted areas are substantial andimmediate. Restrictions can be seton a permanent basis for specific streets,pedestrian residential areas for example,or temporarily such as in the case ofpollution alerts or during certain timesof day.

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ParkingmanagementRegulating and limiting the number ofavailable parking spaces is an effectivemeans to encouraging use of othermodes of transport in various cities.Paris, Copenhagen and Zurich haverecently modernised their parking policyby decreasing the number of publicparking spaces and by turning freeparking places into paid ones or increaseexisting fees. These measures have theeffect to reduce commuter car traffic. InCopenhagen, new parking spaces werecreated underground for residents whilethe city closed on-road parking spaces,hence improving urban space and urbanenvironment. In addition to its deterrenteffects, parking management can alsoinclude economic incentives, such as inAmsterdam where owners of cleaner carsbenefit from reduced parking fees.

Public procurementReducing the environmental impact ofvehicle traffic can also be achievedthrough green public procurement. InCopenhagen, all vehicles within themunicipal fleet are required to meet lowemission zones’ requirements and from1st January 2011 onwards all passengercars bought by the city of Copenhagenwill need to be either electric or hydrogencars. In Berlin, new diesel cars must havediesel particulate filters, and buses havebeen equipped with diesel particulatefilters for ten years. Provisions on publicprocurement could also apply toconstruction machines that are used inthe framework of a public contract.Similar to Euro standards for vehicles, theDirective 97/68/EC creates emissionscategories for these engines which couldbe used as a basis for selecting the besttechnologies (vehicles retrofitted withparticle filters and NOx abatementtechnologies, etc.).

Car-sharingCar-sharing is used to fill the gap createdwhen public transport, cycling or walkingare inadequate or unavailable. It is amobility service which allows the use ofone vehicle by different users registeredin advance with an operator thatmanages the fleet of vehicles. In Lyon,the car sharing system has been recentlydeveloped and offers low prices forindividuals and companies13.

Improving publictransportMeasures to increase theattractiveness of public transportshould be implemented as a packageincluding aspects of availability,accessibility, reliability, pricing, safety,and comfort. To increase speed andreliability, innovative strategies involvingcoordination of traffic light signals couldbe employed to ease the bus flowsthrough city centres. In Glasgow, GPSsignals relaying the location of buses canbe compared with the actual timetableand if necessary traffic signals can bepre-empted in order to allow buses tocontinue on their journey more quickly.Traffic light detection systems are asimilar strategy currently being trialledin Lyon.

Park and rideschemesEstablishing park and ride schemes canbe efficient in relieving sensitive citycentres but depends on the quality ofpublic transport. Their success relies onthe difference in travel times and costsbetween a car trip and a combined car-public transport trip. In Vienna, parkingfacilities on the outskirts of the city havebeen established and makes it easy tochange from individual car to publictransportation (such as underground,street car or bus).

Promoting electromobilityThe promotion of low-emission vehiclessuch as electric vehicles as areplacement of conventional cars is alsoan important measure to reduce airpollution in city centres. Various actionscan be taken by cities to promote electromobility. It is particularly important forlocal authorities to ensure that chargingpoints for electric vehicles are easilyaccessible. Some cities are also exploringthe possibility to equip their car-sharingsystem with low emissions vehicles.

Not only do these measureshave an impact on airpollution, most of them alsoresult in substantial secondarybenefits such as less hazardousroads, a reduction in CO2emissions, less noise,improved health, anddecreased congestion.


Urban goodstransportUrban freight transport is an importantcontributor to air pollution in cities,which can be addressed via acombination of differentmeasures such as LEZs,congestion charging, deliveryrestriction, etc. In order toimprove freight transport inand around some cities freightoperators have also developedfreight consolidation centreswhere goods are consolidatedbefore being delivered to the target areas.As a result, fewer vehicles are required todeliver the same amount of goods. Lowemission vehicles such as electric vehicles canalso be used to further reduce air pollution.Freight consolidation centres have alreadybeen implemented in the Netherlands and inthe United Kingdom and have shown verypositive results in terms of emission reductionsand safety benefits.Specific problems

of harbours citiesIn a harbour town, for example, it maymake sense to address SOx and NOxemissions from maritime transport inaddition to road transport, since the

port itself and shipping are likely tobe important contributors to air

pollution in the area. Besidesthe use of electric power forships anchored in port,speed reduction strategiesare a very effective solutionto reduce air pollution in

harbour cities. Speedreduction initiatives have

already been launched inCalifornian ports and studies by the

Californian Air Resource Board (CARB)indicate that reducing speed to 12knots 40 nm outside ports could cutPM, NOx, SOx emissions by 31%,36% and 29% respectively.

Other sourcesof air pollutionAlthough transport remains a majorcause of air pollution in urban areasother sources of air pollution needto be addressed simultaneously.According to recent analyses for therevision of the National EmissionCeilings (NEC) Directive, small-scaledomestic combustion (e.g. wood-firedboilers and stoves for domestic heating) isthe biggest source sector for emissions ofPM2.5, responsible for nearly one third ofthe total emissions. Currently, there is no EUlegislation to tackle these sources of airpollution, which stresses the need for localaction. Germany has already establishedemission standards for domesticcombustion installations, and other MemberStates should follow that example.

• Look for cities with similar problemsand their ways of handling them and getinvolved in networking and exchangingideas on good practices.

• Communicate the benefits, cost-effectiveness and positive impacts ofdifferent measures. Stress that they willhelp improve the quality of life in your cityand save money.

• Mobilise the public and emphasise theimportance of community and individualawareness and engagement. Publicinformation and awareness raisingcampaigns on air pollution and how totackle it can be determining factors in theimplementation of measures.

The ultimate goal of these strategies isto bring about a change in the public’sbehaviour away from a reliance on thepersonal car to the support of a lessenvironmentally damaging and moresustainable transport system.

And don’t forget to…

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1 According to a recent study by the European Topic Centre on Airand Climate Change (ETC/ACC) on behalf of the EuropeanEnvironment Agency (EEA), pollution of fine particles is associatedwith more than 455,000 premature deaths every year in the EU’s 27member states.

2 NEC CBA Report 1. Baseline report (May 2007) referring to theyear 2000 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pollutants/cba.htm

3 http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/air/about-air-pollution

4 According to the WHO, some 40 million people in the 115 largestcities in the European Union (EU) are exposed to air exceedingWHO air quality guideline values for at least one pollutant,http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-do/health-topics/environmental-health/air-quality/facts-and-figures

5 Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of theCouncil of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air forEurope, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008L0050:EN:NOT

6 The assessment done by the European Commission is based onconditions laid down in article 22 of the Air Quality Directive.

7 WHO factsheet Air Quality and Health,http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/index.html

8 WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogendioxide and sulfur dioxide - Global update 2005 - Summary of riskassessment, http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf

9 Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of theCouncil of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air forEurope, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008L0050:EN:NOT

10 John Pucher and Ralph Buehler. (2008). Making CyclingIrresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany.Transport Reviews. 28(4): 495–528. This article is free to downloadfrom:"http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/"www.informaworld.com/smpp/

11 http://www.epa.gov/ord/ca/quick-finder/pm-health-particle.htm

12 According to the findings of the project APHEKOM, themonetary health benefits from complying with the WHO guidelineswould total some €31.5 billion annually, including savings on healthexpenditures, absenteeism and intangible costs such as well-being,life expectancy and quality of life.http://www.aphekom.org/web/aphekom.org/home;jsessionid=196F85AD90D285D4755D72CAE82EE617

13 13 http://www.grandlyon.com/Autolib.3533.0.html

World Health Organization, www.euro.who.int

European Environment Agency,http://www.eea.europa.eu

European Commission’s DG Environment,http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/environment/index_en.htm

We gratefully acknowledge the financialcontribution of the European Commission.

Footnotes Additional sources of information

EEB is the environmental voice of Europeancitizens, standing for environmental justice,sustainable development and participatorydemocracy. We want the EU to ensure allpeople a healthy environment and richbiodiversity.

T&E is the principal environmental organisationcampaigning on sustainable transport at the EUlevel in Brussels.

Established in 1990, our primary focus is onEuropean transport and environmental policy butour work in Brussels is supported by 50 memberorganisations working across the EU to promotean environmentally sound approach to transport.

Air Clim is a joint venture between four Swedishenvironmental organizations with the chiefpurpose of promoting awareness of the problemsassociated with air pollution and climate change,and thus, in part as a result of public pressure, tobring about the required reduction in theemissions of air pollutants, including greenhousegases.

clean air brochure

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