clausal backgrounding & pronominal reference – a functionalist approach to c-command catherine...
TRANSCRIPT
Clausal Backgrounding & Pronominal
Reference – A Functionalist
Approach to C-commandCatherine L. Harris & Elizabeth A. Bates
Outline of Lecture
• Functionalists vs. Generativists
• The Pronominal Debate
• Experiment 1 – Coreference Rates
• Experiment 2 – Syntactic Prominence
• Experiment 3 – Extra-sentential Referents
• Experiment 4 – Additional Factors
• Possible Criticism
• Functionalist Claim
Functionalists vs. Generativists
• Autonomy of the grammar and syntax
• Innateness and Universal Grammar
Methodology
• Generativists - Structural rules
• Functionalists - Forms serve communicative functions
• Generativists study the distribution of pronouns and their co-reference possibilities in terms of the structure of the syntactical tree.
• Functionalists will try and explain how the use of pronouns facilitates access to the topic of the discourse and hence, speed the communication process.
Example – Research about Pronouns
Generativist approach for the distribution of pronouns
C-command: a node c-commands a node iff:
• does not dominate and vice versa
• The first branching node dominating a, dominates b
If c-commands then it is not lower in the tree!
Generativist approach for the distribution of pronouns
1. He finished breakfast before John went to school (he ≠ John)
2. After he finished breakfast, John went to school (he = John)
3. She stood up before Susan began to sing (She ≠ Susan)
4. Before she began to sing, Susan stood up (She = Susan)
5. He ate the cake when the smurf was in the box (he ≠ the smurf)
6. When he was in the box, the smurf ate the cake (he = the smurf)
Question: Why in some cases the pronoun can precede it’s co-referent and in other cases it may not?
Generativist approach for the distribution of pronouns
Answer: The syntactical structure is the reason!
Rule: A pronoun cannot C-command the NP that it refers to
S
NP
He
VP
V
cried
PP
Before
John
left
S
PPS
NP
JohnVP
cried
P
BeforeS
he
left
UG RULE
• Pronouns signal reference to a highly accessible discourse entity.
• Full nouns signal reference to a distant or new discourse entity.
Example: “He finished breakfast before John went to school”
Functionalist approach for the distribution of pronouns
Backgrounding
Backgrounding signals anticipation to the following main clause.
Syntactic subordination is the most common strategy for backgrounding.
backgrounding is used to signal that the listener must dedicate more resources for the processing of the main clause.
Pronouns refer ahead under backgrounding
a. Before they were gunned down, the Gibraltar Three were planning to blow up a band
b. Before The Gibraltar Three were gunned down, they were planning to blow up a band
a. While he hadn’t read the Gifford article, Associate Dean of Yale College Martin Griffin said that the best administrators are scholars.
b. While Associate Dean of Yale College Martin Griffin hadn’t read the Gifford article, he said that the best administrators are scholars.
Examples
Functionalist generalization : Coreference is derived from communicative constraints
Are there any backgrounding mechanisms that do not include
subordination?
Who is right?
1. She was sitting with 8000 people in Madison square Garden, when Phyllis Rothestein…
2. He had already shot himself before John quite knew what he was doing.
3. He would have been like a son to us, if my wife and I could have kept Jim away from the influence of his family
4. He was just a little boy when I Knew John
Generativists prediction – UNGRAMMATICAL
Alternative backgrounding mechanism: ASPECT
Experiment 1 – Coreference Rates
Comparing raters’ coreference for the following types of sentences:
• Coreference is better with progressive than with past simple, but is still not as good as subordination.
• Past simple co-reference is 60% (!!)
Discussion
Linking empirically syntactic structures to informational prominence:
• examinees were asked to continue the sentences
Experiment 2 – Syntactic Prominence
Results
DiscussionProgressive aspect serves as a backgrounding function, albeit less strongly than syntactic subordination does.
Experiment 3 – Extra-sentential Referents
Question: Why was there co-reference in experiment 1?Hypothesis: Isolated sentences!Test it – present sentences with a extra-sentential referent:
Discussion
Coreference is higher for subordinate clauses When subordination is present aspect bears little
effect Aspect improved coreference in main clauses The new name enables readers to not co-refer, but
the repeated name provokes a conflict – Aspect permits resolving of the conflict through coreference.
Experiment 4 – Additional Factors
20% permitted co-reference in a main, past simple clause for a new name!
Hypothesis: semantics of ‘when’ clauses enhances backgrounding effects
Discussion
‘After’ yielded less co-reference than ‘when’ Mental-state verb influenced in ‘when’ past
simple passages, not in progressive – maybe aspect is a stronger hint
Conclusion: many factors influence co-reference
General Discussion
Hypothesis: Backgrounding is what allows a pronoun to precede it’s referent and not syntactic subordination
Experiments showed that aspect can allow co-reference but is a weaker cue than subordination.
Aspect is used in isolation & when a repeated name occurs
Multiple factors influence co-reference
Possible Criticism
C-command has many more effects other than co-reference (anaphor pronouns)
‘when clauses’ are not subordinate, but coordinated – the two parts are equal in prominence
Functionalist Claim
Equality of prominence is what triggers the backgrounding reading
Formalists make interpretation dictate the structure instead of vice versa
Explanations for linguistic form should be sought in the informational structure being served by these forms
Language Comrehenders Mentally represent the Shapes of Objects
Rolf A. Zwaan, Robert A. Stanfield,
& Richard H. Yaxley
• He hammered the nail into the wall
• He hammered the nail into the floor
• The ranger saw the eagle in the sky
• The ranger saw the eagle in the nest