citizenship in the world merit badge pamphlet: merit badge ......global partnerships with other...
TRANSCRIPT
-
BOYSCOUTSOFAMERICAMERITBADGESERIES
-
CITIZENSHIPINTHEWORLD
“Enhancingouryouths’competitiveedgethroughmeritbadges”
-
35872ISBN978-0-8395-3260-6©2012BoyScoutsofAmerica2014DigitalVersion
-
Requirements
1.Explainwhatcitizenshipintheworldmeanstoyouandwhatyouthinkittakestobeagoodworldcitizen.
2.ExplainhowonebecomesacitizenintheUnitedStates,andexplaintherights,duties,andobligationsofU.S.citizenship.Discussthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentherights,duties,andobligationsofU.S.citizensandthecitizensoftwoothercountries.
3.Dothefollowing:
a.Pickacurrentworldevent.Inrelationtothiscurrentevent,discusswithyourcounselorhowacountry’snationalinterest,history,anditsrelationshipwithothercountriesmightaffectareassuchasitssecurity,itseconomy,itsvalues,andthehealthofitscitizens.
b.Selectaforeigncountryanddiscusswithyourcounselorhowitsgeography,naturalresources,andclimateinfluenceitseconomyanditsglobalpartnershipswithothercountries.
4.DoTWOofthefollowing:
a.Explaininternationallawandhowitdiffersfromnationallaw.Explaintheroleofinternationallawandhowinternationallawcanbeusedasatoolforconflictresolution.
b.Usingresourcessuchasmajordailynewspapers,theInternet(withyourparent’spermission),andnewsmagazines,observeacurrentissuethatinvolvesinternationaltrade,foreignexchange,balanceofpayments,tariffs,andfreetrade.Explainwhatyouhavelearned.Includeinyourdiscussionanexplanationofwhycountriesmustcooperateinorderforworldtradeandglobalcompetitiontothrive.
c.SelectTWOofthefollowingorganizationsanddescribetheirroleintheworld.
(1)TheUnitedNations
-
(2)TheWorldCourt
(3)WorldOrganizationoftheScoutMovement
(4)TheWorldHealthOrganization
(5)AmnestyInternational
(6)TheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross
(7)CARE
5.Dothefollowing:
a.Discussthedifferencesbetweenconstitutionalandnonconstitutionalgovernments.
b.Nameatleastfivedifferenttypesofgovernmentscurrentlyinpowerintheworld.
c.Showonaworldmapcountriesthatuseeachofthesefivedifferentformsofgovernment.
6.Dothefollowing:
a.ExplainhowagovernmentisrepresentedabroadandhowtheUnitedStatesgovernmentisaccreditedtointernationalorganizations.
b.Describetherolesofthefollowingintheconductofforeignrelations.
(1)Ambassador
(2)Consul
(3)BureauofInternationalInformationPrograms
(4)AgencyforInternationalDevelopment
(5)UnitedStatesandForeignCommercialService
c.Explainthepurposeofapassportandvisaforinternationaltravel.
7.DoTWOofthefollowing(withyourparent’spermission)andsharewithyourcounselorwhatyouhavelearned:
a.VisitthewebsiteoftheU.S.StateDepartment.Learnmoreaboutanissueyoufindinterestingthatisdiscussedonthiswebsite.
b.Visitthewebsiteofaninternationalnewsorganizationorforeign
-
government,ORexamineaforeignnewspaperavailableatyourlocallibrary,bookstore,ornewsstand.FindanewsstoryaboutahumanrightrealizedintheUnitedStatesthatisnotrecognizedinanothercountry.
c.VisitwithastudentorScoutfromanothercountryanddiscussthetypicalvalues,holidays,ethnicfoods,andtraditionspracticedorenjoyedthere.
d.AttendaworldScoutjamboree.
e.Participateinorattendaninternationaleventinyourarea,suchasanethnicfestival,concert,orplay.
-
Contents
Introduction
WhatIsCitizenship?
ComparativePoliticalSystems
NationalInterest
TheWorldOrderofNations
InternationalTradeandCommerce
UnitedNationsSystem
GlobalIssues,Watchdogs,andAdvocates
InternationalLaw
RepresentationAbroad
ExpandYourOwnBorders
Resources
-
Introduction
Wedon’tliveinourownworld.Wesharetheplanetwithmorethan6billionpeople.Thesepeoplestareatthesamesky,buttheyseeitfromdifferentpositions:coralislands,desertdunes,terracedmountains,rainforests,grasslands,andlandlockedmegacities.Andyetmostofthesepeoplewantthesamethingswewant:goodhealth,personalsecurity,andthefreedomstoworshipasweplease,speakwhatwethink,chooseourlifestyles,andelectourleaders.Wearemorealikethanwearedifferent.TheDeclarationofIndependence
definesthebasicrightsofpeopleintheUnitedStates—andeverywhereelse:“…thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,Liberty,andthepursuitofHappiness.”
-
Wemightsharethesameplanetwiththemorethan6billionpeopleworldwide,butwedon’tsharethesamerights,freedoms,oropportunities.
ThedifferenceisthatmanypeopleoutsidetheUnitedStatesarenotallowedtoexercisetheirnaturalrights.Todaytheworldisconnectedthroughcommunicationsnetworksontheoceanfloor,ontheground,inouterspace,andincyberspace.TheInternetandtelevisionallowpeopleallovertheglobetogetinformationpreviouslyinaccessible.Wecannowseewarsfoughtinrealtime.Wetalkonlineinchatroomsfullofpeoplewhosharespecificinterests,yetliveindifferentcountries.WewatchbreakingnewsandliveperformancesonTV.
BeforeyousurftheInternettolearnmoreabouttheworld,besureyouhaveyourparent’spermission.
Peopletendtointerprettheimpactofinternationaleventsfromtheirownculturalornationalperspective.Butasglobaltradeincreases,asnationsformregionaleconomicandmilitaryalliances,andasactivistspointouthumanrightsabusesandenvironmentaldamage,citizensandgovernmentsworldwidemustrecognizethatwearelivinginterdependently.Theeasyaccesstoinstantinformationmakestheworldasmallerplaceandchallengesourviewsaboutothernations.Whatwedoanddon’tdoaffectstheworld,andtheworldaffectsus.
-
AsyouearntheCitizenshipintheWorldmeritbadge,youwilldiscoverthatyouarealreadyacitizenoftheworld.Howgoodacitizenyouaredependsonyourwillingnesstounderstandandappreciatethevalues,traditions,andconcernsofpeopleinothercountries—inourworld.
-
WhatIsCitizenship?
Citizenshipismembershipinagovernedcommunity.Thismembershipcomeswithasetofprivileges,freedoms,andduties,whichvariesaccordingtothenation’sformofgovernment.Apersonmayacquirecitizenshipindifferentways:
•“Byblood”ifborntoparentswhoarealreadycitizensofanation
•“Bysoil”ifbornwithinthelegalbordersofanation
•Throughnaturalization
•Throughnaturalizationofparents
Acitizenisanativeornaturalizedpersonwhoowesallegiancetoaspecificnationandisentitledtoitsgovernment’sprotection.Asubjectisacitizenruledbyasovereignauthority,suchasamonarch,andisrequiredtoshowloyaltytoboththerulingauthorityandthenation.Ultimately,thequalityofcitizenshipdependsonthebalancebetweenwhata
governmentdoesforthepeopleandwhatitexpectsoftheminreturn.
Naturalizationisthelegalprocessbywhichanalien,orforeign-bornperson,becomesacitizen.
UnitedStatesCitizenshipUndermostformsofgovernment,citizensareobligatedtoobeythelaw,paytaxes,andserveinthearmedforces;thegovernmentisobligatedtoprovidephysicalsafety,publicservices,andprotectionofproperty.IntheUnitedStates,thegovernmentmustprotectotherrightsandfreedomsaswell:
•Righttovote
•Righttoafairtrial
•Righttobeararms
-
•Freedomofreligion
•Freedomofspeech
•Freedomofthepress
TheDeclarationofIndependenceisauniquecontractbetweencitizensandgovernment:“…GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned….”
Inasense,acitizen’sdutiesarebuiltintotheserightsandfreedoms.Therighttoafairtrial,forexample,obligatesU.S.citizenstoserveonjuries.Therighttovoteobligatesthemtobeinformedaboutimportantissuesandthecandidates’positions.Becausethegovernmentruleswiththeconsentofthecitizens,Americansmustunderstandandexercisetheirconstitutionalrights—orrisklosingthem.
IntheUnitedStates,servingonajurywhencalledisacivicduty;itisalsoonewaythattherighttoafreetrialisprotected.
PermanentResidenceU.S.citizensliveinanopensocietywhereitissafetothinkoutloud.Wefreely
-
expressouropinions,exchangeideas,andevendisagreeinpublic.Butinsomenations,peoplearenotallowedtodoso.Moderncommunicationssuchaselectronicmailandglobalbroadcastinghave
advancedthespreadofAmericanpopularculture.Throughadvertising,music,andmoviesshownworldwide,aswellashumanitarianoutreacheffortsandinternationaltrade,peopleinmostcountriesnolongerhavetodependontheirgovernmentforinformationabouttheworldbeyondtheirownborders.NowtheycanfindoutforthemselvesaboutwhatitisliketoliveintheUnitedStates.Peopleemigrate,orleavetheirowncountriestosettleelsewhere,forvarious
reasonsincludingfearofpersecution,thedesiretobereunitedwithfamily,andtheopportunitytobetterthemselveseconomically.U.S.CitizenshipandImmigrationServices,underthedirectionoftheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,issuesimmigrantvisastoqualifiedforeignnationals,oraliens,whowishtobecomelawfulpermanentresidents(LPRs)oftheUnitedStates.
AnimmigrantvisaisanidentificationcardthatallowsanonnativepersontostayintheUnitedStatespermanently.
AsanLPR,animmigrantenjoyscertainrights,includingtherightto
•StayintheUnitedStatesindefinitely.
•Haveajob.
•Sponsorcertainfamilymembersforimmigration.
AnLPRmustpaytaxesbutmaynotvote.Onlycitizenshavethatright.ManypeoplewhochoosetobecomeU.S.citizenswanttofullyparticipateinAmericansociety,electgovernmentleaders,andhaveavoiceindomesticandforeignpolicies.
-
ToapplyforU.S.residency,animmigrantmustcompletetheI–485form,ApplicationtoRegisterPermanentResidenceorAdjustStatus,andsubmitmanyrequiredsupportingdocuments.
NaturalizationAnapplicantforcitizenshipmusthaveavalidimmigrantvisa,musthavefulfilledresidencyrequirements,mustbepreparedtodemonstrateanunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage,andmustknowthebasicsoftheUnitedStates’shistoryandhowitsgovernmentworks.Aftersatisfyingtheexamineratthenaturalizationinterviewandpassingthe
Englishandcivicstests,animmigrantmusttaketheoathofallegiance.Theapplicantswearsto
•SupporttheConstitutionandobeythelawsoftheUnitedStates.
•Renounce,orgiveup,anyforeignallegiance.
•BeararmsforthearmedforcesoftheUnitedStatesorperformservicesfortheUnitedStatesgovernmentwhenrequired.
Aftertakingtheoath,theimmigrantreceivesacertificateofnaturalization,whichisproofofU.S.citizenship.ThenheorshemayapplyforaU.S.passport.BecominganofficialU.S.citizenisalonganddifficultprocessrequiringlife-
changingdecisionsandactions.ImmigrantswhodothisknowwhytheywanttoliveintheUnitedStatesandtakenothingforgranted.TheymayknowmoreaboutU.S.governmentandhistorythanpeoplewhosefamilieshavebeencitizensforgenerations.
WorldCitizenshipNationsarelikestand-alonecoloredtiles,eachwithitsowndesign.Eachonehasabeautyallitsown,resultingfromcombinationsofelementsincludingethniccustoms,socialvalues,language,religion,andlegalsystems.Together,nationsformacomplexpattern—aworldmosaic.Eachpersonisnotonlyacitizenofhisorhernation,butalsoacitizenofthe
world.Assuch,weallhavearesponsibilitytorespectculturaldiversityandtherightsofothergovernments.Forthesakeofinternationalsecurity,wemustunderstandanation’srelationshiptoothernations,aswellasitscitizens’relationshiptooneanother.Thenwemustcooperateforthegoodofall.TheUnitedNationsandotherinternationalorganizationstrackinformation
abouthowcountriescarefortheircitizens.Inarichnationwherethewealthisnotconcentratedinthehandsofafew,citizenscanexpecttolivealongand
-
healthylife,geteducated,exerciseequalrightsunderthelaw,andaccessresourcesneededforadecentstandardofliving.Inpoorcountries,citizenstendtodieyoungerduetomalnutrition,
preventablediseases,andcivilwar.Thepeoplehavelittleaccesstogoodhealthcare,safedrinkingwater,education,pavedroads,electricity,andcommunicationwiththeworldbeyondtheirvillages.
Grossdomesticproduct,orGDP,isthemonetaryvalueofallfinalgoods(suchascars,clothing,andhouses)andservices(suchasdoggrooming,concerttickets,anddoctorvisits)producedwithinacountryinaspecificperiodoftime.AlargeGDPperpersongenerallyindicatesahighstandardoflivingandbetterqualityoflife.AlthoughGDPisconsideredthebestmeasureofanation’seconomichealth,itdoesn’taccuratelyreflectthedistributionofincomeamongthecountry’spopulation.
Whenwejudgehowothernationsrespectorviolatevaluessuchasfreedom,equality,justice,privacy,andhumandignity,wemustjudgeourownnationalcharacteraswell.Howwelldowedealwithracism,sexism,andculturalbiasinsideandoutsideourborders?Beingagoodworldcitizenrequiresspeakingoutandtakingactionagainstviolationsofhumanrights.
Mostdemocraticgovernmentsconsidersuffrage(therighttovote)arightofcitizenship.Manythinkthatparticipationinelectionsisacivicresponsibility.Somethinkitisadutyandmakevotingcompulsory,orrequired.Nonvotersmaybepenalizedorfined.Doyouthinkforcingcitizenstovotewillyieldelectionresultsthatreflectthewillofthepeople?
ComparisonofNationsinTermsofEconomicWell-BeingandQualityofLife
-
Source:HumanDevelopmentReport2007,UnitedNations.Basedondatafrom2005.
-
ComparativePoliticalSystems
Asnationsbecomemoreinterdependent,peoplestruggletomakesenseofthechangesandmovementstakingplacethroughouttheworld.Widespreadaccesstoinformationhasraisedawarenessabouttheeffectsoftheglobaleconomy,terrorism,religiousextremism,famines,widespreaddiseases,andthecollapseofgovernments.Educationleadstounderstanding,tolerance,andpeace.
PowertoRuleAgovernmentcomestorulethroughinheritance,revolution,orelection.Whatformagovernmenttakesdependsonwhohassovereignty,orthesupremeauthorityandpowertomake,implement,andenforcelaws,andsettledisputesaboutthoselaws.Thebasicformsofgovernmentare:
•Autocracy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofoneruler:amonarch,dictator,ormilitaryorreligiousleader.
•Oligarchy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofafewpersonsoraminority:asinglepoliticalparty,junta,orself-appointedelite(asagroupofemirs).
•Democracy.Unlimitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofthemajorityofacountry’scitizens.
•Republic.Limitedpowertogovernisinthehandsofelectedrepresentatives.
Atheocracyisagovernmentruledbyoneormorereligiousleaderswhobelievetheyhavedivineauthority.Ajunta(pronouncedHOON-ta)isagroupofpersons—oftenamilitaryleaderbackedbythenation’sarmedforces—whocontrolagovernmentafterseizingpower.AnemiristherulerofanIslamicnation.
Often,peopleinterchangecertaintermssuchasdemocracyandrepublicto
-
describeaspecificformofgovernment,eventhoughthewordshavedifferentmeanings.Democracymeans“powerofthepeople,”or“governmentof,by,andforthepeople.”Generally,itreferstothefactthatthecitizens—nottherulersorleaders—holdthesovereignpower.Democracydependsonmajorityrule.Adirectdemocracyisrulebythemajorityofcitizens,whichonlyworks
onasmallscale.Forexample,eligiblecitizensvoteonlocalissuesinmassmeetingsandthepeople’swillbecomespublicpolicy.Atthenationallevel,however,adirectdemocracyisimpracticalbecauseeveryeligiblevoterwouldhavetheright(andresponsibility)tovoteoneveryissue,fromwideningahighwaytochangingthestructureofanationalhealthcaresystem.Inarepresentativedemocracy,thepeople’swillisexpressedindirectlythroughelectedrepresentatives,withthewillofthemajoritycontrollingpublicpolicy.TheframersoftheU.S.Constitutionwantedtomakesurethatthewillof
themajoritywouldneveroppresstherightsoftheindividualcitizenorminority.Torestraintheexcessesofdemocracy,thefoundingfathersstructuredarepublic—aformofrepresentativegovernmentthatguaranteestheprotectionoftheindividual’sGod-given“unalienablerights”andfreedomsbylimitingthepowerofmajorityrule.AsacitizenandaScout,you“pledgeallegiancetotheflagoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtotherepublicforwhichitstands….”
Usually,powerislimitedbyawrittenconstitution,whichisthefundamentallawofanation.Itdescribesthepurposesofthegovernment,definestherightsofthepeople,explainshowleadersareelectedandhowlongtheycanholdoffice,anddefinesandlimitsthepowersoftheleaders.Incountrieswithconstitutions,boththepeopleandthegovernmentactinaccordancewithauniformsetoflegalprovisions.Somenations,suchastheUnitedKingdom,dependonuncodified
constitutions,whicharebasedonwrittensources(liketheMagnaCarta)aswellaslaws,precedents,andcustoms.Unlikeawrittenconstitution,whichsummarizesthebasiclawinasingledocument,theuncodifiedconstitutionisanunderstandingofhowthegovernmentshouldworkbasedoncertainlegaldocuments,traditions,andlawsupheldovertime.
-
UnitedKingdom
ConstitutionalGovernmentsMostconstitutionalgovernmentsintheworldtodayarerepresentative
-
democracies,suchastheTaiwaneseandEthiopiangovernments.Taiwanhasanelectedpresident,aunicameral(one-house)legislature,andfourmainpoliticalparties.TheFederalDemocraticRepublicofEthiopiahasbeenanindependentnationforatleast2,000years.Itsgovernmentconsistsofanelectedpresident,abicameral(two-house)parliament,andseveralpoliticalparties.Somegovernmentsthatwereoncenonconstitutionalandruledbyabsolutemonarchsarenowconstitutionalmonarchies.IntheUnitedKingdom,forexample,thequeenisprimarilyafigurehead,andtherealpoliticalpowerlieswiththebicameralparliamentandtheprimeminister.
-
ConstitutionalGovernmentsManynationswithconstitutionsarenotnecessarilyconstitutionalgovernments.Evenwhenagovernmentisestablishedanddefinedbyaconstitution,theleaderorleadersmayactasiftheyarenotboundbyit.Forexample,aleadermayusesecretpoliceorapersonalarmytoprofithimself,hisfamily,andhisfriends.Inordertobeconsideredconstitutional,agovernmentmustmeetthreerequirements.Itmustbelimitedinitspower,followahigherlaw,andhaveconstitutionalstability.
LimitedPower.Theconceptoflimitedgovernment,alsocalledtheruleoflaw,holdsthatthegovernmentanditsofficersmaynotexceedthelimitsoftheirpower.Theyaresubjectto—andneverabove—thelaw.Iftheyviolatethelaw,theconstitutionspecifieswaystoremovethemfromoffice.Forexample,theConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesdeclaresthatpresidentswhodonotobeyitslawscanbeimpeachedandremovedfromoffice.
HigherLaw.Inaconstitutionalgovernment,theconstitutionisconsideredthe
-
highestlawoftheland.Ithastwoimportantcharacteristics.
1.Individualrightsareprotectedfrominfringementbythegovernmentandotherpeople.Forexample,citizensareprotectedagainstillegalsearchandseizure.
2.Itprovideslimitationsonpower.Thisisachievedbyseparatingpowersthroughchecksandbalances.
ConstitutionalStability.Theconstitutioncannotbechangedwithouttheconsentofcitizensandwithoutusingwell-knownestablishedamendmentprocedures.
NonconstitutionalGovernmentsEventhoughanationmaycallitselfa“democraticrepublic,”thisdoesnotmeanthattheactualgovernmentinpracticeisconstitutional.ThisisthecasewiththeDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofNorthKorea,whereKimJongIIrulesasaCommunistdictator.FormerpresidentFidelCastrohadasimilarroleformorethan30yearsinCommunistCuba,wheretheonlypoliticalpartyisthePartidoComunistadeCuba(CubanCommunistParty).NonconstitutionalgovernmentsalsoexistinnationssuchasSaudiArabia,whichisrunbyanabsolutemonarchy.
-
NonconstitutionalGovernmentsAnauthoritariangovernment—inwhichtheauthoritytoruleisconcentratedinthehandsofanautocraticleaderoranoligarchy—actsarbitrarily.Neitherconstitutionallyboundnorresponsibletothepeople,thegovernmentruleswithoutrestraintorlimitations.Itremainsincontrolaslongasitpleases,oruntilitisoverthrown.Authoritariangovernmentsarenotalwaysheavy-handed.Incertaincases,a
leadermayruleasabenevolentdictator,actingforthegoodofthepeople.However,anextremeformofauthoritarianismistotalitariangovernment.Thisoppressiveformofrulingpowercontrolseveryaspectoflife.
BigBrotheriswatchingyou.Inhisbook1984,GeorgeOrwellwritesaboutafictionaldictatorshipthatkeptitspeopleunderconstantsurveillance.ThetermBigBrothernowreferstoanyrulerorgovernmentthatinvadestheprivacyofitscitizens.
-
DistributionofPowerInaunitarygovernment,oftencalledacentralgovernment,allthepowersofthegovernmentareheldbyasinglecentralsource,suchasadictator,singlepoliticalpartyorrulinggroup(theCommunistPartyorjunta,forexample),orparliament.Localgovernmentshaveonlythosepowersgiventothembythecentralgovernment.Thosepowersmaybetakenawayatanytime.Aunitarygovernmentisnotalwaysadictatorship.Inaunitarygovernment
suchastheoneintheUnitedKingdom,allthepowersheldbythegovernmentareconcentratedintheparliament,yetthosepowersarelimited.Afederalgovernmentisbasedonthedivisionofpowersbetweenanational
governmentandseverallocalgovernments.Anauthoritysuperiortoboththenationalandlocalgovernments(usuallyawrittenconstitution)describesthepowersdesignatedtoeachlevel.Bothlevelsofgovernmentactdirectlyonthepeopleaccordingtotheirownlaws,officials,andagencies.Neitherlevelofgovernmentactingonitsownmaychangethedivisionofpowers.
YoucanlearnmoreabouttheU.S.governmentbyreadingtheCitizenshipintheCommunityandCitizenshipintheNationmeritbadgepamphlets.
RelationshipBetweenExecutiveandLegislativeBranchesApresidentialgovernmentisbasedontheseparationofpowersbetweentheexecutiveandlegislativebranches.Thebranchesareindependentofeachotherandcoequal.Thechiefexecutive(president)iselectedapartfromthelegislatureforadefinitetermofofficeandhasbroadpowersnotsubjecttothedirectcontrolofthelegislature.TheUnitedStatesinventedthisformofgovernment.Inaparliamentarygovernment,theexecutivechiefandcabinet(the
executivebranch)arethemselvesmembersofthelegislativebranch(parliament).Theleaderofthemajoritypartyinparliamentischosenbythelegislativememberstobetheprimeminister(alsocalledchancellororpremier).Underthissystem,theexecutivebranchissubjecttothedirectcontrolofthelegislativebranch.Variationsoftheserelationshipsarecalledmixed
presidential/parliamentarygovernments.
-
Somegovernmentshavesimilarformsbutactdifferently.IndiaandtheUnitedStatesarebothcalledfederalrepublics.However,India’spresident,theheadofstate,ischosenbyelectedmembersofparliamentandstatelegislativeassemblies.Theprimeministerholdstherealpowerandisaccountabletoparliament.TheU.S.presidentiselectedbythepeople(throughanelectoralcollege)andisnotdirectlyresponsibletothelegislativebranch.BothSaudiArabiaandJapanhavemonarchies,buttheSaudiArabianrulerhasabsolutepowerandisultimatelyresponsibletonoone.Japanhasanemperorandaconstitution.Themonarchisaceremonialheadofstatewithnopoliticalpower.
FormsofGovernment
Othergovernmentshaveaparticularformonpaperbutactdifferently.Theymayclaimtobeademocracybecausecertaindemocraticprocessessuchaselectionsareinplace.Yet,theseelectionsarenotalwaysfreeandfair.ThePeople’sRepublicofChinacallsitselfarepublic,butonlymembersoftheChineseCommunistPartyareallowedtorunforoffice.Infact,thePartyisthegovernment,controllingallmediaandmonitoringcitizens’useoftheInternet.Manygovernmentsaroundtheworldareinastateoftransition.Certain
nationsformerlyruledbyabsolutemon-archsordictatorshavemadeeffortsto
-
becomedemocraciesorrepublics.Somehaveacaretaker,ortemporary,governmentwhilethenationisintheprocessofcreatingaconstitutionandelectingnewleaders.Othersarecollapsingasrivalfactionswagecivilwars.Yourefforts(alongwiththoseofotherScoutsandcitizensoftheworld)to
understandthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsoftheworld’snationswillleadtogreaterglobaltoleranceandwell-being.
-
Asyoulearnaboutdifferentpoliticalsystems,youalsowilllearnhowpeoplevaluetheirgovernmentsandhowgovernmentsvaluetheircitizens.
-
NationalInterest
Agovernmentclassifiesareasofinterestintwoways:publicandnational.Public(domestic)interestsareinternalconcerns—suchaseducation,healthcare,andtaxation—tobeaddressedwithinthecountry’sbordersaccordingtopublicpolicy.National(foreign)interestsrefertothoseissuesthataffectrelationsbeyondacountry’sborders.Thesegoals—suchasmilitaryactions,expansionofinternationaltrade,andhumanitarianefforts—areshapedthroughforeignpolicy.
Anissueofvitalinterestissoimportanttoanation’swell-beingthatitcannotbecompromised.
__________________________
Ablocisagroupofnationsthatacttogetherformilitary,economic,orpoliticalpurposes.
Everynationintheworldactsaccordingtoitsownprincipalinterests.Theconceptofnationalinterestisbasedontheideathatthegovernmentwillprotectitscitizens,property,andboundariesagainstinfringement,ortrespass,byanyothernation.Thekeyareasofnationalinterestarenationalsecurityandsurvival,economicwelfare,andnationalvalues.Nationalsecurityisconsideredanareaofvitalinterest.Defenseofthe
homeland,preservationofterritorialborders,andthehealthandsafetyofthecitizensaresocriticalthatotherareasofnationalinterestaresubordinatetotheseobjectives.Anation’slevelofconcernaboutitsownsecuritydependsonhowitregardsothernations’motives.SouthKoreamaintainsalarge,well-equippedmilitaryforcebecauseitbelievesitsneighbor,NorthKorea,mightattackit.Anation’seconomicwelfareisbasedonthehealthofitseconomy,which
variesaccordingtothenation’sresourcesandhowtheyareproduced,distributed,andconsumed.Theinterestsofonenationareaffectedbyeventsandconditionsinothernationsorregions.Forexample,Cuba’scentralizedeconomyhaslongbeendependentonforeignaidfromtheSovietbloc.Afterthecollapse
-
oftheSovietUnionin1990,Cubaexperiencedaneconomiccrisis.TheCubangovernmentredirecteditsforeignpoliciestoseeknewtradingpartnersandallowforeigninvestmentsinCuba.
Foreignaidisthetransferofmoney,goods,orservicesfromonenationtoanotherforthebenefitofbothnations.Humanitarianassistanceincludesactsofhelp—providingtemporaryshelter,food,medicalsupplies—inresponsetonaturaldisasters,civilwar,andtheoutbreakofadiseaserestrictedtoaspecificregion,suchasthisfooddistributioneffortinBurundi.Image:ICRC/ThierryGassmann
Nationalvaluesarebasedonanation’straditionalbeliefs,culture,religion,andhistoricalexperiences.Everynationhasaninterestinprotectingand
-
promotingitswayoflife.Americaspreadsitsnationalvalues—ablendofdiverseimmigrantvaluesanddemocraticprinciples—throughforeignaidandhumanitarianassistance.
InternationalRelationsTheUnitedStates,likemostotherdemocraticcountries,hasanopensociety.People,money,ideas,andproductsmoveeasilyacrossborderswithlittleinterference.Thatencouragesinternationaltradeandtourism,culturalexchanges,andeducationalopportunities.Internationalterrorists,however,haveexploitedthestrengthsofanopen
society—freedoms,mobility,andtrust—tofurthertheircauses.Physicalbordersarebecomingmeaningless—justlinesonamap.Infact,bordersaredisappearingascomputerhackersattackgovernmentsandmultinationalcompaniesincyberspace,roguenationsthreatentolaunchlong-rangenuclearmissiles,andradicalswagebiologicalwarfarethroughthemail.
Aroguenationisaspecificgovernmentthatactsunpredictablyinpursuitofitsowngoals—tothepointofendangeringcitizensinothercountries.
Today,neitheradvantageousgeographicalpositionnorgreatmilitarystrengthcanensurenationalsecurity.Eventsandconditionswithinandacrossbordersaffectothercountriesandregions,threateningthestabilityandfavorablebalanceofnations.Thesetransnationalproblemscannotberesolvedbyanyonenation,butrequireinternationalcooperation.
•Drugtrafficking
•Famine
•Foreigninvestments
•Humanrightsviolations
•Migrationofcivilwarrefugees
•Naturaldisasters
•Pandemics
•Populationexplosion
-
•Proliferation(spread)ofweaponsofmassdestruction
•Terrorism
•Useofouterspace
Apandemicisadisease—suchasbubonicplagueorHIV/AIDS—prevalentthroughoutalargeregion,country,continent,orthewholeworld.
Nationsthatrecognizetheirdependentandinterdependentrelationshipswithothernationsformgroupscalledalliancesandpledgetosupportoneanotherintimesofconflict.Someformalliancesaroundeconomic,environmental,orhumanitar-ianconcerns.Onenationmaybelongtomanyalliances.Asgovernmentsalterforeignpolicyinresponsetointernationalcrisesor
opportunities,theyoftenbreakawayfrompoliticalfriendsorstrikedealswithformerfoes.Alliesarenotnecessarilyfriendsforlife;theyarefriendsofconvenience.
ForeignPolicyForeignpolicyincludesallthepositionsandactionsanationtakesinitsrelationshipswiththerestoftheworld.Itexiststoprotectandpromotethenationalinterest.Thecontinuityofforeignpoliciesfromyeartoyearreassuresanation’salliesandwinsdomesticsupport.Yetanationmustbecreativeinresponsetothreatsoropportunities.Forexample,aftertheSeptember11,2001,bombingoftheWorldTradeCenterinNewYorkCity,theU.S.governmentcreatedtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity,anewexecutivecabinetposition.
Beforeanationcanconductforeignpolicy,therestoftheworldmustformallyrecognizeit.Ifonenationrecognizesanother,itacknowledgesthelegalexistenceofthatnationandgovernment.Sometimes,becauseofwarorrevolution,agovernmentcollapsesoristakenoverbyoneormorefactions.Onlythegovernmentthattheworldrecognizeshasthelegitimaterighttoconductforeignpolicy.
IntheUnitedStates,thepresident’sformalpronouncementaboutforeignpolicy
-
issuesofcrucialimportanceisoftenreferredtoasadoctrine(asintheMonroeDoctrine).
Self-sufficiency,Independence,andInterdependence.Nationsestablishforeignpolicybasedontheirbeliefsaboutwhethertheycansurviveontheirownorneedthehelpofothernations.Governmentsandpolicymakersuseone(oracombination)ofapproaches.
•Isolationism:Anationturnsinward,refusingtogetinvolvedwiththeaffairsoftherestoftheworld.
•Unilateralism:Anationmakesone-sideddecisions,relyingonitsownresourcesandcapabilitiesinpursuitofforeignpolicyobjectives.
•Bilateralismormultilateralism:Anationcoordinatesdeliberateactionswithtwoormorecountriestoachievecertainobjectives,suchasdisarmament(reductionofweapons).
Goodworldcitizenspayattentiontothepoliticaldebateaboutinternationalchallenges,trytounderstandtheprosandconsofabroadornarrowforeignpolicy,andadvisetheirelectedrepresentativeshowtovoteontheirbehalf.
Nationalinterestisneverstatic.Foreignpolicyshiftsinresponsetochangesondomesticandinternationalfronts.Citizenslivingunderanauthoritariangovernmenthavelittlesayaboutrelationswithothernations.Butinapluralisticsociety,manyraisetheirvoices.Individualswhomakenoefforttoinformthemselvesaboutglobalissuesrisklettingspecialinterestgroupsspeakforthem.
Apluralisticgovernmentembracesculturaldiversityandencouragesgeneralparticipationindecisionmaking.
WhoMakesU.S.ForeignPolicyPresident
•Thecentralfigureinmakingandconductingforeignpolicy
-
•Commander-in-chiefofthearmedforces•AssistedbytheDepartmentofState•WiththeSenate’sadviceandconsent,cannegotiatetreatiesandappointambassadors,consuls,andotherpublicministerstorepresenttheU.S.abroad
DepartmentofState
•OfficialliaisonwithforeignembassiesinWashington,D.C.•Themainsourceofforeign-affairsinformation•ChieflyresponsibleforplanningandimplementingU.S.foreignpolicy•Responsibleforallofficialrelationshipswithgovernmentsofothercountries
•Negotiatestreatiesandagreementswithforeigngovernments•RepresentstheU.S.beforetheUNandotherinternationalorganizations•Ledbythesecretaryofstate,acabinetmemberapprovedbytheSenatetoadvisethepresidentonforeignpolicy
•ThesecretaryofstatedirectstheUSIA,theArmsControlandDisarmamentAgency,theAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,andthePeaceCorps.
NationalSecurityCouncil
•EstablishedbyCongressin1947•Advisespresidentonforeignpolicy•Analyzescomplexissuesofnationalsecurity•Headedbypresidentandthesecretariesofstateanddefense•Mayinviteheadsofotheragencies(suchastheCIAandJointChiefsofStaff)toitsmeetings
•Scopeofdutiesvarieswitheachpresident
Congress
•Givesadviceandconsentontreatiesandambassadorialappointments•Haslegislativecontroloverthebudgetsofforeignaffairsagenciesandactivities
•Makeslawinimmigration,foreigntrade,andinternationalmonetaryarrangements
-
•ProvidesforthecommondefenseandgeneralwelfareoftheU.S.byregulatinginternationalcommerceanddeclaringwar
•Committees,suchastheHouseInternationalRelations,SenateForeignRelations,andArmedServicesandAppropriationscommittees,guideforeignaffairslegislationthroughCongress.
•Overseesthepresident’sconductofforeignpolicybyconductinghearings,investigations,andoverseason-siteinspections
•SomemembersofCongressserveasdelegatestotheUnitedNationsandinternationalconferences.
TheU.S.ForeignService
•ThecorpsofprofessionalemployeesoftheStateDepartment•RepresentstheU.S.inforeigncountriesandtointernationalorganizations
•Generallyreferredtoasdiplomats•Employeesarechosenbycompetitiveexamandpromotedonmerit.•UseswiderangeofskillstoimplementAmericanforeignpolicy:—internationalprotocols—negotiatingskills—specializedprofessionalortechnicalskills
-
TheWorldOrderofNations
Youknowthereisahugedifferencebetweenneedingsomethingandwantingit.It’sthedifferencebetweenpokinginthedirtforacarrottoeatandorderingahotfudgesundaewithacherryontop.It’sthedifferencebetweenjustenough(ornotenough)andplenty,betweensurvivalandprosperity.That’sthekindofdifferencebetweenmostpeoplelivinginBangladeshandthoseintheUnitedStates.Anation’seconomicworldviewhaseverythingtodowithitspositioninthe
worldorder,orhierarchyofworldeconomies.Theseeconomiesareclassifiedaccordingtospecificfactors:standardsofliving,economicproductivityandgrowth,anduseofmoderninformationtechnology.
Thecitizensoffirstworldnationshavemanymorerightsandprivilegesthandothoseoflessdevelopedcountries.
Afirstworldnation,alsocalledanadvancedindustrialcountry(AIC),isamoderncountrywithtop-rateindustrialandtechnologicalcapabilities.Itplaysamajorroleininternationalpoliticsorfinance.Canada,France,Germany,Italy,Japan,theUnitedStates,andtheUnitedKingdomaresomeofthefirstworldnations.
-
ResidentsofruralChina,oneoftheworld’sdeveloping,orsecondworld,nations.
Asecondworldnation,alsocalledamajordevelopingcountry,isan
-
industrialcountrythatisnotasadvancedorasprosperousasafirstworldnation.Thisclassificationisnotusedoftenassomenationsareonthevergeofbecomingfirstworldnations,andothersaremorelikethirdworldcountries.ExamplesofsecondworldnationsincludecountriesthatwerepartoftheformerSovietbloc,China,Mexico,andAlgeria.Athirdworldnation,alsocalledaless-developedcountry,isapoorcountry
wherehighbirthrates,poorhealthcare,andlackofeducationcontributetoalowstandardofliving.Theeconomyisgenerallybasedonacombinationofagriculturalandlow-levelindustrialactivities.ThirdworldnationsincludeNicaragua,Kenya,Ethiopia,India,andIndonesia.Thesecountriesdependonforeignaidfromfirstworldnationstofundprogramsthathelpdevelopandimproveuponeducationandtechnology.
Inthirdworldcountries,thepoorhealthstandardscontributetothelowstandardofliving.
-
Infourthworldcountries,famineandhomelessnessarejusttwooftheseriousday-to-dayconcernsmanypeopleface.
Afourthworldnationisonthebottomoftheeconomichierarchy.Peopleliveinextremepoverty.Theagrarian(agricultural)economyisbasedonsubsistencefarming,whichmeansthatthecropsanddairyproductsprovidetheminimumamountoffoodnecessarytosupportthefarmfamily—withnosurpluslefttotrade.ThefourthworldnationsareBangladeshinAsiaandcountriesinthefaminebeltacrossthemiddleofAfrica.Thirdworldnationsthathavebeenravagedbywar(likeAfghanistanandMozambique)canslipintothiscategory.Peopleallaroundtheworldhavethesamebasicneedsintermsoffood,
shelter,safety,andhealth.Oncetheseneedsaremet,thelifestylesofpeoplearoundtheworldstarttolookalike.Inthefourthworldandinsomethirdworldcountries,peopleusebicyclesandmotorbikestogetaround.Therearefewpavedroads.Asincomeperpersonrises,theconsumerdemandforautomobilesrises.Thatnecessitatestheconstructionofmodernhighways,whichultimatelyleadstothedevelopmentofrailtransportationsystemsandaninfrastructuretosupportthegrowthofmajorurbanareas.
Infrastructureisthesystemofpublicworksthatsupportthepeoplelivinginanarea,suchasatown,region,orcountry.Itincludespublictransportationsystems,waterandsanitation,electricpower,communicationsnetworks,andfinance.
-
Atthepointthatconsumerdemandismoreaboutwantingthanneedingproducts,anationhasachievedalevelofprosperity.Movementuptheladderofdevelopmentdependsonthegovernment’sabilitytoputtherightpolicies,institutions,andinfrastructureinplaceattherighttime.Ifthegovernmentkeepsatightcontroloncurrency,banking,andcommunications,itcreatesabarriertogrowthanditseconomywillstagnate.However,ifthegovernmentisopentoparticipationintheglobaleconomy,thenationcanprosper.
EconomicActivitiesAroundtheWorldAnation’splaceintheworldorderrelatestothekindsofactivitiesthatarethefoundationofitseconomy.Theseeconomicactivitiesareclassifiedintothreesectors.
PrimarySector.ThisfirstlevelofeconomicactivitiesisbasedonextractingrawmaterialsfromEarth’ssurface.Primarysectorindustriesincludeagriculture,forestry,fishing,andmining.Themajorityofpeopleworkinginthirdworldcountriesareinvolvedintheselabor-intensiveactivities.
SecondarySector.Activitiesinthissectorinvolveindustriesthattransformrawmaterialsintofinishedgoods—manufacturingandconstruction.
TertiarySector.Industriesinthissectorproduceintangibles,alsoknownasservices.Theseincludeconsumer-orientedservicessuchasretailtrade,bankingandinvestmentservices,healthcare,communications,transportation,andnonprofitorganizations.Mostoftheeconomicactivitiesinfirstworldcountriesoccurinthetertiarysector.
Intangiblesareproductsthatcannotbeseenortouched.
Ifyoufollowthelifecycleofaproduct,youwillseethatitmovesthroughthesectorsinsequence.Forexample,workersintheprimarysectorcutdowntrees.Inthesecondsector,thetimberisturnedintolumberatamill,andthenusedtobuildhouses.Inthetertiarysector,variousservicesspinofffromthehomeconstructionindustry:realestatepractices,mortgagecompanies,insuranceagencies,furnitureandhomeimprovementstores,aswellaslandscapeand
-
carpetcleaningbusinesses.Anation’seconomyislikeaproduct.Overtimeitmovesthroughthe
sequenceofeconomicactivities.Dependingonitsforeignpolicyandotherfactors,thenationmaydevelopfromasourceofrawmaterialsandmanpowertoaproviderofservices,fromathirdworldcountryintoafirstworldnation.Todaymostcountries’economiesdependonacombinationoftwoormoresectors.
Historycanplayakeyroleinhowcountriesinteractwitheachother.Forexample,onecountrymighthaveadominantreligionthatconflictswithanothercountry’sdominantreligion.SuchisthecasebetweenIsraelandSaudiArabia.Otherhistoricfactorsthatcouldinfluencetherelationshipbetweentwocountriesaretheirculturalbeliefsandclasssystem.
Geography,NaturalResources,andClimateIfyouaskedseveralrealestateagentstonamethetopthreefactorstoconsiderwhenbuyingahouse,theyprobablywouldallsay,“Location.Location.Location.”Theymeanthatplacematters.That’strueforcountries,too.Whereacountryislocatedmakesahuge
differenceinwhetheritwillprosperorstruggle.
WherePeopleSettleAspeoplegaveupthenomadiclifestyleofhuntingandgathering,manysettleddowntofarmalongfertilestripsoflandincoastalareasandonfloodplainsnearrivers.Theyieldsoftheircropsdependedonafavorableclimate.Farmersintemperateclimates(moderatetemperaturesandrainfall)hadabetterchanceofproducingabundantcropsthanfarmersinotherclimateregions.Thatistruetoday,too.Latitude,elevation,oceancurrents,bodiesofwater,mountains,andwindsall
impacttheclimateofdifferentregions.Naturalhazardsandseasonalweatherpatternsaffectpopulationsandeconomiesworldwide.Earthquakes,volcanoes,hurricanes,tornadoes,torrentialrains,anddroughtscausedeaths,environmentaldamage,foodshortages,andevencivilunrest.Astherealestateagentswilltellyou,locationmatters.
NaturalResources
-
Whatisaboveandwhat’sunderthesurfaceofacountrymakeadifferenceinhowwellthepeopletherelive.Nationsdependonenergyandmaterialsextractedfromtheenvironment.Thesenaturalresourcesarethebasicelementsofeconomies.Ifacountryhasabundantandavailableresources,thenitcanusethemtomeetthepopulation’sessentialneedsandtakethesurplustomarketforcash.Naturalresourcesarecategorizedas:
•Inexhaustiblesourcesofenergy—sun,tides,water,wind.Thesearecontinuouslygenerated.Theirproductioncannotbereducedorexhaustedbymismanagement.
•Renewableresources—crops,fisheries,forests,soils.Theseresourcesarerenewed,orregenerated,byeitherenvironmentalprocessesorbiologicalreproduction.Climateandterrain(thephysicalfeaturesoftheland)affecttheirabundanceorscarcity.Althoughtheseresourcescanbereplaced,theyalsocanbedepleted—usedup—ordestroyedbymismanagement.
•Nonrenewableresources—fossilfuels(coal,petroleum,naturalgas),industrialminerals(sand,limestone,salt,sulfur,phosphate),land,metals(ores).Thesearemineralsandcannotbereplenished.
Itispossibletorecyclemetalresources,suchasironandcopper.However,coal,oil,andnaturalgas—whichsupply80percentoftheworld’senergy—arecompletelyconsumedwhenused.Becauseoftheimportanceoftheseresources,nationsformstrategicalliancestouseandprotectthem.Thequalityandquantityofnaturalresourcesareunevenlydistributedaround
theworld.Thosecountrieswithabundantresourcesandthemeanstousethem,liketheUnitedStatesandCanada,havethrived.Mostpoorcountrieshavescarcenaturalresourcesandlackthemeanstousewhattheydohave.
PlacetoPlaceIfacountryintendstotradeorsellitssurplusresources,itmustbeabletogetthemtomarket.Manydevelopingnationsarelocatedinthetropicalregionsoftheworld.Foodssuchasrice,fruits,andvegetablescanbegrownthere,butthedenseforestgrowthandheavyrainfallmakeithardtobuildandmaintainroadsneededtomovetheproductstomarket.Sopeopleinthesecountriesrelyonwatertransportandlivenearthebanksofnavigablerivers.Thosenationsthataremostsuccessfultradingwithothercountrieshavelong
coastlineswithdeepwaterportsandprotectedharbors.YetRussia—despiteitslongcoastline—hasnoice-freeportsinwinter,soithasproblemswithshipping
-
freight.Someofthepoorestcountriesintheworldarelandlocked.(Switzerlandand
Austria,however,havemanagedtobecomefirstworldnationsdespitebeinglandlocked.)Africahas15landlockednations.Withoutdirectaccesstooceans,thesecountrieslackfishingandshippingopportunitiesandareataseriousdisadvantagecomparedtocoastlinecountries.Theydependonbeingallowedtoshiptheirproductsonroadsorriversthatcrossnationalborders.InAfrica,civilwarsandfaminesoccuroftenandrebelsillegallyseizeshipments.Inorderforthesethirdworldnationstodevelopeconomically,theymustfindwaystocooperate.
TakeadvantageofanyopportunityyouhavetospeakwithScoutsfromfarawayplaces.Thisisthemostfascinatingwaytolearnmoreabouttheworld.
Yemen,onthesouthcoastoftheArabianPeninsula,haslargedepositsofnaturalgas,whichitwantstosellworldwide.However,thecostsofgettingthegastomarketarehighbecausethegasislockedinaninlanddesert,withtwomountainrangesseparatingitfromtheRedSeacoast.Ontheotherhand,Yemen’scompetitor—tinyQataronthePersianGulf—
has62timesasmuchnaturalgasbeneaththesea.Thegascanbepumpedout,
-
chilledintoliquefiednaturalgas,andthenpouredintothehullsofrefrigeratedsupertankers.
PopulationsandProblemsPopulationgrowthisnotalocalproblemuniquetoaparticularcountry,butaglobalissuethathastobetackledbyallnations.Itcannotbeaddressedonitsown,butmustbeconsideredintermsofglobalpoverty,healthandeducation,economicdevelopment,andenvironmentaldamage.Thatrequirescoordinatedeffortsintheglobalcommunity.Almostthree-quartersoftheworld’spopulationlivesinthirdworldnations.
Morethan80percentofthepopulationincreaseistakingplaceinless-developedcountries.Populationgrowth(frombirthsandmigrationofrefugees)putspressureonlandresources,resultinginfoodshortagecrises.ThereisalimittoEarth’scarryingcapacity,orabilitytosupporttheworld’s
population.Yetmanypeoplethinkthatbecauseresourceslikeairandwaterareownedincommon,theydonothavetomakespecialeffortstoprotectandconservethoseresources.Morethan200oftheworld’sriverbasinsaresharedbytwoormorecountries.Soonecountry’stoxicwastedumpingmaycontaminatethewaterusedbyothercountriesdownstream.Airpollutioncausedbychemicalspillsandnucleardisasters,suchasthoseinBhopal,India,andChernobyl,Ukraine,affectedhumanlives,trade,agriculture,andindustrythroughouttheworld.
Sustainabledevelopmentiseconomicgrowththatbalancestheneedsofhumanityandthebenefitsofindustrializationwithenvironmentalcare.Managingnaturalresourcesanddiscouragingthewasteofnonrenewableresourceshelpsensurethehealthoftheplanetforfuturegenerations.
Themainwaytoachievesustainabledevelopmentisthroughresourcemanagement.Thisapproachinvolvesdecisionsaboutwhichnaturalresourcesshould—andshouldnot—bedeveloped,howmuchandinwhatwaytodevelopthem,andforwhom.Thesedecisionsareinfluencedbyeconomic,political,andculturalconcerns.
StrikinganEcologicalBalancePharmaceuticalcompanieshaverealizedthatrainforestsmayholdthecure
-
forcertaindiseases.Inordertogainaccesstothemicrobes,insects,andplants,somecompaniesareagreeingintradenegotiationstofinancetheeffortsofconservationgroupsthatprotectthebiodiversityofthetropicalecosystems.
Thegrowthoftheworld’spopulationandthehealthoftheworld’senvironmentaffectusall.Nonationcanaffordtoignoreproblemsbeyonditsborders.Thedepletionortightcontrolofnaturalresourcescallsforcooperativeeffortstomanagetheseresourcesresponsiblyandfindnewsourcesofenergy.Globalpollutionrequirescollectiveenvironmentalprotectionmeasures.Askyourselfhowyoucancontributetothewelfareoftheplanetanditspeople.Theworldwillfeellikeamuchsmallerplace.
-
InternationalTradeandCommerce
Regardlessofhowanationmightchoosetoisolateitselffromworldevents,itisnotentirelyself-sufficient.Nonation’secon-omycanproduceallthegoodsandservicesthatitscitizensdemand,soitmustexchangeresourcesandproductswithothercountries.Thisexchangeamongnationsiscalledbyvariousterms:internationaltrade,globaltrade,foreigntrade,andinternationalcommerce.
Theconceptoftradereferstothebusinessofbuyingandsellingproductsorbartering(exchangingoneitemforanother).Peopletradeface-to-faceatgaragesales,roadsidevegetablestands,intouristspots,andmanyotherplaces.Commerceisorganizedtradeonalargescaleandusuallyinvolvestransportingproductsfromplacetoplace.Allnationscanbenefitfromtradingwithoneanother,butmanyfactors
affecthowthegainswillbedistributedintheinternationalmarketplace.Acountry’sopennesstointernationaltradedependsonitspoliticalandeconomicsystems.
EconomicSystemsandIdeologiesEverynationmustmakedecisionsaboutwhatgoodstoproduce,inwhatquantity,howtomaketheproducts,whattocharge,andwheretodistributethem.Productionmaybeforsubsistenceorforexchange.Itmaybeorganizedforwelfareorforprofits.Differenteconomicsystemsaddresstheseissuesindifferentways—accordingtogovernment’sinvolvement.
CapitalismCapitalismisamarket-basedeconomicsystem,whichmeansthatthedecisionsmentionedabovearemadeinthemarketplacethroughthelawofsupplyanddemand.Thissystem,alsocalledafreeenterprise,privateenterprise,orfree-marketeconomy,hasthefollowingcharacteristics:
•Privateorcorporateownership
•Investmentsdeterminedbyprivatedecisioninsteadofbystatecontrol
-
•Individualinitiative
•Profit
•Competition
Thelawofsupplyanddemandstatesthatthepriceofanyproduct(orservice)adjuststobringthesupplyanddemandforthatproductintobalance.Whenthesupplyofaparticulargoodorserviceisplentiful,thesellertendstodropthepriceinordertocompete.Whenthesupplybecomesscarceranddemandishigh(manybuyerswanttheproductorservice),thesellertendstoraisetheprice.Ifdemanddrops(fewerbuyerswanttheproduct),thesellerlowerstheprice.
Inafreeenterprisesystem,theentrepreneurdrivestheeconomy.Anyindividualhastherighttostartandrunhisorherownbusiness,aswellastherighttocloseit.Becausetheentrepreneuristheonewhoorganizes,manages,invests,andtakesthefinancialrisksofthebusiness,thatpersonalsoisentitledtobenefitfromanyprofits.Competitionisakeyfeatureofthefreeenterprisesystem.Whenanumberof
companiesofferthesameproductorservice,theyhavetocompeteforcustomers.Theconsumerwantstobuytheproductwiththebestqualityandlowestprice.Ifcompanieswantmoresales,theyhavetokeepqualityhighandpriceslow.Inordertodoboth,companieshavetofindthemostefficientwaytoproducetheproductsorservicessothattheycanstillrealizeprofits.Capitalismletsconsumers,entrepreneurs,andworkersmakefreechoices.
Buyerschoosewhatproductstheywanttobuyandwhichservicestheywanttouse.Entrepreneurschoosewhattypeofbusinesstheywishtoown,andworkerschoosetostay,switch,orquitjobs.ThebasisoftheU.S.economyisthefreemarket,butthegovernmentdoes
regulatecertaineconomicactivitiesinordertoprotectthepublic.Purefoodanddruglaws,antipollutionstandards,andsubsidies(governmentpayments)tofarmerstogrowparticularcropsareexamplesofsuchregulations.Thegovernmentalsopromotesprivateenterprisebybuildinganinfrastructuretosupportbusinesses,grantingmoneyforscientificresearch,anddevelopingforeignmarkets.Thiseconomicsystem,inwhichtheprivatesector(individualsandcompanies)producesgoodsandservicesandthepublicsector(government)regulatesandpromotesbusiness,iscalledamixedeconomy.IntheUnitedStates,thegovernmentactuallyownsandoperatessomeofthe
-
servicesthatcouldbeprovidedbytheprivatesector.Forexample,Amtrak(thepassengertrainservice)andMedicare(thefederalhealthcareinsuranceprogram),arerunbythegovernment.
TheU.S.andForeignCommercialServiceTheU.S.andForeignCommercialService,intheDepartmentofCommerce,focusesonpromotingtheexportofgoodsandservicesfromtheUnitedStates,particularlybysmall-andmedium-sizedbusinesses,andontheprotectionofU.S.businessinterestsabroad.TheCommercialServiceassistsAmericanbusinessesbynegotiatingfavorabletradingtermsanddevelopingnewmarketsabroad.Thesebusinessesandmultinationalcorporationsspreadcapitalismthroughouttheworld.
SocialismSocialismisaneconomicandpoliticalsystembasedontheideathatallcitizensshouldbeeconomicallyandpoliticallyequal.UnliketheUnitedStates,wherecitizensareallequalunderthelawbutunequalintermsofpersonalwealth,socialistnationstrytodistributewealthequallyandfairlyamongallcitizens.Theyaccomplishthisthroughcollective(public)ownershipoftheprincipalmeansofproducinganddistributinggoodsandservicesandcentralizedplanning.Understrictsocialism,thegovernmentownsandoperatesallbusinessesand
controlsallaspectsofsocialwelfareandplanning.Inmanysocialistcountries,thegovernmentcontrolsthelargeindustriesthataffectallcitizens,suchastransportation,utilities,andcommunications.Inothersocialistsocieties,thegovernmentmayallowindividualstoowncertainbusinesses,yetitmaintainstightcontrol.
Nationalizationisthegovernment’sacquisitionof—orassumptionofcontrolover—privatelyownedbusinesses.Aseconomiesbasedonsocialismorcommunismtrytomakethetransitiontoafree-marketeconomy,theygothroughprivatization,orthereturnofnationalizedbusinessestoprivateownership.
Socialismattemptstoguaranteethepublicwelfarebyprovidingsocialservicesforallcitizensatlittleornocosttotheusers.Theseservicescaninclude
-
employment,housing,andhealthcare.Countriesthatprovidetheseextensiveservicesareoftencalledwelfarestates.However,theseserviceshavetobefundedthroughtaxes,whichmayamounttoasmuchas50or60percentofaperson’stotalincome.Governmentbureaucratsmakeallthedecisionsabouthowasocialist
economywilldevelopovertime.Theydetermineproductiongoalsanddirectinvestmentsintospecificindustries.Thistypeofeconomy—inwhichthegovernmentcontrolsthefactorsofproductionanddistribution—iscalledacentrallyplannedorcommandeconomy.Manycountries—suchasSwedenandGreatBritain—aredemocraticsocialist
nations.Theycombineafreemarketeconomywithsocialism.These,likemostmoderneconomies,aremixedeconomies.Thesystemsofcapitalismandsocialismhaveprosandcons.Capitalism
encouragestheindividualtoassumerisks,takeadvantageofnewtechnologies,anddecidehowtousepersonalincome.However,manypeoplestilllackthemeanstoaccessserviceslikegoodhealthcare.Undersocialism,mostcitizenshavetheirbasicneedsmetandalsohavesomeinfluencewheretheywork.Yet,withthehightaxesontheirearnings,theyhavelittlediscretionaryincomeandcanmakefewdecisionsabouthowtospendtheirmoney.Criticsofsocialismarguethatwithsomanypublicservicesprovided,theindividualhaslittleincentivetoworkhard.
Discretionaryincomeisthemoneyavailableafterbasicneedshavebeenmet.
__________________________
ThewordcommunismcomesfromtheLatincommunis,whichmeans“common,belongingtoall.”
CommunismInthemid-1800s,KarlMarxdevelopedasocial,political,andeconomictheoryinreactiontocapitalism.Hebelievedthatthroughouthistorysocialclasseshavestruggledforcontroloflaborandproduction.Hethoughtthatbusinessownersoppressedtheworkersandpredictedthatthelaborers(masses)wouldrevoltandoverthrowthecapitalists.Afteratransitionalphaseunderauthoritariancontrol,afreeclasslesssocietywouldemergeandthe“peopleincommon”wouldownall
-
theproperty.MarxandFriedrichEngelsdefinedtheconceptsofthismultifacetedtheoryinTheCommunistManifesto.KarlMarxiscalledthefatherofmoderncommunism.Manyofhisfollowers
believedthatsocialism(collectiveownership),anearlystageofcommunism,couldbeachievedpeacefullythroughdemocraticprocesses,butMarxcalledfora“violentandbloodyrevolution,”ifnecessary.ThosewhoagreedwithMarxbecameknownascommunists.In1917,acommunistrevolutioninRussialedtothecreationoftheSoviet
UnionandthentothespreadofcommunisminEasternEuropeandChinaafterWorldWarII.Inthelate1980s,communismcollapsedinEasternEuropeandtheSovietUnionaspeopleralliedforgreaterfreedomofthoughtandeconomicopportunity.Today,CubaandNorthKoreaaretwoofthefewremainingcommunist
nations.AlthoughtheCommunistPartyistheonlypoliticalpartyinVietnamandthePeople’sRepublicofChina,thesecentrallyplannedeconomiesareintroducingelementsofthefreemarket.Developingcountrieswithnoexperienceinbuildinglargeindustriesand
infrastructuretendtorelyoncentrallyplannedeconomies.However,governmentsfocusedoninvestinginafewindustriesorproducing
specificgoodsmayneglecttheproductionoffoodorcertainconsumergoods.Atthatpoint,thecitizensmaybecomeresentfulandunruly.Politicalinstabilityinvitesauthoritariancontrol.Inordertoattractforeigninvestment,countriesmustcreateapredictable
environmentthatreassuresentrepreneursandforeigngovernments.Agoodinvestmentclimateoffersaccesstomarkets,stablegovernment,andtransparency.Developingnationsunderauthoritariancontrolarenottransparent,soinvestorsarereluctanttosinkcapitalintoprojectsthatcouldbenationalized.
Transparencyisthequalityofbeingabletoseethroughpublicandforeignpoliciesandgovernmentalactionstodetectcorruption.Atransparentsocietyisanopensociety,whichallowsaccesstoinformation.
ScarcityandSurplusNomatterwhattypeofeconomicsystemanationhas,itdependsoncertain
-
resourcestoproducegoodsandservices.Herearethebasicresources,calledfactorsofproduction:
•Naturalresources(renewableandnonrenewableresourcesproducedbynature)
•Humancapital(knowledgeandskillsthatworkersacquirethrougheducation,training,andexperience)
•Physicalcapital(stockofequipmentandstructuresusedtoproducegoodsandservices,includingmoney)
•Technicalknowledge(society’sunderstandingofthebestwaytoproducegoodsandservices)
Differentcountrieshavedifferentamountsoftheseresources,sotheyusethemdifferently.Singaporehasfewnaturalresourcesbutmuchhumancapital,soitspecializesinmanufacturinggoods(suchascomputerandofficeequipment)thatrequirealargelaborforce.
WhattoImportorExport?Todeterminewhichgoodsandservicestospecializein,mostnationsconcentrateonproducingwhattheycanmosteasilyandcheaplytransporttoothermarkets.IftheUnitedStatesproducesmorewheatthanitcanuse(asurplus)andJapanproducesmoreelectroniccomponentsthanitcanuse,thentheUnitedStatescanexportitssurpluswheattoJapanandimportJapan’ssurpluscomponents.Throughspecializationandtrade,thetwocountriescangetmoreofbothproducts.
Exportsaregoodsproduceddomesticallyandsoldtoforeignmarkets.Importsaregoodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically.
Onefactoranationconsiderswhendecidingwhethertoexportorimportaproductinthefreemarketisthedomesticpricecomparedtotheworldpriceforthesameproduct.Forexample,ifthedomesticpriceforbroccoliis$1.25perpoundandtheworldpriceis$1.79,thenthenationcouldgain54centsperpoundbyexportingbroccoli.If,ontheotherhand,thedomesticpriceforbroccoliis$1.79perpoundandtheworldpriceis$1.25,thenthenationwouldimportbroccoli.
-
Thedomesticpriceofaproductorservicenottradedintheinternationalmarketisthepriceconsumerspayathome.Theworldpriceisthepricenationsarepayingintheworldmarketforthatsameproduct.
Whenacountryallowsfreetradeandexportsaproduct,thedomesticproducersofthatproductarebetteroffbecausetheyreceivethehigherworldprice.However,theconsumersofthegoodareworseoffbecausetheynowhavetopaythehigherworldprice.Whenacountryimportsagood,domesticconsumersofthatgoodarebetteroffbecausetheynowpaythelowerworldprice,butdomesticproducersofthegoodareworseoffbecausetheyhavetodropthedomesticpriceoftheirgoodtocompetewiththeworldprice.Eventhoughtradedoesn’tmakeeveryonebetteroffatthesametime,itdoesraiseanation’sstandardofliving.
FreeTrade,Barriers,andEconomicAlliancesAttimes,however,whendomesticproducersarefeelingthenegativeeffectsofimportinggoods,theywilloftenpressurethegovernmenttoprotectthem.Ifthedomesticbroccoliproducersdescribedearlierwantedtocontinuegrowingbroccoliinsteadofswitchingtoanothercrop,theymightaskthegovernmenttolevyatariffonbroccoliimports.Thetaxraisesthepriceofimportedbroccoliabovetheworldpricebytheamountofthetariff.Nowdomesticproducerscansellbroccoliatapriceequaltotheworldpriceplusthetariffandcompetewithforeignproducers.Thistariffreducesthequantityofimportsandgeneratesrevenue(incomefromthetax)forthegovernment.SomeU.S.industriescomplainthatAmericaisfloodedwithlow-costgoods
fromforeignmarkets.Domesticautomobileandclothingmanufacturers,forexample,saythecostoflaborissocheapinthirdworldcountriesthattheycannotcompete.
Whenagovernmentleviesatariff,itimposesatax(orduty)ongoodsproducedabroadandsolddomestically.
Manyindustriestrytocutcostsbyoutsourcing,orsubcontractingjobsto
-
foreigncompanies.WorkersintheUnitedStatesandotherfirstworldnationsworryaboutlosingtheirjobstoworkersinforeigncountrieswherelaborcostsarecheaper.
ProsandConsofFreeTrade
-
Economiesofscalemeansthatovertimetheaveragecostofproducingagood
-
decreasesasthequantityofthegoodproducedincreases.
Theseindustrieslobby(trytoinfluence)thegovernmenttoprotecttheirbusinessesbyimposingquotas,whicharelimitsontheamountofspecificitemsthatcanbeimported.Tariffsandquotasarecalledtradebarriersbecausetheyblockfreetrade.
Manypeopledisagreeaboutwhethertheeconomybenefitsfromeffortstoprotectindustriesandjobsbyrestrictingtrade.
InternationalTradeAgreementsandEconomicAlliancesInternationaltradeagreementsaretreatiestodevelopandpromotetradeamongnations.Nationsoftenagreetobuyspecificproductsfromeachother.Thesetreatiesprovidetheparticipatingcountrieswithspecialtreatmentsuchaseasingoreliminatingtradebarriers.OneofthemostimportantinternationaltradeagreementsistheGeneral
AgreementonTariffsandTrade,whichistheonlymultilateraltreatythatestablishesagreed-uponrulesforworldtrade.Accordingtoaprovisioncalledthemostfavorednationclause,twopartiesthathavesignedaGATTagreementwilloffereachotherthesameadvantagesthattheyhaveofferedto(orplantooffer)thirdparties.Theseadvantagesusuallyapplytotariffs.TodaytheWorldTradeOrganizationoverseescompliancewiththoserules.Morethan144nationsbelongtotheWTO.Itspurposeistoliberalizeinternationaltradebyreducingtariffsandsubsidiesandabolishingquotasoncertainproducts.Oftennationstrytostrengthentheirowneconomiesbyformingaregional
alliancewithothereconomies.Theyintegratetheirmarketsby:
•Reducingbarrierstofreetradeamongcertaincountries
•Creatingcommontradebarrierstooutsidenations
•Coordinatingpoliciesabouttaxesandspecificbusinessactivities
Theseregionaltradeblocstaketheformsoffreetradeareasandeconomicunions.TheNorthAmericanFreeTradeActisatradeagreementamongMexico,
Canada,andtheUnitedStates.NAFTAremovedtradebarriersinordertopromotethefreemovementofgoodsandservicesacrossborders.In2004,CanadaandMexicoweretheUnitedStates’toptwotradingpartnersforcombinedexportsandimports.
-
TheUnitedStatesextendsmostfavorednationstatustoalmosteveryoneofitstradingpartners.Becausethestatusisnottheexceptionbutthenorm,thetermwaschangedtonormaltraderelationsstatus.
TheEuropeanUnionisaneconomicandmonetaryunionof25membernationsthatshareacommoncurrencycalledtheeuro.TheEUisbecominganincreasinglypowerfulplayerintheworldmarket.Protectionistsarguethatnationshavetogiveupsomemeasureofsovereignty
toparticipateinfreetradeareasandeconomicunionsliketheEuropeanUnion.
BalanceofPaymentsandForeignExchangeNationsarelikebigfamilieswithbudgets.Theyshop,work,buy,andsell.Attheendoftheday,themoneytheyspendshouldequalthemoneytheyearn.Thebalanceoftradeisthedifference—overaperiodoftime—betweenthevalueofacountry’simportsandexports.Ifthevalueofwhatacountryexportsisgreaterthanwhatitimports,thecountryhasatradesurplus.Ifthevalueofitsimportsisgreaterthanthevalueofitsexports,thecountryhasatradedeficit.Anationmustaddseveralotheritemstoitstradebalancetoknowifitreally
hasabalancedbudget:governmentpurchasesabroad,investmentsacrossinternationalborders,andchangesinthevalueofgovernmentholdingsofgoldandforeigncurrencies.Onceanationcalculatesallofitsinternationaltransactionsoveraperiodof
time—includingforeignaidandincomefromtourists—itdeterminesitsbalanceofpayments.Howanationbalancesitsaccountsdependsonforeignpolicies,economicopportunitiesorrisks,andthevalueofitscurrency.
NoReliefInSightCertainthirdworldcountrieshavesuchcrushingdebtstoothernationsthattheyareforcedtotakedrasticactions.Duringaseverefamine,Sudanexportedfoodtopayonitsdebts.InGhana,where50percentofthechildrenaremalnourished,halfofthefarminglandisusedtogrowcocoaforexport.TheInternationalMonetaryFundisaninternationalorganizationthat
encouragesinternationaltradeandforeignexchangeratestability,andoffersbalance-of-paymentsassistancetodebtornations.TheIMFworkswiththe
-
WorldBanktoaddresstheproblemsofthemostheavilyindebteddevelopingcountries.
IfyoutradedyourfriendfivepairsofnewbasketballshoesforfivenewCDs,wouldyoucalliteven?Probablynot.Youmightcalculatethevalueoftheitemstradedandfigureouthowmuchmoneyyourfriendstillowedyou.Nationshandletheirbalanceofpaymentsinasimilarway.However,becausecountriesusedifferentcurrencysystems,theyneedwaystoadjusthowtheypaytheirdebtstoeachother.Theforeignexchangerateisthepriceofonecurrencyintermsofanother.
Exchangeratesareimportantbecausetheyaffecttherelativepriceofdomesticandforeigngoods.Ifacountry’scurrencyappreciates,orrisesinvalue,comparedtoothercurrencies,thenthecountry’sgoodsabroad(exports)becomemoreexpensiveandforeigngoodsinthatcountry(imports)becomecheaper.Whenacountry’scurrencydepreciates,orlosesvalue,comparedtoothercurrencies,thenitsexportsbecomecheaperandimportsbecomemoreexpensive.Touriststravelingabroadhopetheircurrencyisstrongcomparedwiththe
currencyintheforeigncountrybecausemeals,hotels,andsouvenirswillnotcostasmuch.Forexample,ifanAmericanwenttothePhilippines,thistouristwouldfindthatoneU.S.dollarequalsalmost49Philippinespesos.SoahotelroominManilathatcosts1,200Philippinespesospernightwouldcostabout25U.S.dollars.However,anAmericantouristinEuropemightbesurprisedtofindthatthe
U.S.dollarisweakcomparedtotheeuro.AhotelinBrusselsthatcosts63eurospernightwouldcostabout90U.S.dollars.
Eachnation’scurrencyisuniqueandnotinterchangeable.U.S.dollarsarenotthesameasIndianrupeesorJapaneseyen.Norarecurrenciescalledbythesamename.ThepesosofArgentinaaredifferentfromthepesosusedinMexico.ThedinarsofJordan,Kuwait,andBahrainarenotinterchangeable,either.
Theexchangeratedependsonthesupplyanddemandforthecurrencyintheforeignexchangemarket,sotheratechangeseveryday.Theexchangerateonaparticulardayiscalledthespotrate.Therateofexchangebetweentwocurrenciesforaparticulartransactioniscalledthecrossrate.
-
Theforeignexchangemarketisnotaplace,butanorganizedgroupofseveralhundreddealers(mostlycentralbanksliketheFederalReserveBankintheUnitedStates)thatconductelectronictransactionstobuyandsellbankdepositsdenominatedindifferentcurrencies.
Foreigncurrenciescanbeboughtorsoldnowanddeliveredinthefuture.Thesetransactionsaredonebypurchasingabuyorsellcontractforaspecificcurrencyintheforeignexchangemarket.Theexchangerateusediscalledtheforwardrate.Youcanfindforeignexchangeratesinthebusinesssectionofmanycity
newspapers.FinancialpublicationssuchastheWallStreetJournalpublishdailylistingsofthespotratesandforwardratesofmajorworldcurrencies.Countrieswillnotallowtheirexchangeratestodroptoolow.Theymaintaina
specialstockofforeigncurrenciesknownasinternationalreserves.Whenacurrencydecreasestoomuch,anationwillinterveneintheforeignexchangemarketandbuysomeofitsowncurrencywithitsinternationalreservesinordertostabilizetheexchangerate.SincetheUnitedStatesistheworld’sleadingtradingnation,mostcountries
maintaintheirinternationalreservesinU.S.dollars.ManynationsalsoacceptU.S.dollarsaspayment.Inthisway,thedollaroftenfunctionsasaninternationalmonetaryunit.SotheforeignexchangerateofthedollarisimportantnotonlytotheUnitedStates,butalsotothosecountriesthatfundtheirinternationalreserveswithdollars.Theglobaleconomyandinternationaltradelinkallnations.Whathappensin
onecountryhasarippleeffectthroughouttheworld.Politicalproblemsoranaturaldisasterinonecountrycoulddelayshipmentsofrawmaterialstoothercountries—causingproductionslowdowns,whichleadtolayoffsorfiringofemployees.Nowthesecountriesareexportingless(creatingatradedeficit),andunemployedworkersarespendinglessintheirowneconomies,causingthedemandfordomesticproductstodrop.Therippleeffectcontinues.
-
AfloatingmarketinthedevelopingcountryofThailand
Itisimportanttounderstandthebasicconceptsabouttheglobaleconomyandinternationaltradebecauseitleadstoquestionsaboutthepeoplebehindtheproducts.Whyislaborsocheapinthirdworldcountries?Howcanmillionsofpeopleeachliveonlessthan$2aday?Arechildrenworkinginadultjobs?Asyourknowledgeincreases,sodoesyourcompassionforpeoplearoundtheworldandyourappreciationofyourownwayoflife.
-
UnitedNationsheadquarters,NewYorkCity
-
UnitedNationsSystem
TheUnitedNationsisamultinationalorganizationestablishedafterWorldWarIItoensurethatnationswouldworktogethertoavoidwarinthefuture.Itisneitheragovernmentnoranation,soithasnosovereignpowerofitsown.Althoughitcannotdeterminethelegitimacyofanation,itcanacceptcredentialsformembership.AsofOctober2013,U.N.membershipincluded193independentnations.
EachmembernationisamemberoftheGeneralAssemblyandhasonevote.Dependenciesarerepresentedindirectlybytheirrulingcountries.They,likeareasofspecialsovereignty,areinvitedtobeobserversatsessionsoftheGeneralAssemblyandtomaintainpermanentofficesatU.N.headquartersinNewYorkCity.
Adependencyisasubjectterritorythatisnotanessentialpartoftherulingcountry.Forexample,theFalklandIslandsoffthecoastofArgentinaisoneoftheUnitedKingdom’sdependentterritories.Anareaofspecialsovereigntyisageographical/politicalareawhosestatusofsovereigntyisunresolved.TheWestBankandGazaStripintheMiddleEast,forexample,areareasofspecialsovereignty—pendingfinalstatusnegotiationswithIsrael.
GoalsoftheUnitedNationsTheUnitedStateswasthefirstnationin1945toratifytheU.N.charter,whichis—ineffect—thewrittenconstitutionoftheUnitedNations.Accordingtothecharter,thegoalsoftheUnitedNationsaretomaintaininternationalpeaceandthecollectivesecurityandpromotecooperationinsolvinginternationalpolitical,economic,social,cultural,andhumanitarianproblems.Inordertoachieveitsgoals,theUnitedNationsdevelopedkeyobjectivesfor
the21stcentury:
•Promotingthecreationofindependentanddemocraticsocieties
•Protectinghumanrights
•Savingchildrenfromstarvationanddisease
-
•Providingreliefassistancetorefugeesanddisastervictims
•Counteringglobalcrime,drugs,anddisease
•Assistingcountriesdevastatedbywarandthelong-termthreatoflandmines
StructureoftheUnitedNationsTheU.N.charterorganizestheUnitedNationsintosixprincipalorgans:GeneralAssembly,SecurityCouncil,EconomicandSocialCouncil,TrusteeshipCouncil,InternationalCourtofJustice,andSecretariat.ExceptfortheInternationalCourtofJustice(alsoknownastheWorldCourt),
whichislocatedinTheHagueintheNetherlands,theotherorgansoperateoutofU.N.headquarters.ThesemainbodiesworkwithandthroughsubsidiaryU.N.organizationsandspecializedagencies.
-
ThefivepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilareChina,France,RussianFederation,UnitedKingdom,andUnitedStatesofAmerica.Anegativevotefromanyoneofthepermanentmembershasthepowerofaveto.
SpecializedagenciesoftheUnitedNations,suchastheInternationalMonetaryFund,areseparateautonomousorganizations,relatedtotheUnitedNationsbyspecialagreements.
CallforReformMostpeoplethinkoftheUnitedNations’effortsintermsofpeacekeepingandmilitaryconflicts.Historically,however,itsmostvaluablecontributionsareintheareasofinternationallawandthedevelopmentofnations.CitizensofmanynationsbelievethattheUnitedNationsisoutofstepwith
worldchanges.Thebalanceofpowerhasshiftedsince1945.Countriesarenolongerundercolonialcontrol,andalltrustterritoriesarenowself-governingorhavegainedtheirindependence.Somenationsaredemandinganincreaseinthenumberofpermanent
membersintheSecurityCouncil.Others,suchastheUnitedStates,questionhowmuchsovereigntytheyhavetogiveupinordertocooperatewiththeUnitedNations.ThirdworldcountriesformthemajorityofmembersoftheU.N.General
Assembly,wheretheyhaveobjectedtothewideninggapbetweenrichandpoornations.ManyofthesenationsthinktheUnitedNationsistoofinanciallydependentontheUnitedStatesandotherfirstworldcountries.Ifthewealthynationsrefusetopaytheirdues,theycanseverelyhandicaptheUnitedNations’abilitytofulfillitspurpose.
-
Asyoulearnaboutothernations,amapoftheworldwillhelpyouputthingsintoperspective.Themapwillmostlikelybeapoliticaloraphysicalmapandmayincludefeaturessuchasterritorialboundaries.
UnlessthemajorityofcitizensaroundtheworldseetheUnitedNationsasrepresentingtheirinterests—andnotjusttheinterestsofthepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilandtheirallies—thentheywillnottrusttheUnitedNations.Ifthathappens,theUnitedNationswillnotbeabletofunctionanywhere.
The United Nations General Assembly created UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund) in 1946 t o help "save and protect the world's most vulnerable children" at the time,for those who had been devastated by WWII. Today, UNICEF is a member o f the United Nations Development Group, and it focuses on assistance to children and mothers in more than 190 developing countries and territories around the world. Governments and private donations fund UNICEF in its efforts to
provide clean water, nutrition, immunization, and treatment of diseases like malaria and HIV/AIDS. UNICEF provides resources for education, children with disabilities, and emergency relief such as food crisis, countries in conflict, and in places devastated by earthquakes, hurricanes, and other acts of nature. The organization also is an advocate of Fighting child trafficking, prostitution, and labor, and violence against children.
Jonesd14Highlight
-
GlobalIssues,Watchdogs,andAdvocates
Globalissuesareboilinginpotsaroundtheworld.Manyofusdon’tliftthelidsbecausewearenothungry,buttheproblemsstillboil.Becauseitiseasytoignoreissuesthatdon’tseemtoaffectusdirectly—orare
toocomplicatedtobesolvedbyoneperson—wetendtoleavetheworld’sproblemstothepoliticians.However,globalissuessuchasenvironmentaldamage,contaminatedfoodproducts,andinfectiousdiseasesaffectusall.Activistssuchaswatchdogsandadvocateskeeptheseproblemsinfrontof
worldcitizens,policymakers,andintergovernmentalagencies.UnitedNationsorganizationsoftenappointcelebritiesasgoodwillambassadorstobringattentiontoglobalissues.
Awatchdogisapersonwhotriestoguardtheintegrityofanorganizationorcausebywatchingoutforillegalorunethicalconduct.Anadvocatesupportsapersonorissueandpleadsthecaseincourtsoflaworpublicopinion.
HumanRightsIssuesAlthoughtodayhumanrightshaveahigherplaceonforeignpolicyagendas,nationsdisagreeaboutwhichkindofrightsaremostimportant.Infirstworldcountries,particularlyintheWest,thecriticalhumanrightsareindividualfreedoms.Inthirdworldcountries,wheremakingendsmeetisacommonproblem,economicandsocialrightsaremoreimportantthanpoliticalandcivilrights.Childrenhavetherightstosurvival,goodhealth,development,and
protection,yetmillionssufferfrompoverty,malnutrition,preventablediseases,andthetraumaofwar.Manyarerecruitedtoserveassoldiersorforcedtoworkinsweatshops.Warsandpandemicshaveorphanedmillionsofchildrenandforcedsurvivorsintorefugeecampsortofendforthemselves.Inpartsoftheworld,womenarestillregardedasproperty.Theyarenot
-
allowedtofinishschoolandaremarriedoffasgirls.Theirlackofeducationhasadirectimpactonthepopulationexplosionandthepoorhealthoffamilies.Genocide—theexterminationofaracial,ethnic,religious,orpoliticalgroup
—stilloccurs.In1994,extremistscontrollingthegovernmentoftheAfricannationRwandasystematicallykilledahalf-millionpeople.Hownationsdealwiththereportsandfactsofgenocideandotherhuman
rightsabusesdependsonnationalinterestandforeignpolicies.Tragicallyforthevictims,nationsarereluctanttointerveneifthehumanrightsissuesdon’tdirectlythreatenthehigherissuesofnationalsecurityandeconomicinterests.
InternationalHumanRightsandHumanitarianOrganizationsNongovernmentalorganizations,orNGOs,actastheglobalconscience,constantlyremindingtheworld’snationsoftheirhumanandmoralresponsibilities.Theseprivategroups,officiallyorunofficiallylinkedtotheUnitedNations,prodtheUnitedNationstoactionaswellasextenditsinfluence.NGOsusetheInternettoshareinformationwithpeopleallovertheworld,“namingandshaming”corruptindividuals,governments,andgroupsthatcommithumanrightsabuses.Oneofthebest-knowninternationalNGOsisAmnestyInternational.
TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,adoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsin1948,statesthatthe“recognitionoftheinherentdignityandoftheequalandunalienablerightsofallmembersofthehumanfamilyisthefoundationoffreedom,justiceandpeaceintheworld….”Thedeclarationestablishedthestandardforinternationalbehaviorconcerninghumanrights.
AmnestyInternationalAmnestyInternationalisaworldwidemovementdedicatedtoprotectinghumanrightsassetoutintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights.Thisorganizationworkstogainthereleaseofpeoplewhohavebeenimprisonedfortheirpoliticalorreligiousbeliefs,racialorethnicorigin,orsex—providedtheyhavenotusedorencouragedviolence.Itsmemberscampaigntoabolishthedeathpenalty,torture,anddegradingpunishment.Theyadvocatepromptandfairtrialsforallpoliticalprisoners,andtrytoensurethatabusersarebroughtto
-
justiceinaccordancewithinternationallaw.AmnestyInternationalcooperateswithotherinternationalagenciesand
organizations,suchastheUnitedNations,tofurthersharedgoals.Eachyearitpublishesglobalreportsonthestateofhumanrightsinmostnationsoftheworld,includingtheUnitedStates.DespitewinningtheNobelPeacePrizein1977,AmnestyInternationalisconsideredbymanytobeacontroversialorganization.
CooperativeforAmericanReliefEverywhere(CARE)Foundedin1945tohelpWorldWarIIsurvivors,CAREhasevolvedintoaninternationalreliefagencydedicatedtoendingpoverty.Inmorethan60countriesaroundtheworld,CAREprovidesfood,disasteraid,healthcaretraining,self-helpdevelopmentprograms,andeconomicopportunities.Asanindependentorganization,CAREpartnerswithotherhumanitariangroupsandbuildsrelationshipswithgovernmentstoinfluencepolicydecisionsaboutovercomingpoverty.
TheICRCpartnerswiththenationalsocietiessuchastheAmericanRedCrossandJordanianCrescentSocietytobringemergencyrelieftodisastervictims.Here,needyfarmersinAfghanistanreceiveseedandfoodrationsfromtheInternationalRedCross.Image:ICRC/FrancoPagetti
-
InternationalRedCrossTheInternationalRedCrossandRedCrescentMovementistheumbrellaorganizationfortheindividualnationalRedCrossandRedCrescentSocieties,theinternationalfederationofthosesocieties,andtheInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross.Establishedin1863,theInternationalCommitteeoftheRedCrossisaneutral
andindependentorganizationwhosemissionistoprovideprotectionandassistancetovictimsofarmedconflict.TheICRCdirectsandcoordinatesinternationalreliefactivitiesinaccordancewiththeGenevaConventions.Itseffortsincludevisitingprisonersofwar,tracingmissingpersons,andre-establishingcontactbetweenfamilymembersseparatedbywarordisaster.
TheGenevaConventions,amongthemostwidelyratifiedagreementsintheworld,dealwiththeconductofwarfareandthebehaviorofcombatants.Rulesestablishedforthehumanetreatmentofthewounded,sick,andshipwreckedinbattle—aswellasprisonersofwar—arethefoundationofinternationalhumanitarianlaw.TheGenevaConventionshavebeenextendedtoprotectcivilianscaughtupinarmedconflict,suchashostages.
WorldHealthOrganizationTheWorldHealthOrganizationisaspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNations.Itsmainpurposeistocollaboratewithgovernments,healthprofessionals,andinternationalorganizationstoincreasethelevelofhealthofallpeople.WHOhasaglobalstrategytoimproveprimaryhealthcare.WHOalsoworkswithinternationalagenciessuchastheWorldTradeOrganizationandtheWorldBanktoensurethatinternationaltradeagreementsandforeigninvestmentsmaximizehealthbenefitsandminimizehealthriskstopoorandvulnerablepopulations.
-
InSibiti,Congo,aWHOworkeradministersthepoliovaccinetoachild.
-
ThePeacePalaceinTheHague,Netherlands,iswheremeetingsoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeareheld.
-
InternationalLaw
Theworldismadeupofapproximately200nationswithstrongideasaboutsovereigntyandnationalinterests.Asthesecountriesgrowincreasinglyinterdependent,theirrelationshipsarechallengedbyseriousissues,includingthethreatofnuclearwar,terrorism,destructionoftheenvironment,tradeimbalances,famine,anddiseasecontrol.Often,becauseoftheirpolitical,economic,religious,andculturalviews,nationsdonotagreeabouthowtoaddresstheseissues.Byapplyinginternationallawtospecificsituations,countriesmayavoidaconflictthatleadstoaggressionoroutrightwar.
SupremeLawTherearetwolegaltheoriesaboutnationalandinternationallaw.Oneisthemonisttheory,whichproposestheunityofnationalandinternationallaws.Itsuggeststhatinternationallawisnotonlypartofanationallegalsystem,butalsosuperiortonationallaw.Germany’slegalsystemisbasedonthemonisttheory.Theothertheoryisthedualisttheory,whichholdsthatthenationaland
internationallegalsystemsareseparateanddifferent.Accordingtothistheory,internationallawcannotbesupremebecauseitisapartfromthenationallegalsystemandhasnoinfluenceondomesticlaw.
Publicinternationallawconsidersstates(nations)tobelegalentities.Thelawconsistsofalltherules,principles,customs,andagreementsthatthesenationsacceptashavingtheforceoflawintheirrelationswitheachother.Internationallawisappliedasfollows.InternationalConventionsandTreaties.Theseareformalpledgesbetweenoramongnations.Conventionsaregeneralagreementsamongnationsregardingmattersofcommonconcern,suchastheGenevaConventions.Treatiesarewrittencontracts,whichareconsideredlegallybindingonthosenationsthatsignedtheagreements.TheUnitedNationscharterisamultilateraltreatythataddressestheagreements,rights,anddutiesofU.N.members.Executiveagreementsarepactsmadebetweenheadsofstate.
-
InternationalCustoms.Theseareinternationalrulesthathavebeenpracticedsolongthatcourtsregardthemasunwrittenlaws.MostcustomarylawsarebasedonWesterncultureandideas.Thelawsaredifficulttoenforcebecausemanynon-Westernnationsarenotlikelytoagreetothetermsoflawsthatdifferfromtheirowncustoms.
GeneralPrinciplesofLaw.Thesearegeneralprinciplesfoundinthevariouslegalsystemsofmanynations.Oneexampleisanation’srighttodefenditself.TheInternationalCourtofJusticemaybaseitsrulingsongeneralprinciplesoflaw,butitisreluctanttodosobecausemanymembernationsthinktheCourtis“creating”newlawsinsteadofapplyingestablishedlaws.
ComityofNations.Thisisthecourteousandfriendlypracticebetweennationsofmutuallyrecognizingexecutive,legislative,andjudicialacts.Comityallowsonenationtorecognizeanother’slawswhilestillupholdingitsownlaws.Thisformofinternationallawisusedindiplomaticsituations.
Ininternationalterms,anindependentsovereignnationiscalledastateand“country”oftenreferstothegeographicalboundariesofanation.Inthispamphletandingeneralusage,thetermsstate,nation,andcountrymeanthesamething.
InternationalCourtofJusticeTheInternationalCourtofJusticeisthejudicialorganoftheUnitedNations.AllUnitedNationsmembersareautomaticallymembersoftheICJ.Asacivilcourt,itappliestheruleoflawtointernationaldisputesbetweennations.Itsjurisdictionistwofold:settlinginternationaldisputesandgivingadvisoryopinionsonlegalquestions.
Jurisdictionistheauthoritytointerpretandapplythelaw.
OnlynationsmaybepartytocasesbeforetheCourt,butinternationalorganizationscanobtainadvisoryopinions.Infact,theICJwilltryonlythosecasesinwhichbothnationsagreetoacceptthejudgmentoftheCourt.
-
Unlikenationallaw,whichissupportedbyasystemofcourtsandprisons,internationallawisdifficulttoenforce.ThelackofpowertoenforcethelawhandicapstheCourt.However,nationscanenforceinternationallawthrougheconomicsanctionslikeembargoesandthefollowingcoerciveactions.
Anembargoisagovernmentrestrictionorrestraintontradeofaspecificproductorwithaparticularnation.
Retorsion.Alawfulretaliatoryactusedbyanationtopressureanothernationintoreversinganunfriendlyact.Theactionisidenticalorsimilartotheoffense,suchasimposinghightariffsordiscriminatoryduties.
Reprisal.Anactofforceinresponsetoanillegalactionagainstanation.Inmostcircumstances,theretaliatoryactitselfwouldbeillegal.However,asareprisal,itislawful.Forexample,ifacountryrefusestorepayaloan,thelendingnationcouldlegallyseizeitsproperty.
War.Thelastresort.Becausetheconsequencesofwararesoserious,thethreatofwaroftenissufficienttoforceacountrytochangeitsways.
TheSecurityCouncilhastheauthoritytobacktheCourt’sjudgmentsbuthasneverusedit.ManydevelopingcountriesarecriticaloftheInternationalCourtofJusticebecausetheybelievethattheICJisaninstrumenttofurthertheinterestsofthefirstworldnations.
-
AmeetingoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeinTheHague’sPeacePalace
TheInternationalCourtofJusticehashadsuccessindefiningtheprinciplesbywhichdisputesarejudged.Someoftheseprinciplesinvolvedrawinglinestoestablishterritorialsovereignty.Theseprinciplesareappliedindisputesaboutterritorialwatersandfishingrights.TheCourt’sactionsincludejudgmentsonhostage-taking,therightofasylum,
rightsofpassage,economicrights,andnationality.Certainadvisoryopinionsdealwiththestatusofhumanrightsinformersandthethreatoruseofnuclearweapons.
InternationalCriminalCourtThispermanentinternationalcriminalcourtofjusticewilltryindividualsaccusedofgenocide,warcrimes,andcrimesagainsthumanity.Itsgoalsaretopromotetheruleoflawandensurethatthosepeopleresponsibleforthemostseriouscrimesdonotgounpunished.TheICC’sjurisdictioniscomplementarytonationaljurisdictions.
Theprincipleofcomplementaritymeansthatnationshavetheprimarydutyto
-
trythemostseriousinternationalcrimes.TheICC,however,maystepinasalastresortifthenationfailstoactbecauseitslegalsystemhascollapsedorbecauseitisshieldingthepersonfromprosecution.
MistakenIdentityManypeopleconfuseTheHaguewiththeUnitedNations’InternationalCourtofJustice,butTheHagueisactuallyacity.AndtheInternationalCourtofJusticeisjustoneofthemanyinternational,diplomaticinstitutionsthatcallTheHaguehome.LocatedontheeasterncoastoftheNetherlands,nearthenation’scapitalcityofAmsterdam,itistrulyaninternationalcity,with81embassiesand46consulates.Morethanhalfofitsresidentsareactuallyfromothercountries!
LiketheInternationalCourtofJustice,theICCislocatedinTheHague,butthetwocourtsaredifferent.TheICJispartoftheUnitedNationssystem,anditspurposeistotrycivildisputesbetweencountries.TheICCisanindependentcriminalcourtestablishedtoprosecuteindividuals.TheInternationalCriminalCourtdoesnothavethesupportofthewhole
internationalcommunity.Infact,theUnitedStatesdecidednottojoinbecausetheICC’sgeneralrulesofactionconflictwithfundamentalAmericanbeliefsaboutsovereignty,checksandbalances,andnationalindependence.
InternationalCriminalPoliceOrganizationINTERPOListheworld’slargestpoliceorganization.Itmaintainsdatabasesofforensicinformation(suchasDNAandfingerprints)tosharewithnationallawenforcementagenciesandsupportsthemincooperativeeffortstocombatinternationalcrime.Thesecrimesbetweentwoormorecountriesinclude:
•Terrorism
•Financialcrimes(moneylaundering,counterfeiting)
•Traffickinginhumanbeings(smugglingpeopleacrossbordersforprostitution,forcedlabor,removaloforgans)
•Drugtrafficking
•High-techcrimes(computerviruses,identitytheft)
-
•Theftofartwork(lootingofmuseums,forgeries)
•Intellectualpropertycrimes(softwarepiracyandcounterfeitingofclothing,medicine,andCDs)
Internationallawhashadapositiveimpactonagree-mentsandtreatiesconcerningtelecommunications,mail,health,weatherforecasting,andairandseatransport.Ithasnothadasmuchsuccesswithcontroversialissuesthatinfringeonnationalsovereigntysuchashumanrightslegislationandlawsofpeace.Mostnationsobeyinternationallawmostofthetime.Oneofthemainreasons
theapplicationofinternationallawworksisbecausethecountriesrecognizetheneedfororder,stability,andpredictabilityintheirinternationalrelations.Theyknowthatitisinthemutualinterestofallnationstofollowtherules.
-
U.S.Embassy,Moscow,Russia
-
RepresentationAbroad
Anationadvancesitsforeignpolicyobjectivesthroughforeignassistance,officialrepresentation,anddiplomacy.Maintainingapresenceinforeigncountriescommunicatesanation’svaluesandgoalstotheinhabitantsofthosecountries.ParticipationinintergovernmentalorganizationssuchastheUnitedNationsandtheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyensuresthatanation’svoiceisheardontheinternationalstage.Representativesarenotlimitedtopeopleactinginanofficialcapacity.
Citizenstravelingabroadastourists,students,businesspeople,artists,activists,athletes,andhumanitariansare,intheeyesofforeignpeoples,representativesoftheircountries.Howthesecitizensconductthemselvesreflectsontheirnations.
OlympicAthletesNationsallaroundtheworldsponsorathletestorepresenttheircountriesatthesummerandwinterOlympicGames,whicharegovernedbyinternationalagreement.Theseambassador-athletesdemonstratethehighestlevelofphysicalskill,discipline,andsportsmanship.Throughtheirparticipationinfairandhonestcompetition,theathletesshowtheworldhowtobegoodcitizens.Byacknowledgingandrespectingthestrengthsofothersandacceptingdifferences,wecanalllearntocompeteandcooperateininternationalarenas.Despitecenturiesofwars,abuses,andevenscandals,theOlympicflamestillburns.
TheU.S.DepartmentofStateTheStateDepartmentistheleadU.S.foreignaffairsagency,providingdirectadvicetothepresidentthroughthesecretaryofstateandsupportingforeignpolicyprogramsinotherU.S.governmentorganizations.Itdevelops,conducts,andcommunicatesforeignpolicy,andcoordinatesU.S.representationabroadthroughForeignServiceemployeesatourembassiesandconsulatesinforeigncountries.TheBureauofConsularAffairsprotectsandassistsU.S.citizensoverseas.
-
ThewebsitefortheStateDepartmentprovidesinformationaboutforeignpolicyandworldevents,aswellasdescriptionsofeverybureauandoffice,fromCounterterrorismtoOceansandInternationalEnvironmentalandScientificAffairs.
U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopmentTheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopmentisanindependentagencythatreceivesgeneraldirectionandforeignpolicyguidancefromthesecretaryofstate.TheUSAIDmanagesU.S.economicandhumanitarianassistanceprogramstopromotesustainabledevelopmentinmorethan100countries.Theprograms—administeredthroughoverseasmissionsinconjunctionwithU.S.embassies—concentrateonthefollowinginterrelatedareas:
•Improvinghealthandlivingconditions
•Developinghumanabilitiesthrougheducationandtraining
•Promotingeconomicgrowthandagriculturaldevelopment
•Protectingtheenvironment
Theseprogramsadvancedemocraticvalues,encourageinternationalcooperation,andhelptoestablisheconomicconditionsthatcreatemarketsforU.S.goodsandservicesindevelopingcountries.
PublicDiplomacyandPublicAffairsThepublicdiplomacyfunctionsoftheformerUnitedStatesInformationAgency(USIA)havebeenintegratedintotheDepartmentofState.TheBureauofEducationalandCulturalAffairspromotesmutualunderstandingbetweentheUnitedStatesandothercountriesthroughexchangeactivities.Culturalexchangesincreasepeople’sawarenessoftraditionsandaccomplishmentsinart,music,literature,andscience.Educationalexchangesallowstudentstovisitandstudyinforeigncountries.AcademicandprofessionalexchangesincludetheFulbrightExchangeProgramandtheInternationalVisitorsProgram.TheBureauofInternationalInformationProgramsdevelopsstrategic
communicationsfortheU.S.foreignaffairscommunity.Itproduceselectronicandprintpublications,speakerprograms,andresourceservicesthatexplainU.S.policies,society,andvaluesforthemedia,governmentofficials,opinionleaders,andthegeneralpublicinmorethan140countries.
-
AlthoughtheVoiceofAmericaisnowpartofanindependentagency,itbroadcaststelevisionprogramsthroughWorldnetTelevisionandFilmService,whichispartofIIP.Theprograms—producedinEnglishand13foreignlanguages—includeinternationalandregionalnews,publicaffairsreportsthatreflectAmericanlife,anddiscussionsonUnitedStatesforeignanddomesticpolicies.
DiplomaticRelationsUnderinternationallaw,everynationhastherightoflegation—therighttosendandreceivediplomaticrep