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China Building Energy Use 2018Building Energy Research Center of Tsinghua University

China Building Energy Use 2018

Building Energy Research Center of Tsinghua University

03

Foreword

Building a Resource Efficient Society is a strategic decision made by China’s

central government. This approach is relative to the current situation of economic

development and society in our country after in-depth research on politics and

economics and the global history of societal development. Saving energy is an

essential part of this strategy and building sector plays an important role. Therefore,

building energy conservation and building energy efficiency work should be specially

focused on.

Different to prominent programs such as exploring the moon and “Three Gorges

project”, Building Energy Conservation is a social movement closely related to all

societal aspects, including engineering & technology, culture & ideas, lifestyle, social

equity, etc. Its involvement of the whole society is very similar to a new revolution.

For the success of this social movement, it first needs to “know thyself, know thy

adversary”. This means that it is essential to having a clear understanding and

knowledge of both the domestic and international circumstances involving building

energy consumption. It also requires the development of a scientific solution for the

different subsectors. The provision of sound evidence, makes it possible to develop

a reasonable policy strategy that can advance the achievement of the different

specific targets and can harness the current high enthusiasm within society into

tangible outcomes.

Based on the above understanding, we have discovered that building energy

conservation still remains unresolved in our country, and this will undermine progress

in this area. This observation is based on our research and publications that have

Foreword

04 China Building Energy Use 2018

received the attention of relevant authorities. As our research progresses deeper,

we have become aware that such a national-level study on the situation of energy

efficiency could not be done through a single research project. Instead, a long-

term continuous effort and study on the evolving situation is required. This would

enable the strategic objectives to be adjusted and revised through new analyses and

recommendations for those changing circumstances and a long-lasting “revolution”.

Based on this understanding, with support and initiatives from numerous academic

experts and the leaders from relative organizations, we are cooperating with the

different social communities to ensure this long-lasting national level study. Since

2007, we have complied the results of our national level study on building energy

conservation in a yearly book, Annual Report on China Building Energy Efficiency, in

order to inform the whole society over time. Since 2016, an English language version

has been produced. The intention is to bring China’s practices and ideas in this area

to the attention of the world and to contribute to global sustainable development. We

hope readers continue to support us, and jointly work together toward this shared

goal!

05

Acknowledgement

This publication was prepared by the Building Energy Research Center (BERC) of

Tsinghua University. The lead authors were Professor Yi JIANG (lead), Professor Da

YAN (co-lead), Dr Siyue GUO and Dr Shan HU. Other BERC colleagues provided

important contributions, in particular, Professor Qingpeng WEI, Ye LIU, Ye ZHANG,

Jingjing AN and Yang ZHANG. This report was edited and produced by Dr Siyue

GUO.

Shiyan CHANG (Tsinghua University, China), Chiara DDELMASTRO (Politecnico di

Torino, Italy), Bing DONG (University of Texas at San Antonio, US), John DULAC

(International Energy Agency), Tianzhen HONG (Lawrence Berkeley National

Laboratory, US), Chenpeng LI (China National Institute of Standardization, China)

and Jianguo ZHANG (Energy Research Institute of National Development and

Reform Commission, China).

The research of this report was part of the research activities of the International

Energy Agency Energy in Buildings and Communities Program Annex 70: Building

Energy Epidemiology Analysis of real building energy use at scale.

Special thanks go to reviewers and contributors:

AcknowledgementAcknowledgementAcknowledgement


Contents

Executive summary 10

1 Introduction 16

2 China’s buildings energy use 19China's building sector 19

Building energy use in China 23

Outlook of China’s building energy consumption 31

3 Building energy use in public and commercial buildings

(excluding NUH) in China 36Overview 36

Energy consumptions of each building type 40

Perspectives for P&C buildings (excluding NUH) 52

4 Occupancy behaviour and building energy conservation 60

Impact of occupancy behaviour in buildings energy use 60

Occupancy behaviour, technology and policies 64

Annex A Framework 67

Acronyms, abbreviations and units of measure 76

Main references 79

07

List of Tables

List of Figures

Contents

Figure 1 Population and urbanisation growth in China (2001-2016) 19

Figure 2 Nominal GDP per capita and value-added

of service sector in China (2001-2016) 20

Figure 3 China’s total consumption of primary energy

and its composition (2001-2016) 21

Figure 4 China’s total electricity generation

and the net coal consumption rate (2001-2016) 21

Figure 5 New completed buildings in China (2001-2016) 22

Figure 6 China’s existing building stock (2001-2016) 22

Figure 7 Embodied energy consumption for buildings

and infrastructures (2004-2015) 23

Figure 8 China’s buildings sector commercial energy consumption

(2001-2016) 24

Figure 9 China’s buildings sector CO2 emissions (2001-2016) 25

Figure 10 Primary energy consumption indicators

of four China building sub-sectors (2016) 26

Figure 11 NUH energy consumption and intensity (2001-2016) 27

Figure 12 NUH floor area by heat sources (2001-2016) 27

Table 1 China's building primary energy consumption (2016) 25

Table 2 Indoor design parameters of hotels with different star-ratings 43

Table 3 Climate conditions and economic development

of Shanghai and Shenzhen 49

Table 4 Energy use target of P&C buildings (excluding NUH) 53

Table 5 EUIs for non-heating use in public buildings 57

Table 6 The coverage of ETS in buildings sector 58

Table 7 Estimated emission base line for Beijing’s P&C buildings 59


Figure 13 P&C buildings (excluding NUH) energy consumption

and intensity (2001-2016) 28

Figure 14 UR buildings (excluding NUH) energy consumption

and intensity (2001-2016) 29

Figure 15 China’s UR energy consumption (excluding NUH)

by end-use (2001-2016) 29

Figure 16 RR buildings energy consumption and intensity (2001-2016) 30

Figure 17 Buildings sector primary energy use indicators

for selected countries (2014) 31

Figure 18 China’s buildings sector primary energy use in different scenarios 32

Figure 19 Required U-values for Beijing's building envelope in standards 34

Figure 20 P&C buildings floor area and FAPC (2001-2016) 36

Figure 21 Floor area of different types of P&C buildings (2001-2016) 37

Figure 22 China’s P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

commercial energy consumption (2001-2016) 39

Figure 23 China’s P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

CO2 emissions (2001-2016) 39

Figure 24 China’s P&C energy use and emissions intensity (excluding NUH)

(2001-2016) 39

Figure 25 China’s P&C energy consumption (excluding NUH)

by building types (2001-2016) 40

Figure 26 Energy consumption of office buildings (excluding NUH)

(2001-2016) 40

Figure 27 Distribution of office energy use intensity in China and Japan 42

Figure 28 Energy consumption of commercial lodging buildings

(excluding NUH) (2001-2016) 42

Figure 29 Number of hotels with different star-ratings (2001-2016) 43

Figure 30 Energy consumption of mercantile buildings (excluding NUH)

(2001-2016) 44

Figure 31 Energy consumption of educational buildings (excluding NUH)

(2001-2016) 45

09Contents

Figure 32 Personal computer sets in primary and junior secondary schools

(2004-2016) 45

Figure 33 Energy consumption of health care buildings (excluding NUH)

(2001-2016) 46

Figure 34 The bed utilisation ratio and number of visits to health facilities

in China (2002-2016) 47

Figure 35 Energy consumption of other P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

(2001-2016) 48

Figure 36 P&C buildings electricity use intensity by building types

in Shanghai (2013-2017) 50

Figure 37 P&C buildings electricity consumption by end-uses

in Shanghai (2017) 50

Figure 38 P&C buildings monthly electricity consumption in Shanghai (2017) 50

Figure 39 P&C buildings electricity consumption by end-uses

in Shenzhen (2016) 52

Figure 40 P&C buildings monthly electricity consumption in Shenzhen (2016) 52

Figure 41 P&C buildings (excluding NUH) energy consumption

in target scenario 53

Figure 42 Indicators for P&C buildings (excluding NUH) in the Standard 55

Figure 43 Public buildings energy use intensity (2010-2017) 57

Figure 44 The gap of the measured and predicted energy use intensity 60

Figure 45 Measured AC use in a residential building in Beijing 61

Figure 46 Six influencing factors on building energy use 62

Figure 47 Main research activities, key issues to address,

and main outcomes of ANNEX 66 63

Figure 48 Energy-related OB influencing building energy consumption

and comfort 64

Figure 49 Simulated demands under different envelopes and OBs 65

Figure 50 CBEM's boundary of China building energy use 70

Figure 51 Modelling structure of China building energy model 72


The People's Republic of China (hereafter "China") is playing an important role

globally. China’s economy has maintained fast growth with rapid urbanisation and

China’s primary energy consumption has increased from 1.56 billion tonnes of coal

equivalent (tce)A in 2001 to 4.36 billion tce in 2016.

With economic development and living standards increase, China’s building and

construction industry has kept a steady growth. In 2016, China's total floor area was

approximately 58.1 billion square metres (m2), of which urban residential floor area

was 23.1 billion m2, rural residential floor area was 23.3 billion m2 and public and

commercial floor area was 11.7 billion m2. Meanwhile, the increase of floor area of

newly completed buildings has slowed down since 2015, which may lead to different

trends in the building stock in next five years.

Since 2001, both total energy consumption and electricity consumption in China’s

building sector increased significantly. In 2016, the total building commercial energy

consumption was 896 megatonnes of coal equivalent (Mtce), accounting for about

20% of the total primary energy consumptionB. Total biomass energy consumption,

typically in rural China for traditional use for cooking, heating and domestic hot water

(DHW) production, was around 90 Mtce, meaning total energy consumption (including

commercial and biomass energy) was 986 Mtce.

A 1 Mtce = 29.3076 PJ;B In this report, energy use with the unit of Mtce refers to primary energy use unless special noted.

Executive summary

Overall situation of China’s building energy use

11Executive summary

China’s building energy use is categorised by four subsectors based on their own

influencing factors and characteristics:

The northern urban heating (NUH) energy use in 2016 was 191 Mtce, accounting

for 21% of total building commercial energy use. The average heating energy

use per unit of floor area declined by 39% since 2001, from 22.8 kilogrammes of

coal equivalent (kgce) per m2 to 14.0 kgce/m2 in 2016. The main reasons for this

energy intensity decrease include the improvement of building envelopes, a larger

proportion of high efficiency heating sources and higher efficiency of the heating

distribution system.

In 2016, China’s total pubic and commercial (P&C) buildings energy use

(exclulding NUH) was 275 Mtce, including 689.6 Terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity

consumption, accounting for 31% of total building commercial energy use. Increases

in floor area, the share of large-scale buildings and growth in P&C energy intensity

all resulted in a large rise in total P&C buildings energy consumption in the last

decade.

The energy use of urban residential (UR) buildings (excluding NUH) in 2016 was

209 Mtce, accounting for 23% of the total building commercial energy use, including

457.9 TWh of electricity consumption. Despite improvement of energy efficiency,

the energy usage in this sector still increased, driven by several factors including

growing urbanisation, increasing service demand increase and rising appliance

stock.

1) Northern urban heating energy use

2) Public and commercial buildings energy use (excluding NUH)

3) Urban residential buildings energy use (excluding NUH)


In 2016, commercial energy consumption in rural residential (RR) buildings was

221 Mtce, including 223.7 TWh electricity consumption, accounting for 25% of total

building energy use. In addition, rural biomass consumption (mainly straw and wood)

was equivalent to 90 Mtce. The total energy use per household didn’t change much

in the last decade but the proportion of commercial energy doubled.

Based on global comparison and scenario analyses, it could be found that

China’s situation is quite different from other developed economies and China’s

building conservation approach has to be unique. In addition, similar to the the

principal contradiction facing Chinese society, the contradiction of building energy

conservation also changed from improving efficiency and occupant satisfaction for

all buildings into improving indoor environment with proper energy consumption.

This change is also one principle reason of changing policy objective from efficiency

measures into actual energy use optimisation.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

XX

Since 2001, the floor area of P&C buildings increased nearly 2 times and the per

capita index (i.e. P&C floor area per person) increased around 1.5 times. The total

energy consumption increased less than 3 times and energy use intensity (EUI)

about one third. According to their functions, the buildings in this sub-sector can be

divided into six types:

In 2016, the total energy consumption of office buildings was 86 Mtce, accounting for

around 30% of this sub-sector, and the EUI was 64 kWhe/m2 C. The energy system

C kWhe means kilowatt hour equivalent electricity, namely convert all fuel types into electricity according to electricity equivalent approach. More details can be found in ANNEX A.

1) Office buildings

4) Rural residential buildings energy use

Energy use in P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

13

type and operation strategies, that provide comfortable indoor environment for

occupants, play a vital role in determining actual energy use intensity of buildings.

Buildings with centralized systems and mechanical ventilation have much higher

EUI than the buildings with decentralized systems and ventilation using openable

windows. Thus, the choice of serving the indoor environment will be a key factor of

the energy use trend.

The energy use for commercial lodging buildings in 2016 was 18 Mtce, while the energy

use intensity was 116 kWhe/m2. The number of high star-rating hotels increased quickly

in the last decade, which is one of the main reasons of the energy use intensity growth

because of the difference of indoor environment quality requirement.

As the building type with highest growing speed, the energy consumption of

mercantile buildings was 68 Mtce in 2016. The EUI was 100 kWhe/m2. However, in

the last two years, many shops or malls closed, which may change the trends of

energy consumption.

In 2016, the total energy consumption of educational buildings was 27 Mtce and

the energy use intensity was 52 kWhe/m2. The increase of energy consumption

and energy use intensity was resulted from the improvement of indoor thermal

environment and emerging multi-media equipment.

The total energy consumption of health care buildings in 2016 was 17 Mtce and

the EUI was 118 kWhe/m2. Comparing with other building types, a large amount of

3) Mercantile buildings

4) Educational buildings

5) Health care buildings

2) Commercial lodging buildings

Executive summary


the hospital energy use is for its unique function, making the feature and energy

conservation approach of these buildings quite different.

Except for the five types mentioned above, the total energy consumption and energy

use intensity of other P&C buildings also kept increasing in last decades. In the

following years, with the new construction demands, the buildings like transportation

junction, cultural and sports facilities, etc. will increase rapidly, leading to continuous

growth of energy consumption.

According to the energy use cap (BERC, 2017a), the total energy consumption of

P&C buildings (excluding NUH) should be less than 444 Mtce. In order to achieve

the target, the main policy objective should change from technology measures

oriented policy to outcome and total energy consumption oriented policy, the

green design concept and lifestyle should be promoted, as well as the technical

innovation to improve efficiency should be more focused on. In addition, the energy

management plays a big role in energy conservation in this filed. In the past years,

much progress has been made such as releasing the energy consumption standard,

developing energy monitoring platforms, controlling the energy use of public

buildings, and promoting the carbon emissions trading system.


XX

Occupant behaviour plays a big role in building energy consumption and it is one of

the most important reasons of the energy use gaps among countries or households.

In addition, occupant behaviour is not separate from the technologies, or in other

words, occupant behaviour modes and technologies can influence each other

and together further change the building energy use. For policy makers, occupant

behaviour is a new dimension and needs further research.

6) Others

Occupant behaviour in building energy consumption

15

From 2013 to 2018, the International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and

Communities Programme (EBC) Annex 66: Definition and Simulation of Occupant

Behaviour in Buildings conducted research on this topic, with details and outcomes

available in the ANNEX 66 final report.

Executive summary


1 Introduction

China has become the largest energy-consuming and carbon dioxide-emitting

economy in the world. In 2014, the Energy Revolution was called up and

comprehensive efforts will be made to promote energy conservation in all fields in

next decades (Xinhua News Agency, 2014).

The global building sector accounts for over 30% of world final energy consumption

and around 30% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (IEA, 2018 and IEA,

2017a). According to IEA’s research, China is the second-largest building energy

user in the world after the US, representing about 14% of total final energy

consumption in buildings globally in 2014 (IEA, 2017b).

Building energy use accounted for 20% of total primary energy consumption of China

in 2016. From 2001 to 2016, the primary energy consumption in China’s building

sector had more than doubled and electricity consumption increased more than

200%. With rapid urbanisation and economic development, the improvement in living

standards drives an increased expectation of indoor thermal comfort and related

energy consumption. Therefore, building energy conservation work for fast-growing

new construction and increasing demand in the existing building stock became one

of the largest challenges for China’s energy conservation and emissions-reduction

work.

Founded in 2005, the Building Energy Research Center (BERC) of Tsinghua

University has worked continuously on China’s building sector, to comprehensively

analyze the current status, unique features and key issues of China’s building energy

17

use. The aim of BERC’s research is to understand and reveal the experiences and

lessons from global building energy comparisons, and then to recommend future

energy technology and perspectives on China’s building energy conservation work

as well as provide best practice project demonstrations.

Since 2007, BERC has published Annual Report on China Building Energy

Efficiency (hereafter BERC Annual report), flagging this on-going research work

and key data for China’s building sector. Those annual reports (2007-2018) show

key data for China’s building energy use, discuss key issues of technical developing

trends, indicate potential policy and technology perspectives and demonstrate best

practices. As China has become increasingly important to global energy strategy and

climate change, greater attention both nationally and internationally has been paid to

China’s building sector. For the tenth year of its annual publication, BERC therefore

decided to release an English version of the annual report, namely China Building

Energy Use (CBEU). And this report is the third one.

In this report, building energy use (or building energy consumption) refers to the

energy used in the operating phase of civil buildings, including residential buildings,

schools, offices, hotels, transportation buildings, etc. In particular, this means the

supply of building services, including space heating, space cooling, ventilation,

lighting, cooking, domestic hot water, use of appliances and other miscellaneous

equipment in buildings.

This report includes three parts: the first part is on China’s overall building energy

consumption, the second part is a detailed discussion on energy use of one sub-

sector, this year the focus is on commercial and public buildings, and the last part is

on a special topic in China’s building energy conservation sector, which is occupant

behaviour in this report.

Chapter 2 briefly introduces China’s overall building energy conservation situation,

including macro level parameters, building energy use, carbon emissions, detailed

information of the four building categories and the outlook of China’s building

1 Introduction


energy consumption. Chapter 3 introduces the energy consumption in public and

commercial sub sector (excluding NUH), including the development in the last

decades, the detailed situation of different building types and the perspective of

this sub-sector. In Chapter 4, the impact of occupancy behaviour (OB) and the

relationship of OB, technologies as well as policies are discussed.

The data on building energy consumption in this report are mainly based on

the China Building Energy Model (CBEM) built by BERC. More detail on the

methodology and data source of this model are available in ANNEX A.

19

2 China’s buildings energy use

In 2016, the total population of China was 1.38 billion, 0.6% higher than that in 2015.

57.3% of the population, namely 793 million people, lived in urban areas, while the

rate was 37.7% in 2001, as shown in Figure 1 (NBS, 2018). In the following dozen

years, especially from 2021 to 2030, China’s population will enter an essential

transitional period and the total population in 2020 will be 1.42 billion and 1.45 billion

in 2030, while urbanisation rate respectively 60% and 70% (State council, 2017).

The rapid increase of urbanisation is along with China’s fast-growing economy.

From 2001 to 2016, China’s nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita has

increased from 1053 US dollar (USD) to 8116 USD (IMF, 2018). Meanwhile, the

China's building sector

Population, economy and energy consumption

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

0

150

300

450

600

750

900

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Urban population Rural population Urbanisation rate

Population (million) Urbanisation rate

Figure 1 Population and urbanisation growth in China (2001-2016)

Source: NBS (2018).

2 China's buildings energy use


value-added of the service sector increased from 41.2% to 51.6% in these 17 years

(NBS, 2018), as shown in Figure 2. The 13th Five-year Plan (2016-2020) maintains

the objectives of a medium-high rate of growth with a 5-year average annual growth

rate target for GDP planned to be above 6.5% and the value-added of service sector

to be 56% of GDP (Xinhua News Agency, 2016).

China’s primary energy consumption has increased from 1.56 billion tce (using coal

equivalent calculation methodA) in 2001 to 4.36 billion tce in 2016. Coal is the main

fuel type in China, accounting for 62% of the total commercial energy, while that of

natural gas 6.2% and non-fossil fuels 13.3%, as shown in Figure 3 (NBS, 2018). The

total electricity generation was 6129.7 TWh, 28% of which from non-fossil energy,

and the average net coal consumption rate was 0.312 kgce/kWh in 2016, while the

proportion of non-fossil electricity was 20% and the net coal consumption rate 0.385

kgce/kWh in 2001, as shown in Figure 4.

In 2020, the total energy consumption is planned to stay below 5 billion tce, while

the percentage of coal, natural gas and non-fossil fuel is expected to respectively be

58%, 10% and 15% (Xinhua News Agency, 2016 and NEA, 2016). Meanwhile, the

proportion of non-fossil electricity will be 31% and the average net coal consumption

rate under 0.310 kgce/kWh (NDRC & NEA, 2016).

A 　 Detailed explanations can be found in ANNEX A.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

0

1500

3000

4500

6000

7500

9000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Nominal GDP per capita Value-added of the service sector

Nominal GDP per capita (USD/cap) Value-added of the service sector (% of GDP)

Figure 2 Nominal GDP per capita and value-added of service sector in China (2001-2016)

Source: IMF (2018) and NBS (2018).

21

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XX


XX

With economic development and increasing living standards, China’s building

construction industry had a steady growth in the last decades. China’s new

completed civil buildings were around 1.5 billion m2 in 2001, reached 2.9 billion m2

in 2014 and were 2.6 billion m2 in 2016, as shown in Figure 5 (NBS, 2017a). Since

2011, the new completed residential buildings, including urban and rural sectors,

decreased while the new commercial buildings kept increasing till 2014 and

decreased in 2015 and 2016. Among the new buildings built in 2016, about 64% are

residential buildings.

Building stock

0

1

2

3

4

5

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Coal Crude oil Natural gas Primary electricity and other energy

Primary energy consumption (billion tce)

Figure 3 China’s total consumption of primary energy and its composition (2001-2016)

Source: NBS (2018).

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Thermal power Hydropower Nuclear power

Wind power and others Net coal consumption rate

Power generation (TWh) Net coal consumption rate (kgce/kWh)

Figure 4 China’s total electricity generation and the net coal consumption rate (2001-2016)

Source: NBS (2018) and Wang (2018).



The growing floor space has led to the rapid growth of China’s building stock, as

shown in Figure 6. After high speed urbanisation during last decades, China's total

floor area was approximately 58.1 billion m2 in 2016, in which urban residential floor

area was 23.1 billion m2, rural residential floor area was 23.3 billion m2 and public

and commercial floor area was 11.7 billion m2.

There are two types of building related energy use, one is building embodied energy

from building materials and construction which is assumed to account for 20% of

total energy consumption in building’s life cycle; the other is energy consumed

during the operation phase, accounting for around 80% of total energy consumption.

Building energy use mentioned in this report is building operational energy unless

otherwise stated.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Rural residential building Urban residential building Public and commercial building

Floor area (billion m2)

Figure 5 New completed buildings in China (2001-2016)

Source: NBS (2017a)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Rural residential building Urban residential building Public and commercial building


Figure 6 China’s existing building stock (2001-2016)

23

According to BERC’s research, the total embodied energy consumption for the

construction of building and infrastructure, including building material production

and construction, was 1.07 billion tce in 2015, accounting for 25% of total primary

energy consumption, as shown in Figure 7 (Lin et al, 2015). It is worth noting that

2015 is the first year whose embodied energy consumption decreased in the last

10 years, which is the result of the decrease of newly completed floor area. 93%

of the energy consumption was for the production of materials e.g. steel, cement,

iron and aluminium. The production of these materials was also responsible of a

large amount of CO2 emissions. In 2015, about 3.6 billion tonnes CO2 was from the

construction sector (including direct and indirect emission), which is more than one

third of the total emission. Only for the building sector, the embodied energy was 0.51

billion tce while operational emissions 1.7 billion tonnes CO2 in 2015.

In this report, building energy use means the primary energy used in the operational

phase of civil buildings, namely all the energy consumption supplying building

services including space heating, space cooling, ventilation, lighting, cooking,

domestic hot water, use of appliances and other miscellaneous equipment in civil

buildings such as residential buildings, public and commercial buildings, etc.

Building energy use in China

Overall situation

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

1.2

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Energy from building material production Energy from construction

Energy consumption (billion tce)

Figure 7 Embodied energy consumption for buildings and infrastructures (2004-2015)



BERC uses CBEM to analyze the energy consumption in the building sector in

China. In this model, based on the difference of heating situation in different climate

zones and the gap among urban and rural residential buildings, China’s building

energy use has been divided into four categories: northern urban heating, public and

commercial buildings (excluding NUH), urban residential buildings (excluding NUH)

and rural residential buildings. More details about the framework of CBEM can be

found in ANNEX A.

Since 2001, both total primary energy consumption and electricity consumption in

China’s building sector increased significantly, as shown in Figure 8. In 2016, the

total building commercial energy consumption was 896 Mtce, accounting for about

20% of China's total energy use, and the per capita index was 649 kgce/cap. Total

biomass energy consumption, typically in rural China for traditional use for cooking,

heating and DHW production, was around 90 Mtce. And total primary energy

consumption (including commercial and biomass energy) was 986 Mtce.

With the increase of energy consumption, the total CO2 emissions of building sector

also increased, as shown in Figure 9. In 2016, the CO2 emissions were around

2.0 Gt and the emission intensity was 1.5 t/cap, while 60% of which were direct

emissions from fossil fuels and 40% of which indirect emissions from electricity

generation.

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

2.0

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Commercial energy consumption Electricity consumption

Energy consumption (Mtce) Electricity consumption (PWh)

Figure 8 China’s buildings sector commercial energy consumption (2001-2016)

25

The energy consumption for each sub-sector is shown in Table 1 and Figure 10. It

could be seen that the floor area of residential buildings accounts for 80% of total

buildings, almost equally spilt between urban and rural area. 23% of total floor area

is in northern urban part and heating use in these buildings is included in NUH.

Energy use intensity of P&C buildings (excluding NUH) is the highest in four sub-

sectors. In general, the energy use of each sub-sector is approximate and roughly

accounts for one quarter of total building commercial energy use and P&C buildings

(excluding NUH) used most energy among four sub-sectors in 2016.

Table 1 China's building primary energy consumption (2016)

Categories Activity dataElectricity

(TWh)

Commercial energy (Mtce)

Energy use intensity

CO2 emissions(Gt of CO2)

NUH 13.6 billion m2 29.1 191 14.0 kgce/m2 0.51

P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

11.7 billion m2 689.6 275 23.5 kgce/m2 0.54

UR buildings (excluding NUH)

0.28 billion hh,23.1 billion m2 457.9 209

738 kgce/hh,9.0 kgce/m2 0.35

RR buildings0.15 billion hh,23.3 billion m2 223.7 221

1446 kgce/hh,9.6 kgce/m2 0.60

Total1.38 billion people,

58.1 billion m2 1400.3 896 649 kgce/cap 2.0

Notes: Only commercial energy consumption is included in this table. For RR buildings, the total energy use per household will be 2033 kgce/hh including the use of biomass.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Electricity Coal Gas LPG, oil and others

CO2 emissions (Gt of CO2)

Figure 9 China’s buildings sector CO2 emissions (2001-2016)




XX

For all these four categories, the trend and features are different.

The NUH energy use in 2016 was 191 Mtce, accounting for 21% of the total building

commercial energy use. From 2001 to 2016, the northern urban heating floor area

rose from 5 billion m2 to 13.6 billion m2. At the same time, the increase in energy

use was slower, showing the great progress of building energy conservation in this

sector. The average heating energy use per unit of floor area therefore declined by

39%, from 22.8 kgce/m2 in 2001 to 14.0 kgce/m2 in 2016, as shown in Figure 11.

To be specific, the main reasons for the energy intensity decreases include the

higher standard for building envelopes (level of insulation, air tightness, etc) for new


Energy consumption in the different subsectors

Floor area

Prim

ary

ener

gy in

tens

ity

Prim

ary

ener

gy in

tens

ity

(exc

ludi

ng. N

UH

)

13.6 billion m2

23.3 billion m211.7 billion m223.1 billion m2

3.9 kgce/m2

23.5 kgce/m2

14.0 kgce/m2

9.5 kgce/m29.0 kgce/m2 RR buildings

Commercial E 221 Mtce

UR buildings(excluding NUH)

209 Mtce

P&C buildings(excluding NUH)

275 Mtce

Biomass 90 Mtce

NUH

191 Mtce

Figure 10 Primary energy consumption indicators of four China building sub-sectors (2016)

Notes: The horizontal axis represents floor area, the vertical axis represents energy use intensity, and the area of the square represents energy use of each sub-sector. Biomass is excluded in primary energy consumption.

27

buildings, a larger proportion of high efficiency heating source and higher efficiency

of heating systems. Figure 12 shows the floor area in northern urban China by

different heat sources.

More information can be found in the 2015 BERC Annual Report (BERC, 2015).

In 2016, the total floor area of China’s public & commercial buildings was

approximately 11.7 billion m2, including 1.3 billion m2 in the rural sector. Total

P&C building energy use (excluding NUH) was 275 Mtce, including 689.6 TWh

electricity consumption, accounting for 31% of total building commercial energy

2) Public and commercial buildings energy use (excluding NUH)0

8

16

24

32

0

100

200

300

400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Energy consumption Energy use intensity

Energy consumption (Mtce) Energy use intensity (kgce/m2)

Figure 11 NUH energy consumption and intensity (2001-2016)

0

5

10

15

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

CHP Coal boilers Gas boilers Others


Figure 12 NUH floor area by heat sources (2001-2016)

2) Public & commercial buildings energy use (excluding NUH)



use. The increase of floor area, the growing share of large-scale buildings and

energy use demand have resulted in a large increment in total P&C buildings energy

consumption. From 2001 to 2016, energy consumption in this sub-sector more than

doubled, while EUI per m2 increased from 16.8 kgce/m2 to 23.5 kgce/m2, as shown in

Figure 13.

China’s rapid development and urbanisation has led to a large increase of P&C

building floor area. Meanwhile, the large scale commercial buildings equipped with

centralized systems consume much more energy, especially for space heating,

cooling and ventilation, compared with buildings with decentralized equipment.

Therefore, the design optimisation and energy management for new-constructed

public and commercial building with large sizes should be one of the focus of China’s

building energy conservation work. More information can be found in the third

chapter of this report and 2018 BERC Annual Report (BERC, 2018).

The energy consumption of urban residential buildings (excluding NUH) in 2016

was 209 Mtce, accounting for 23% of the total building commercial energy use,

with 457.9 TWh electricity consumption. The total energy use of this sub-sector has

increased less than twice during the last 17 years, as shown in Figure 14.


0

8

16

24

32

0

100

200

300

400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016


Energy consumption (Mtce) Energy use intensity (kgce/m2)

Figure 13 P&C buildings (excluding NUH) energy consumption and intensity (2001-2016)

29

From 2001 to 2016, the urban population increased by more than 300 million people

and the urban residential building area grew by more than two times. This was

accompanied by increased demand for services (e.g. space cooling, appliances and

domestic hot water) and therefore the energy use per household grew approximately

60%, as shown in Figure 15. On the one hand, the growth of household energy-uses

including equipment and usage leads to increase of energy use demand. On the

other hand, the improvement of equipment efficiency arguably helps to reduce the

growth of energy consumption.

More information can be found in the 2017 BERC Annual Report (BERC, 2017b).

0

400

800

1,200

1,600

0

100

200

300

400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016


Energy consumption (Mtce) Energy use intensity (kgce/hh)

Figure 14 UR buildings (excluding NUH) energy consumption and intensity (2001-2016)

0

50

100

150

200

250

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Space heating Space cooling Water heating Cooking Lighting Appliances

Energy consumption (Mtce)

Figure 15 China’s UR energy consumption (excluding NUH) by end-use (2001-2016)

Notes: Space heating of northern urban residential building is excluded. The space heating energy consumption here means the heating energy consumption in southern China without district heating.



In 2016, commercial energy use in rural residential buildings was 221 Mtce,

including 223.7 TWh of electricity consumption, accounting for 25% of total building

energy use. In addition, the rural biomass consumption (mainly straw and wood) was

equivalent to 90 Mtce. Since 2001, rural total energy consumption per household

did not change much, but the proportion of biomass to total energy consumption

decreased from 69% in 2001 to 29% in 2016, while commercial energy consumption

per household more than doubled, as shown in Figure 16.


XX

In order to create a sustainable energy system in China’s rural sector, it is of great

importance to improve the rural living standard without increasing commercial energy

consumption. This can be achieved through smarter biomass use and the better

design of building performance as well as energy systems. To be specific, zero-coal

villages should be encouraged in northern areas while ecological villages should be

encouraged in southern areas.

More information can be found in the 2016 BERC Annual Report (BERC, 2016a).


0

400

800

1,200

1,600

0

100

200

300

400

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Commercial energy consumption Biomass consumption

Commercial energy use intensity Biomass use intensity

Energy consumption (Mtce) Energy use intensity (kgce/hh)

Figure 16 RR buildings energy consumption and intensity (2001-2016)

31

While China’s building energy consumption kept increasing in the last decades,

how it will develop in the following years is worthy of study. On one hand, there is

still space to improve the indoor comfort, which will increase the energy use. On the

other hand, China’s is facing the stress of climate change, environment and energy

conservation, which limits the buildings energy use. Thus, China’s roadmap of

building energy conservation should find a balance between these two aspects.

Comparing with the developed economics, the energy use intensity in China’s

building sector is still low, as shown in Figure 17. China’s energy intensity per

capita is about 1/6 of that in the US, and 1/3 per unit of floor area. For some other

developed countries in Europe and Asia, the proportion of energy intensity per capita

and by floor area are around 1/3 and 1/2. Meanwhile, the energy use intensity of

India is also much lower than other selected countries.

Outlook of China’s building energy consumption

Global comparison of building energy consumption

Notes: The size of the bubbles represents the total energy use of residential building sector in each country.

Source: IEA (2016), WB (2016), NRCAN (2017), DOE (2017), BPIE (2017), Eurostat (2017), EDMC (2016), Statistics Japan (2017), Statistics Korea (2016), DEWHA (2008), NSSO (2013), IEA (2015), BERC (2018).

Canada

France

Germany

Italy

Japan

KoreaUK

US

India China, 20160

20

40

60

80

0 1 2 3 4 5

Energy consumption per m2 (kgce/(m2·a))

Energy consumption per capita (tce/(cap·a))

Figure 17 Buildings sector primary energy use indicators for selected countries (2014)



If China’s building energy use intensity goes as high as that of US and Canada

(Scenario 1), then in 2030, taking the total population as 1.45 billion, the building

energy consumption will be 6.1 gigatonnes of coal equivalent (Gtce), the equivalent

of nearly all global building energy use in 2015 (IEA, 2017b) and higher than the

target of total energy consumption in China at that time (NDRC and NEA, 2017).

If China follow the trends of the other OECD countries such as Germany, France,

Japan and Korea (Scenario 2), then the total energy use will be 2.9 Gtce in 2030,

meaning half of China’s total energy target will be used in buildings in that case.

According to BERC’s research, when considering the cap of total energy use and

the development needs for industry, farming, transportation and buildings, the total

commercial energy available to the buildings sector should remain below 1.1 Gtce

(Target scenario), with the population of 1.45 billion and floor area of 72 billion m2

(BERC, 2016b). Figure 18 shows the scenario analysis results.

It could be seen that there are visible gaps of energy consumption under each

scenario, this is a great opportunity and challenge for China’s building energy

efficiency policy makers. Thus, it is very necessary for China to learn from both

international experience and lessons, to prevent huge building energy consumption

rise with economy development as other countries. More details on this topic can be

found in Roadmap for China’s Building Energy Conservation (BERC, 2016b).

0

2

4

6

8

2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021 2023 2025 2027 2029

Historical Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Target scenario

Energy consumption (Gtce)

Figure 18 China’s buildings sector primary energy use in different scenarios

33

While it has been realized by more and more people that China’s building energy

conservation needs a different approach, another characteristic that also play a big

role but has been less discussed is the change of the contradiction.

In Xi’s report at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, it is

mentioned that the principal contradiction facing Chinese society has evolved to “the

contradiction between unbalanced and inadequate development and the people’s

ever-growing needs for a better life”, instead of “between the ever-growing material

and cultural needs of the people and backward social productivity” (Xi, 2019 and

Deng, 1981). The similar problem also occurred in building energy conservation.

Since 1980s, along with the urbanisation development, building energy conservation

has been increasing valued. At that time, the main contradiction in this field was

that the building performance and equipment efficiency were not efficient and, at

the same time, the indoor environment and people’s satisfaction needed improve.

Facing this problem, the work on building energy conservation was focused on the

improvement of the building performance and equipment. The first building efficiency

design standard was released in 1986, in which the requirement of envelope in the

northern China was put forward (MOC, 1986). In the following years, the update

standards were released with higher requirement and covering all building types

in all climate zones. In some cities, such like Beijing and Shanghai, even tougher

standards were released to furtherly put forward the building energy conservation

work, as shown in Figure 19.

Through the hard work in the last decades, the building energy conservation has had

a great progress. The building performance and the equipment have been highly

improved. However, the contradiction has gradually turned into the unbalanced

and inadequate development. To be specific, after years’ work on building energy

conservation, the overall situation of China’s building energy performance and

people’s indoor thermal comfort has been improved greatly. However, the problem

Policy orientation and trend of China’s building energy conservation



of unbalanced and inadequate also exists and became a critical issue in China’s

building sector.

Meanwhile, as the total building energy use should not increase much according to

China’s energy and environment situation, the building energy conservation work

should focus more on the actual energy usage instead of energy efficiency, and

improve efficiency as well as indoor environment should not be the only targets.

Take heating in China’s northern part as an example. The district heating in north

began in the 1950s. At that time, the indoor temperature of most households was

under 18°C. With the progress of building envelope and heating systems, now the

indoor environment in most urban households was higher than 21°C and in some

households even higher than 25°C, leading people to open the windows to cool

the room. But in many households in rural area, the winter indoor temperature was

around or lower than 16°C, which still needs improvements. While the building

efficiency design standards focusing on urban residential buildings had been

released and modified for more than 20 years, the first standard for rural sector was

in 2012 (BERC, 2016a). Thus, for heating in northern part, the contradiction and

approach are quite different for different fields. For the households already with a

warm environment, the problem is to reduce overheat and decrease the energy use,

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Window Wall Roof

U- value (W/(m2·K))

JGJ 26-1986

JGJ 26-1995

DB 01-602-2004

JGJ 26-2010

DB 11/89-2012

Figure 19 Required U-values for Beijing's building envelope in standards

Notes: JGJ standards are national standards and DB standards mean local standards in Beijing.

Source: BERC (2017).

35

while for the households with uncomforted environment, the problem is to guide the

energy use into a suitable level as well as improve environment.

Above all, it could be seen that China’s building energy conservation roadmap in the

following decades will be comprehensive and characteristic. It will be a big challenge

to explore such an approach and more researches based on China’s real situation

and development ideas are still imperative.



3 Building energy use in public and commercial buildings (excluding NUH) in China

In 2016, the total floor area of P&C buildings (including urban and rural sectors) was

11.7 billion m2 and the floor area per capita (FAPC) was 8.5 m2/cap. Since 2001,

the floor area in this sub-sector increased less than 2 times and the per capita index

around 1.5 times, making the P&C buildings the fastest-growing sector of floor area,

as shown in Figure 20. The obvious increase of the floor area is caused by the

improvement of living standards, the change of economic structure, etc.

In terms of the urban-rural difference, the public and commercial buildings floor

area per capita respectively doubled and increased 50% since 2001. Because of

the growing urbanisation rate, the total floor area in rural sector didn’t increase

Overview

Development of public and commercial buildings

0

3

6

9

12

0

3

6

9

12

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

P&C buildings floor area Floor area per capita

Floor area (billion m2) Floor area per capita (m2/cap)

Figure 20 P&C buildings floor area and FAPC (2001-2016)

37

significantly, namely that the growing floor area was mainly in urban sector and the

P&C buidling stock in this part more than doubled.

According to different building function, the P&C buildings can be divided into

government offices, commercial offices, hotel, inn, store, mall, hospital, clinic,

school, transportation junction, cultural venue, etc. Different types of buildings

undertake different functions in people’s work and life and the building stock is able

to reflect the development in various fields to some extent. In BERC’s research,

according to building’s characteristic on function and energy consumption, as well as

the overall situation in China, the P&C buildings were divided into six types, namely

office buildings, commercial lodging buildings, mercantile buildings, educational

buildings, health care buildings and others. The others sector includes all types

that excluded in the above five types, such as transportation junctions, cultural

venues, gyms, etc. In 2016, the first five types covered 70% of the total P&C floor

area, as shown in Figure 21. In the last decades, the floor area of all these six types

increased significantly, which was related to the perfection of government functions,

improvement of living standard and the development of the service sector. In terms

of the absolute value-added, office and mercantile buildings were the highest parts

and both of them increased around 2 billion m2. In terms of increasing speed,

mercantile and educational buildings were the fastest sub-sectors and increased

around four times.

0

3

6

9

12

15

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Office buildings Commercial lodging buildings Mercantile buildingsEducational buildings Health care buildings Others


Figure 21 Floor area of different types of P&C buildings (2001-2016)

3 Buildings energy use in public and commercial buildings (excluding NUH) in China


The P&C floor area in different provinces differed a lot. Considering the economic

divisions, the stock of service buildings related to different service sectors may differ.

But for the building types providing public services, such as schools and hospitals,

the floor area per capita should not vary too much to keep the basic balance of

each region. For example, in 2016, the floor area per student of primary school vary

from 6 to 13 m2/cap (MOE, 2018). Combining the new principle contradiction facing

China’s society, in the following years, one important start-point of the P&C building

plan and construction will be to ensure a balanced and adequate development of the

public service.

In 2016, the primary energy consumption in P&C buildings (excluding NUH) was

275 Mtce, nearly 4 times of that in 2001, while electricity consumption grew from

154.4 TWh to 689.6 TWh, as shown in Figure 22. Since 2012, it had been the one

with the largest energy consumption of the four sub-sectors and the growing trends

kept in the last five years, which make P&C buildings energy conservation work of

great importance. While electricity was the main energy carrier in P&C buildings

(excluding NUH) and took around 80% of the total energy consumption, natural gas,

coal, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and oil were also used for space heating, water

heating, cooking, etc.

The CO2 emissions of this sub-sector was 0.54 Gt, while those in 2001 were 0.13 Gt,

as shown in Figure 23. For different fuel types, in 2016, more than 70% of the

emissions were from electricity and nearly 20% of those from natural gas.

With the improvement of end-use demands in P&C buildings, the energy use

intensity in this sub-sector kept increasing in last decades. In 2016, the energy

use intensity of this sub-sector was 23.5 kgce/m2, or 77 kWhe/m2 using electricity

equivalent approach, and the emissions intensity 45.9 kg CO2/m2, increasing

respectively by around 1/3 and a half, as shown in Figure 24.

Total energy consumption in P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

39

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

0

100

200

300

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Commercial energy consumption Electricity consumption

Energy consumption (Mtce) Electricity consumption (PWh)

Figure 22 China’s P&C buildings (excluding NUH) commercial energy consumption (2001-2016)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Electricity Coal Gas LPG, oil and others

CO2 emissions (Gt of CO2)

Figure 23 China’s P&C buildings (excluding NUH) CO2 emissions (2001-2016)

0

10

20

30

40

50

0

20

40

60

80

100

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Energy use intensity Emissions intensity

Energy use intensity (kWhe/m2) Emissions intensity (kg CO2/m2)

Figure 24 China’s P&C energy use and emissions intensity (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

Figure 25 shows the energy consumption of different building types. In 2016, office

buildings used around 30% of the total energy, following by mercantile buildings

and others using nearly a quarter, while in 2001, offices used nearly a half and other

buildings used nearly 1/3. The energy uses of all six building types kept increasing



and mercantile buildings were the type with highest increasing speed while offices

with the lowest. The developing trends were the results of the floor area increasing,

indoor environment improvement as well as building energy conservation progress.

In 2016, the primary energy consumption of office buildings was 86 Mtce, while

the energy use intensity was 64 kWhe/m2. Since 2001, the energy consumption

increased about 1.5 times and the intensity nearly a half, as shown in Figure 26.

0

100

200

300

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016



Figure 25 China’s P&C energy consumption (excluding NUH) by building types (2001-2016)

Energy consumptions of each building type

Office buildings

0

20

40

60

80

0

25

50

75

100

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016


Energy consumption (Mtce) Energy use intensity (kWhe/m2)

Figure 26 Energy consumption of office buildings (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

41

Electricity was the main fuel type used in office buildings (excluding NUH). The end-

uses of offices include space cooling, lighting, office equipment, electronics, water

heating, etc. and the first three were the items used most energy and were taken

most focus on energy conservation.

According to building function, the office buildings can be further divided into

governmental and commercial offices, the former mainly for public service and

management while the latter mainly for the service sector. The energy use intensity

of governmental offices was relatively lower and the main results included the

working hour, indoor environment requirement and the awareness of energy

conservation. In China, in government offices the indoor temperature should be

not exceeding 26°C during summer and not above 20°C in winter, while in most

commercial offices, the indoor temperature was lower in summer (22 to 26°C) and

higher in winter (20 to 24°C) (State council, 2007 and BERC, 2014).

According to the way of indoor environment building, there are two common types

in China. One is equipped with centralized systems and mechanical ventilation

without openable window and is called large-scale offices in some related research.

The other one, namely the small-scale offices, is equipped with decentralized

systems and natural ventilation with openable windows. The energy use intensity

of the former was obviously higher than that of the latter. Before 2000s, most office

buildings were the latter type. In the beginning of the 21st century, more and more

large-scale office buildings were built, resulting the unique “duel sector distribution”

feature, which means that among the offices, there was a large proportion of

buildings distributed at the range with smaller EUI, while there always existed a

small proportion of buildings with a higher EUI level, and this phenomena was

quite different from the situation of the advanced economics as the “single sector

distribution” feature, as shown in Figure 26 (Xiao et al, 2012). In recent years, with

more newly-built offices’ construction, the feature of energy use intensity distribution

has changed in some cities but the dual sector distribution remained nationwide. In

following years, the choice of the indoor environment will be an important factor of

the trend of energy consumption.



The primary energy consumption of commercial lodging buildings was 18 Mtce,

while the energy use intensity was 116 kWhe/m2 in 2016. In the last 16 years, the

energy consumption increased more than 3 times and the intensity nearly doubled,

as shown in Figure 28.

The electricity was still the main fuel type of commercial lodging buildings but the

proportion was much lower than other P&C building types because of the demands

of water heating, laundry, cooking, swimming pool, etc. The end-uses include space

cooling, lighting, equipment, water heating, etc.

Figure 27 Distribution of office energy use intensity in China and Japan

Source: Xiao et al., (2012).

Commercial lodging buildings

0

30

60

90

120

150

0

4

8

12

16

20

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016



Figure 28 Energy consumption of commercial lodging buildings (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

43

It was found that the energy use intensity had a strong relationship with the star-

rating and the five-star or four-star hotels had a much higher EUI than the hotels

with lower rating. In last decades, the higher star-rating hotels kept growing fast,

as shown in Figure 29 (CNTA, 2002 to 2017), which was one important driver of

the increasing energy use in this sub-sector. One main result is the difference of

indoor environment requirement, as shown in Table 2 (SHJJW, 2015). According to

investigations, the indoor temperature of the five-star hotels might be even lower and

around 20°C in summer.


XX

Another two important factors on commercial lodging buildings energy consumption

were the occupancy rate and the floor area proportion of the rooms.

0

3

6

9

12

15

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

One-star Two-star Three-star Four-star Five-star

Number of hotels (thousand)

Figure 29 Number of hotels with different star-ratings (2001-2016)

Notes: Only the hotels in the management system and submitting the business condition were included. The data of 2003, 2010, 2013 and 2015 were estimated values.

Source: CNTA (2002 to 2017).

Table 2 Indoor design parameters of hotels with different star-ratings

Indoor design parameters Five-star Four-star Three-star Two-star One-star

Cooling design temperature (°C) 24~26 24~26 25~27 26~28 26~28

Heating design temperature (°C) 22~24 21~23 20~22 19~21 18~20

Fresh air volumn (m3/(h·p)) 50 40 30 30 /

Source: SHJJW (2015).



In 2016, the primary energy consumption of mercantile buildings was 68 Mtce, while

the energy use intensity was 100 kWhe/m2. It was the building type with fastest

growing of energy consumption among the six types in CBEM since 2001, with the

energy consumption increasing more than 10 times and the intensity more than 2

times, as shown in Figure 30.

The mercantile buildings used electricity as the main fuel type and the end-uses

include lighting, cooling, equipment and others. While this sub-sector includes

all buildings used for selling goods, such as department store, shopping mall,

supermarket, general shop, etc., the energy use intensity of this type also showed

the “duel sector distribution” feature, namely there were many mercantile buildings,

mainly stores or shops, with low energy use intensity and many other buildings,

mainly malls, with EUI around or higher than 200 kWhe/m2.

Although the floor area and energy use of mercantile buildings grew quite fast

in last 10 years, it is said that many shops or malls closed in last two years. The

results included the lower growth rate of consumption, the over construction, the

lack of management and the impact of ecommerce (Wang, 2017). The change of

commercial activities will impact the development trends of floor area as well as

energy consumption and needs to be taken into consideration for the planning.

Mercantile buildings

0

30

60

90

120

0

20

40

60

80

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016



Figure 30 Energy consumption of mercantile buildings (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

45

In 2016, the primary energy consumption of educational buildings was 27 Mtce and

the energy use intensity was 52 kWhe/m2. The increasing of energy consumption and

EUI were nearly 4 times and about 20% in last 16 years, as shown in Figure 31.

The increase of energy use intensity was resulted from the improvement of indoor

environment and education conditions. For example, the personal computer (PC)

sets in primary and junior secondary schools had more than tripled in the last

decade, as shown in Figure 32 (MOE, 2006 to 2018).

Educational buildings

0

20

40

60

0

10

20

30

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016



Figure 31 Energy consumption of educational buildings (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

0

3

6

9

12

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Primary schools Junior secondary schools

Number of PC (million sets)

Figure 32 Personal computer sets in primary and junior secondary schools (2004-2016)

Notes: The data of 2008 and 2009 were estimated values.Source: MOE (2006 to 2018).



Nowadays, with the pressure of environment pollution and energy conservation,

the educational buildings are facing two challenges. The first is how to guarantee

the indoor environment quality. In recent years, many parents complained about

the PM2.5 pollutions and bought air purifiers for schools or ask schools to install

ventilation systems. Studies are still needed to find some suitable methods

to improve the indoor environment. The second is how to put forward energy

conservation work. Comparing with other building types, working on educational

buildings will not only reduce the energy use of schools but also improve energy

conservation awareness of children, which may bring extra benefits.

The energy consumption of health care buildings was 17 Mtce and the energy use

intensity was 118 kWhe/m2 in 2016. Since 2001, the energy consumption increased

more than 3 times and energy use intensity more than a half, as shown in Figure 33.

In this building type, electricity is the main fuel type and natural gas is also widely

used for water heating, steam sterilisation, etc. Different from other building types,

a large amount of the health care energy use is for its unique function, namely

its medical equipment and special indoor environment requirement, including the

energy use of clean air-conditioning systems, surgical instruments, diagnostic

equipment, treatment device, etc. The feature and energy conservation approach

Health care buildings

0

30

60

90

120

150

0

4

8

12

16

20

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016



Figure 33 Energy consumption of health care buildings (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

47

of this part is largely different from the other end-uses in P&C buildings and more

studies are still needed.

According to investigation, the energy consumption of each hospital is largely related

to the number of daily hospitalisations, number of beds and daily outpatient (BERC,

2018). Thus, the values of these indices are able to affect the activity impact of

energy consumption and can help to analyze the trends of energy use situation. In

the last 15 years, the number of visits to health facilities kept growing, while the bed

utilisation ratio firstly grew for 10 years and then decreased slightly, as shown in

Figure 34 (NHFPC, 2017).

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

XX

Except for the five types mentioned above, the total energy consumption and energy

use intensity of other P&C buildings also kept increasing in last decades, as shown

in Figure 35. In 2016, the energy consumption was 65 Mtce and the energy use

intensity 78 kWhe/m2.

In recent years, with the high speed infrastructure construction, transportation

junction, including subway station, airport and high-speed rail station grew quite

fast. At the end of 2016, 29 cities had subways, the metro mileage was 3849 km

Others

0

1

2

3

4

0%

25%

50%

75%

100%

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Bed utilisation ratio Number of visits to health facilities

Utilisation ratio Number of visits (billion person-times)

Figure 34 The bed utilisation ratio and number of visits to health facilities in China (2002-2016)

Source: NHFPC (2017).



and the number of stations 2630, while the planning mileage will be 13385 km in

2020, covering 79 cities (Yang, 2017). Meanwhile, there were 218 transport airports

in 2016 and according to the 13th five-year plan, 44 airports will be newly built and

30 airports will be continued under construction (CAAC, 2017). The high-speed

railway mileage was planned to grew to 30 thousand km while the value in 2015 19

thousand, and high-speed rail network was planned to cover more than 80% of cities

with population over 1 milllion, which will also increase the number of railway stations

(NDRC et al., 2017). According to existing research, the energy use intensity of this

building type is always higher than the average (Yang, 2017, BERC, 2018 and Song

et al., 2013). Thus, the energy conservation work of this type of buildings should be

given more focus.

With the improvement of living standard, people’s spiritual and cultural needs also

grew quite fast. As a result, the cultural and sports facilities such as museums,

libraries, gyms, etc. will increase. In related plans and actions, target of the

construction of these buildings were also given.

While P&C building energy conservation has been more and more important, the

statistical system for quantifying energy use has been established in many cities and

helps to give a better understanding of the energy consumption situation. Here the

0

25

50

75

100

0

20

40

60

80

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016



Figure 35 Energy consumption of other P&C buildings (excluding NUH) (2001-2016)

The P&C building energy consumption in typical cities

49

results of Shanghai in hot summer and cold winter (HSCW) zone and Shenzhen in

hot summer and warm winter (HSWW) zone were given as case studies. Table 3

shows the basic climate condition and economic development of these two cities.


XX

Till the end of 2017, there were 1592 P&C buildings equipped with itemized metering

device in Shanghai, with total floor area of 74 million m2. 12% of these buildings were

governmental offices while others large-scale P&C buildings including commercial

offices, lodging buildings and restaurants, mercantile buildings, educational buildings

and culture venues, health care buildings, complex buildings, etc. According to the

report on energy monitoring and analysis for governmental offices and large-scale

P&C buildings from 2014 to 2017 by Shanghai municipal commission of housing and

urban-rural development (SHJJW), the energy use consumption of different building

types in Shanghai could be obtained.

Figure 36 shows the electricity use intensity of selected building types in last 5

years. The difference of energy use in each year was also analyzed in the reports.

Since 2014, more than 4 million m2 of P&C buildings were retrofitted, resulting in the

overall decreasing trends, while the hot weather in 2016 and 2017 caused a slight

rise in these two years. Figure 37 and Figure 38 show the electricity consumption by

end-uses and monthly electricity consumption of selected building types, which give

more details on energy consumption situation.

Table 3 Climate conditions and economic development of Shanghai and Shenzhen

ATHM(°C)

CDD 26(°C·d)

ATCM(°C)

HDD 18(°C·d)

GDP per capita (Current process, yuan)

Shanghai 28.5 92 4.9 2743 116562

Shenzhen 29.0 374 16.0 223 167411

Nationwide / / / / 53980

Source: Climate conditions: MOHURD (2016); GDP per capita: NBS (2017b) and (2017c).

1) Shanghai


Notes: ATHM and ATCM respectively represent the average temperature of the hottest and coldest month, while CDD and HDD the cooling and heating degree days. These four indicators are the criterion for the classification of China’s climate zones and sub-zones.


0

50

100

150

200

250

Governmental offices Commercial offices Mercantile buildings

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Electricity use intensity (kWhe/m2)

Commercial lodging buildings and restaurants

Figure 36 P&C buildings electricity use intensity by building types in Shanghai (2013-2017)


0

4

8

12

16

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Governmental offices Commercial offices

Commercial lodging buildings and restaurants Mercantile buildings

Electricity consumption (kWhe/m2)

Figure 38 P&C buildings monthly electricity consumption in Shanghai (2017)


Lighting and appliances HVAC systems Process load Others

Governmental offices Commercial offices Merchantile buildingsCommercial lodging buildingsand restaurants

Figure 37 P&C buildings electricity consumption by end-uses in Shanghai (2017)

Notes: Process load includes the power equipment such as pumps, elevators, etc.Source: SHJJW (2018).

51

The benchmark work was also introduced in the reports, including overall

comparison and typical case studies. It was found that the EUI of most buildings in

Shanghai was still lower than those in the US and Japan and met the local energy

consumption standards.

Till the end of 2016, there were 563 P&C buildings equipped with itemized metering

device and included in the city-scale energy monitoring platform, covering floor area

of 23.6 million m2. The building types include governmental offices, commercial

offices, mercantile buildings, lodging buildings and restaurants, educational buildings

and culture venues, health care buildings, complex buildings, etc. According to

2016 annual report on Shenzhen’s large-scale P&C buildings energy monitoring

by Shenzhen bureau of housing and construction, it is possible to get the detail

information of the P&C buildings energy use (SZJS, 2017).

In 2016, the electricity use intensity of all monitored buildings was 100 kWhe/m2,

and the intensity of governmental offices, commercial offices, commercial lodging

buildings and restaurants, and mercantile buildings were 70 kWhe/m2, 91 kWhe/m

2,

111 kWhe/m2, and 192 kWhe/m

2 (SZJS, 2017). Figure 39 and Figure 40 show the

electricity consumption by end-uses and monthly consumption of the four selected

types.

Similar to the Shanghai reports, the outcome of benchmark working were also given.

The values in the local energy consumption standard released in 2017 were used

as the baseline. Different building types show different situations. The proportion of

buildings with lower EUI than the line was around two thirds for office and mercantile

buildings and a half for commercial lodging buildings. The benchmark working can

help to find the buildings in need of energy conservation and help to reduce the

actual energy consumption.

2) Shenzhen



Perspectives for P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

Key characteristics of P&C buildings energy in China

0

4

8

12

16

20

24

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Governmental offices Commercial offices

Commercial lodging buildings and restaurants Mercantile buildings


Figure 40 P&C buildings monthly electricity consumption in Shenzhen (2016)

Source: SZJS (2017).

Lighting and appliances HVAC systems Process load Others

Governmental offices Commercial offices Merchantile buildingsCommercial lodging buildingsand restaurants

Figure 39 P&C buildings electricity consumption by end-uses in Shenzhen (2016)

Notes: Process load includes the power equipment such as pumps, elevators, etc.Source: SZJS (2017).

According to the energy use cap, the energy consumption of P&C buildings (excluding

NUH) should below 444 Mtce (BERC, 2016b). Similar to other sub-sectors, to find

an appropriate approach to regulate the energy consumption as well as to guarantee

an adequate living standard is a big challenge. Through the detailed analysis of the

current and potential technology and policy development trends, an initial planning

for each building type was given in Table 4 and Figure 41.

53

Table 4 Energy use target of P&C buildings (excluding NUH)

Building types2016 Target

Activity data Intensity Activity data Intensity

Office buildings 4.3 billion m2 64 kWhe/m2 4.9 billion m2 60 kWhe/m

2

Commercial lodging buildings 0.5 billion m2 116 kWhe/m2 0.9 billion m2 110 kWhe/m

2

Mercantile buildings 2.2 billion m2 101 kWhe/m2 3.0 billion m2 115 kWhe/m

2

Educational buildings 1.6 billion m2 52 kWhe/m2 3.5 billion m2 60 kWhe/m

2

Health care buildings 0.5 billion m2 118 kWhe/m2 1.2 billion m2 120 kWhe/m

2

Others 2.7 billion m2 78 kWhe/m2 4.4 billion m2 82 kWhe/m

2

Total 11.7 billion m2, 275 Mtce 18 billion m2, 444 Mtce

0

200

400

600

2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 2019 2022 2025 2028


Historical Target scenario


Figure 41 P&C buildings (excluding NUH) energy consumption in target scenario

In order to achieve the target, firstly, the main control objective should be changed

from technology measure to total energy consumption, which is the same with the

overall roadmap of China’s energy revolution and green development. With this idea,

the actual energy use should be the key index to evaluate the buildings and energy

conservation work should be put forward in every step of the construction phase,

from design to operation stage.

Then, the green design concept and lifestyle should be promoted as the core

design concept in P&C buildings, such as to implement passive design and to use

equipment in “part time, part space” mode. This change also echos with the target of

the new-style urbanisation.



In addition, the technical innovation to improve efficiency is also important. In China,

there has been many innovative systems and equipment, such as temperature

and humidity independently system, large direct variable frequency centrifugal

refrigeration machine, etc. How to use the new technologies in a smart way, namely

to improve the indoor environment without obviously increase of energy use or

decrease the energy use also needs discussion.

Nowadays, there has been many best practices in China’s different climate zones,

proving that it is possible to have a proper indoor environment without high energy

intensity in cost-effective ways. More information about the demons can be found in

the Best Practice of China’s Building Energy Conservation and BERC 2018 annual

report (BERC, 2016c and 2018).

As mentioned above, in order to meet the target of P&C buildings energy

consumption and intensity, not only design phase but a whole process management

for building energy conservation was needed. In last decades, most policies on

building energy were focusing on the building efficient design, such as the design

standards. In the following step, the policies for energy management should be

valued more. Nowadays, there have been several policies focusing on this, such

as the release of the standard for energy consumption of building, the development

of energy monitoring platform, the rule of public institutions energy management

and the construction of carbon emissions trading system (ETS). The development

of the management polices showed the change in building energy conservation

from efficient technology to actual energy consumption. This part will give a brief

introduction of the above four policies.

In 2016, the first national standard for energy consumptions focusing on actual

energy use, namely the Standard for energy consumption of building (GB/T51161-2016)

Policies for P&C building energy management

1) The release of the buidling energy consumption standard

55

was implemented by Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD).

In this standard, the EUI indicators as bottom line (constraint value) and target

(leading value) of selected P&C buildings (excluding NUH) are given considering

climate conditions, building function and the system types, as shown in Figure 42.

Some building types such as hospitals and schools are not included in the existing

standard yet but are planned to be supplemented in following versions. The methods

to amend the EUI based on the usage situation for each building were also given.

All the EUI values in this standard are based on real energy consumption. Thus, the

standard can be used to judge the building energy performance as the baseline, to

supply the reference value for energy quota management and carbon trade, as well

as to account the national building energy use. More details about the standard and

the specific values of the indicators can be found in China Building Energy Use 2017

(BERC, 2017a).

Climate zones System typesBuilding types

Severe cold & cold zone

HSCWzone

HSWWzone

Temperatezone

Office buildings

Commercial lodging buildings


Governmental

Non-governmental

Five-star

Four-star

Three-star or below

Department store

Shopping mall

Supermarket

Restaurant

General shop

Class A

Class B

Class AHeating use not included

Figure 42 Indicators for P&C buildings (excluding NUH) in the Standard

Notes: Class A means the building using decentralized systems with openable windows while Class B using centralized systems without openable window.



Since 2007, MOHURD and Ministry of Finance (MOF) began to put forward

the development of the energy monitoring platform and in 2013 this work was

promoted into province level. Governmental offices, large-scale P&C buildings,

educational buildings and hospitals were successively included in the platform. In

the last 10 years, more than 10 thousand buildings were monitored and information

management system for building energy consumption was initially built. Meanwhile,

some city-scale platforms were also built following the framework of the province

platforms, giving a good practice of the building energy management in one city, but

completeness of information and in-depth researches are still lacking.

In addition, in recent years, many properties and chain business also developed their

own platforms according to their own demands. The parameters of these platforms

may not only include the energy use situation, but also the key performance

indicators of the cold station, the indoor environment, etc., which makes the platform

richly functional.

The energy conservation work of public buildings is always highly stressed. In 2007,

the national government office administration (NGOA) put forward the energy use

statistic for public buildings and the 20% buildings with highest energy use intensity

by floor area would be published since 2008. During 2010 to 2014, more than 500

thousand data points were collected and the number kept growing (Du, 2014).

According to the 13th five-year plan of public institutions’ energy conservation, in

2020, the total energy consumption of public institutions should be below 225 Mtce,

while energy use intensity per capita decline 11% and by floor area decline 10%

comparing with the values of 2015 (NGOA and NDRC, 2016). Since 2010, the

energy use intensity of public buildings had an obvious decrease, as shown in Figure

43.

2) The development of energy monitoring platforms

3) The rule of public institutions energy management

57

In addition, the Energy consumption norm for government agencies (exposure draft)

was released in 2018, aiming to supply the baseline of the energy management and

evaluation of the public buildings (CNIS, 2018). In this draft, the energy consumption

of public buildings was divided into heating use and non-heating use. For non-

heating use, three values in each climate zone were given aiming to two building

types, as shown in Table 5. The energy use intensity of public buildings in national

level should be below the lower values and of all buildings should be below the

highest threshold. For heating use, three values in each province with different

heat sources (coal boiler, gas boiler and district heating system feed by heating

consumption) were given.

0

100

200

300

400

500

0

5

10

15

20

25

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2020

Energy use by floor area Energy use per capita

Energy use by floor area (kgce/m2) Energy use per capita (kgce/cap)

Figure 43 Public buildings energy use intensity (2010-2017)

Notes: The energy use of buildings and transportation sectors are both included here. The electricity is converted to tce by 10 MWh = 1.229 tce.

Source: NGOA (2011 to 2018), NDRC (2016).

Table 5 EUIs for non-heating use in public buildings

Unit: kWh/m2Severe cold & cold zone HSCW zone HSWW zone Temperate zone

III II I III II I III II I III II I

Type A 60 55 45 105 85 65 80 65 50 60 50 40

Type B 90 70 50 125 100 75 100 80 60 75 60 45

Notes: The floor area of type B buildings is above 1000 m2 and centralized air conditioning and mechanical ventilation were equipped. Type A buildings include all the other buildings. All energy consumption was converted into electricity by calorific value calculation. Cooling use of district cooling system is also included.

Source: CNIS (2018).



4) The construction of carbon emissions trading system

Generally speaking, there are two kinds of market-based greenhouse gas (GHG)

mitigation approaches widely used in the world, namely carbon tax and carbon

emissions trading. As the biggest GHG emitter in the world, China began the

construction of ETS during the 12th five-year period and seven regions were chosen

as the pilots (Duan, 2015). At the end of 2017, China’s national ETS began to

construct and the electricity power generation was the first sector covered (NDRC,

2017).

Comparing with power and industry sectors, there are fewer markets including

building sector globally (ICAP, 2018). Among the seven pilots in China, four regions

covered the buildings sector with different threshold, as shown in Table 6 (EPE,

2017). However, with the increase of the service sector, the buildings sector will play

a bigger role in emissions. For example, in Beijing, around half of the enterprises

were in the buildings sector (BCDR, 2018).


XX

Concerning ETS construction, another critical issue is how to develop an appropriate

allocation approach. In existing systems, there were two approaches widely used

or discussed. One approach is the grandfathering approach based on a history of

consumption and uses the average of the past three or five years as the reference.

The other is based on a line. The main problem is that it is hard for one building to

reduce energy use year after year for the first approach and hard to have a baseline

Notes: The threshold of Beijing's ETS was 10k tCO2/yr from 2013 to 2015 and in 2016 changed into 5000 tCO2/yr.

Source: EPE (2017).

Table 6 The coverage of ETS in buildings sector

City Coverage in buildings sector

Beijing All service or public enterprises whose emissions are above 5000 tCO2/yr

Shanghai Buildings whose energy use areabove 5000 tce/yr or emissions above 10k tCO2/yr

Tianjin Civil buildings whose emissions are above 20 thousand tCO2/yr

Shenzhen P&C buildings larger than 20k m2 and public institutions larger than 10k m2

59

for the second. In the pilots in China, the markets mainly use the first approach and

the lack of baseline is the main bottleneck for promoting the baseline approach.

As mentioned above, the standard for energy consumption of building gives a

reference for the line, which would be helpful for the benchmark work. Table 7 shows

the estimated emission baseline in Beijing according to the values in the standard,

which can be used as reference in the further step in the ETS construction.


Building type

(kg CO2/(m2·a))

Non-heating emissions

Heating emissions

Toal emissions

Office

Class A

Governmental 33.2

14.9

48.1

Non-governmental 39.3 54.2

Class B

Governmental 42.3 57.2

Non-governmental 48.3 63.2

Commercial lodging

buildings

Class A

Five star 42.3 57.2

Four star 51.3 66.3

Three star or below 60.4 75.3

Class B

Five star 60.4 75.3

Four star 72.5 87.4

Three star or below 90.6 105.5


Class A

Department store 48.3 63.2

Shopping mall 48.3 63.2

Supermarket 66.4 81.4

Restaurant 36.2 51.2

General shop 33.2 48.1

Class B

Department store 84.6 99.5

Shopping mall 105.7 120.6

Supermarket 102.7 117.6

Table 7 Estimated emission base line for Beijing’s P&C buildings

Source: BERC (2018).


4 Occupancy behaviour and building energy conservation

While building sector plays a more and more important role in global energy

conservation, more and more concerns are put forward over this topic. After years’

efforts on building energy conservation work, it is found that although using more

advanced technologies, the energy use intensity in developed countries are always

higher than emerging economies, as shown in Figure 17.

Meanwhile, it is found that in many cases, the predicted energy use has a big gap

with the actual energy consumption, as shown in Figure 44.


XX

Impact of occupancy behaviour in buildings energy use

Figure 44 The gap of the measured and predicted energy use intensity

Source: Turner et al. (2008) and BERC (2015).

61

The left figure showed the comparison results of measured and design EUIs for

62 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified buildings in

the US, it is found that most buildings have an obvious gap in these two indicators

and there is a wide scatter among each building (Turner et al., 2008). The right

figure showed the standard value and actual value of residential energy use in

Shanghai’s households. In the 2001 version of energy-saving design standard for

HSCW zone (JGJ134-2001), the target of electricity consumption for heating and

cooling is 55 kWhe/m2, while the average electricity of the total household there was

actually around 30 kWhe/m2, and the main result is that in that standard heating was

considered to be used all the winter in every room while most households actually

used heating device only when feeling cold in the room they stayed (BERC, 2015).

Through further studies, it is found that it is occupancy behaviour that caused this

huge gap and the difference of OBs can cause a more than 10 times’ difference

in energy use, including space heating and space cooling. Figure 45 shows the

results of a case study in Beijing. Through the investigation in one apartment during

one summer, it was found that with same building envelope, climate condition and

equipment, the energy use could vary widely and the difference was caused by

operation mode. An apartment where the air conditioning (AC) was kept on for

longer durations or in larger spaces consumed more energy than using the AC for a

shorter period of time and/or in smaller spaces (Yan et al., 2015).

0

5

10

15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25


Household number

Figure 45 Measured AC use in a residential building in Beijing

Source: Li et al. (2007).



Generally speaking, the building energy use is influenced by six factors: 1)

building performance, 2) equipment and systems, 3) climate condition, 4) occupant

behaviour, 5) indoor environment conditions and 6) operation & maintenance, as

shown in Figure 46. The first three are technical and physical factors while the other

three are human influenced factors. Before 2010, most studies are focusing on the

former and in recent years, the importance of the latter was highlighted, leading

more and more researches working on this.


XX

In order to have a better understanding of occupancy behaviour in buildings,

including 1) identify quantitative descriptions and classifications of occupant

behaviour; 2) develop methods for occupant behaviour measurement, modeling,

evaluation and application; 3) implement occupant behaviour models with building

performance simulation tools; and 4) demonstrate application of occupant behaviour

models in design, evaluation and operational optimisation using case studies,

IEA EBC Program Annex 66: Definition and Simulation of Occupant Behaviour in

Buildings was put forward in 2013. More than 100 researchers from 20 countries

worked together for five years and made significant progress in this field. Figure 47

Climate condition

Building performance

Equipment and systems

Occupant behavior

Indoor environment conditions

Operation & Maintenance

Building energy use

Human influenced factors

Technical and physical factors

Figure 46 Six influencing factors on building energy use

Source: ANNEX 53 (2013).

63

shows the framework of this project and more details of this project could be found in

the ANNEX 66 website (ANNEX 66, 2018).

Data collection

Methods of occupant sensing and data acquisition

Validation of the collected data

Guidelines for monitoring and data collection for occupant

behavior and occupancy

Modeling

Analysis on current modeling approaches

Suitable modeling methods in different scenarios

Surveys to understand current occupant modeling and report

on Statistical modelling of occupant behavior

Evaluation

Metrics to evaluate OB models

Methodologies on evaluation of OB models

Report on occupant behavior modeling approaches and

evaluation methods

Integration

Flexible framework to develop OB simulation module

The representation of occupant behavior diversity

Occupant behavior simulation modules

based on obXML and obFMU

Application

Application scenarios in engineering

Guideline for the practitioners to use OB simulation

Occupant Behavior Case study Sourcebook

Interdisciplinary

The alternation of occupant behavior with incentives

Comparison of OB in different cultures

International Large-Scale Occupant Behavior survey

Structure Key problems Outcome

Figure 47 Main research activities, key issues to address, and main outcomes of ANNEX 66

Source: ANNEX 66 (2018).



Occupancy behaviour, technology and policies

As shown in Figure 48, energy-related occupant behaviour can be grouped into

adaptive actions and non-adaptive actions and the former refers to the actions to

adapt the indoor environment to their needs or preferences such as opening/closing

windows, lowering blinds, adjusting thermostats, turning lighting on/off, while the

latter to adapt themselves to their environment such as (Hong et al., 2017). All these

actions seeking for comfort or accomplishing tasks reflect the consumption demands

and result in the change the state, including on-off, operating mode, strength, etc., of

the systems and equipment, thus change the energy consumption of the buildings.

While both relate to the energy use, occupancy behaviour and technologies are

coupled, which is not so widely discussed in existing studies. To be specific,

different technologies may bring different distribution of OBs and with different OBs

the efficiency of the technology varies (Feng, 2017). For example, the investigation

and case studies showed that when equipped with district cooling systems, more

people prefer using the device all the cooling season than separate ACs (Zhou et

al., 2016). Another example is the energy-saving efforts of improving envelope, as

shown in Figure 49 (Zhou et al., 2018 and Guo et al., 2014). Simulation cases in

Changes to adapt themselves to the environment

“if a change occurs such as to produce discomfort, people react in ways which tend to restore their comfort”

- Humphrey and Nical, 1998

Adaptive behaviors

Changes to adapt the environment to their needs

• opening / closing windows• lowing blinds• adjusting thermostats• turning lighting on / off• Operation of plug-ins

• adjusting clothing• drinking hot / cold

beverage• Moving through spaces

Non-adaptive behaviors

• reporting discomfort• inaction

• occupant presence• operation of plug-in

and equipment

Figure 48 Energy-related OB influencing building energy consumption and comfort

Source: Hong et al. (2017).

65

both office and residential buildings showed that same degree’s energy saving ratio

varies a lot with different OBs. Thus, when evaluating the energy-saving efforts, it is

not so appropriate to just depend on the technical and physical factors, but also the

influence of human beings.

Therefore, for policy makers, if the target is to regulate the actual energy

consumption, the influence of OBs should be focused on more. Not only energy

efficient technologies, but also occupancy behaviour modes should be taken as

objectives. For different groups, the approaches of energy conservation are different.

While rebound effect is always discussed in policy makers, one main reason causing

this effect is the change of OB modes and considering OB into consideration may be

helpful to reduce it.

One-step further, while the distribution of OBs in China is quite different from that

in many developed economics, following the technical measures used in other

countries directly without applicability analysis may not be useful and policies based

on real national situation is urgently needed. For example, regulators should use

actual energy consumption as the key indicator instead of the usage rate of some

0

35

70

105

140

Envelope A Envelope B Envelope C Envelope D

OB B OB C

Cooling consumption (kWh/m2)

1) Cooling demand in a office building

0

15

30

45

60

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4 Pattern 5

Substandard Current standard Advanced standard

Heating energy use (kWh/m2)

2) Heating demand in an apartment

Figure 49 Simulated demands under different envelopes and OBs

Source: Zhou et al. (2018) and Guo et al. (2014).

Notes: In the left figure, OB B refers to the OB mode with equipment working all the time and OB C only working when needed. In the right figure, Pattern 1 refers to use heating all the winter while pattern 5 refers to use the equipment in the occupied room only when feeling quite cold. The parameters in detail of these cases can be found in the reference.



specific technology, which is also in accordance with the idea of China’s principle

idea on energy conservation, and standard makers should fully consider the actual

distribution of OBs and choose the reference mode able to reflect the most common

situation. The encouraged technologies should not be the ones with high efficiency

but also high energy use intensity because of the change of OB modes.

Above all, the related researches on this topic are still relatively lacking and it is a big

challenge to make reasonable and effective building energy conservation policies

taking this new dimension into consideration.

67

This annex provides the framework of BERC’s research on China buildings energy

conservation (BERC, 2016d). Comparing with previous versions, the introduction of

electricity equivalent approach and the method of calculating carbon emissions in

CBEM were supplemented.

As a fast-growing economy with a large territory and great population, China has its

own characteristics on buildings energy use. To be specific, the features of China’s

buildings energy use can be concluded as following: 1) In northern China, space

heating is traditionally supplied by city centralised heating networks, which differs

from other regions; 2) As an emerging economy, there is still large gap in lifestyle,

building form and energy consuming behaviour in China’s urban and rural residential

buildings.

Based on these features, China’s buildings energy use has been divided into four

categories:

NUH refers to space heating energy use in regions with centralised district heating

networks. The heating energy use not only accounts for energy used for centralised

district heating supplied by combined heating and power generation plants (CHP),

coal boilers, gas boilers, but also includes decentralised heating system like

Annex A Framework


Categories of China buildings energy use

Annex A Framework


household gas boilers and electrical heat pumps. This subsector geographical

covers Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang,

Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang and parts of Sichuan

(MOC, 1993). Energy fuels used in NUH normally include coal, natural gas and

electricity. The primary energy consumption of NUH including loss of heat sources

at heat stations, losses in the distribution network and pipes, the energy used for

transmission and distribution, and heat demand.

UR buildings energy use refers to energy used in all end-users of urban residential

buildings. The fuel types include electricity, natural gas, coal, LPG and so on. The

end-use includes space heating (other than in northern urban areas), space cooling,

ventilation, lighting, cooking, DHW and other appliances. It should also be noted

that space heating for northern urban residential buildings is excluded here, while

space heating used in HSCW zone is included and is of great significance. Space

heating in HSCW zone is very different from NUH, as it is mainly individual heating

equipment in residential buildings, such as heat pumps and electrical heater.

P&C buildings energy use refers to energy use of public buildings and commercial

buildings. Public buildings refer to buildings providing public activities, including

government office buildings, hotels, schools, hospitals, transportation buildings

(e.g. train stations) and so on. Commercial buildings refer to buildings providing

commercial service like commercial offices, supermarkets and shopping malls.

Energy fuels used in public and commercial buildings normally include electricity,

natural gas, oil and coal. The end-users include space heating (other than in

northern urban areas), space cooling, ventilation, lighting, appliances, cooking and

vertical transportation (i.e. elevators and escalators). Space heating in northern

China’s public and commercial buildings is excluded in this subsector.


3) Public and commercial buildings energy use (excluding NUH)

69

In this report, rural, as opposed to urban, refers to where people make a living by

agriculture. RR buildings energy use refers to energy used by all end-users in rural

residential buildings, including space heating, space cooling, ventilation, lighting,

cooking, domestic hot water and other appliances. The fuel types include electricity,

natural gas, coal, LPG and biomass (mainly straw and firewood). Since biomass is

one of the most primary fuels for rural households, it was carefully surveyed and

researched in this report, although it not listed in national energy balance sheet

(BERC, 2012). Therefore, when it comes to energy use in rural residential buildings,

commercial energy consumption covers energy use of electricity, gas, coal and oil,

and total primary energy consumption contains both commercial energy consumption

and traditional biomass energy consumption.

As BERC’s research purpose is to achieve energy conservation and emissions

reduction by promoting suitable technologies and policies, the key purpose of

assessing the buildings sector energy status is to clarify the actual primary energy

used in buildings including electricity from grid (including large-scale renewable

energy plant) and other fossil fuel like natural gas, coal. Biomass used in rural

China is considered separately due to different consuming characteristics. Building

integrated renewable energy use is excluded due to data limitations. Therefore, the

scope of buildings energy usage data statistics in this report includes fossil fuels and

electricity from grid supplied to buildings and used in operational phases, leaving out

buildings-integrated solar heat, buildings-integrated photovoltaics, ground heat, and

other non-fossil fuel, as shown in Figure 50.

The primary energy approach, including all final energy use tracing to the primary

energy consumption according to actual conversion and transportation processes, is

adopted in this report to calculate, present and evaluate building energy usage.

Metrics and indicators


Annex A Framework


Electricity

Heating/cooling

Fossil fuels

Conversion process

Electricity

Fossil fuels(coal, natural gas, oil ,etc.)

BUILDING

Figure 50 CBEM's boundary of China building energy use

When comes to systems with multiple products (such as CHP plant generate power

and heat at the same time), exergy share methodology (see ISO 12655:2013 for

technical details) is employed to distribute energy consumption for each production

process according to actual system operation situation (ISO, 2013).

China’s building energy use includes grid power, coal, natural gas, LPG, and district

heat from centralised heating networks. When it is necessary to combine them

together, the power supply coal consumption method is used to convert grid power

to primary coal consumption, meaning that converting electricity to standard coal

according to the national average fire power supply coal consumption and the value

for 2016 was 312 gce/kWh (Wang, 2018). To be consistent with China’s most energy

researches, the unit to present China building energy use in this book is tonness of

coal equivalents.

In BERC’s study, electricity equivalent approach is also used to present the energy

use data. This method is to convert the fuels into electricity according to its maximum

ability of electricity generation. Comparing with other conversion approaches, this

method takes the quality of energy into consideration. The conversion coefficients

can be found in the Classification and presentation of building energy use data (JG/

T 358-2012) (MOHURD, 2012). In this report, the energy use data using the unit of

kWhe are all calculated by this approach.

71

Carbon emissions in this research refer to energy related carbon dioxide emissions,

including direct carbon emissions and indirect carbon emissions. Direct emissions

include carbon emissions generated by fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and LPG

combustion. Indirect carbon emissions mean emissions caused by electricity

generation. CO2 emission factors from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC) for fossil fuels are adopted as a fixed conversion factor of non-fuel, namely

2.88 kgCO2/kgce for coal, 1.65 kgCO2/kgce for natural gas, 1.83 kgCO2/kgce for

LPG, and 2.1 kgCO2/kgce for oil. Electricity emission factor is generated annually by

the electricity generation structure. With great promotions of renewable electricities

like hydro power, wind power, the electricity conversion factor has decreased

from 802 in 1996 to 592 gCO2/kWh in 2016. The total carbon emission of building

operation energy consumption then was calculated and evaluated.

Proper indicator selection to evaluate building energy usage levels depends on the

purpose. For energy fairness concerns, per capita energy use should be adopted

due to everyone shares equal opportunities, rights and obligations to make use of

resources including energy, irrespective of economic or social background. From

the perspective of technology optimisation, different indicators should be employed

based on each end-users own energy consuming characteristics. For instance,

cooking and domestic hot water (mainly for showering) energy consumption in

residential buildings is closely related to the number of persons in a household, so

per capita energy consumption is suitable to evaluate residential building cooking

and DHW energy use. While for space heating, space cooling and lighting energy

use, per floor area energy consumption is adopted since they provide services for

the space used. In public and commercial buildings, due to their public attributes,

population density and strong fluidity, per floor area energy consumption indicator is

normally chosen.

When coming to China’s national building energy use, for BERC’s research

purposes, the predominant indicator for the four sub-sectors was chosen as

follows. For NUH and P&C buildings, energy consumption by floor area is used.

For residential buildings, energy use per household is chosen to represent energy

Annex A Framework


intensity. When it comes to global building energy use comparison, building energy

use both per capita and by floor area is used.

BERC uses CBEM to analyze the status quo and road map of China’s buildings

energy conservation. CBEM is a hybrid model using an integrated bottom-up and

top-down calibration methodology, to estimate the buildings energy consumption

annually including four subsectors. The structure of the model is shown in Figure 51.

Bottom-up Method: Bottom-up method is used to calculate total estimated energy

consumption. Real data from large-scale surveys and monitoring systems are the

most fundamental base module of CBEM, to provide intensity data of four subsectors

and several end-users. A stock module is also used to calculate and analyze the

Model methodology

China’s building energy consumption

Building stock module

Floor area

Household

Population

Building intensity database

Northern urban heating

Public and commercial buildings (excl. NUH)

Urban residential buildings (excl. NUH)

Rural residential buildings

Bottom-up Method

China’s energy balance

Building energy module

Calibration

Figure 51 Modelling structure of China building energy model

Module structure

73

dynamic stock of the four subsectors from statistical materials and estimations from

literature review.

Calibration Method: the energy balances from the China energy statistical yearbook

published annually include total final consumption of 7 main areas including:

agriculture, forest, animal husbandry and fishery; industry; construction; transport,

storage and post; wholesale, retail trade and hotels, restaurants; residential

consumption (urban and rural); and others. Since there are no items specifically

for buildings energy use in the energy balance sheet, energy consumption of

Construction, Transport, Storage and Post, and Wholesale, Retail Trade and Hotel,

Restaurant, is broken into energy use of NUH, P&C and Residential Consumption

(Urban and Rural). This is mainly energy used of UR and RR buildings. This method

could give a range for total energy use of buildings energy use and the four buildings

subsectors to calibrate and increase the credibility of the bottom-up analysis.

The stock model includes population, households and floor area.

Population and household data are published by National Bureau of Statistics (NBS)

annually. Key indices used in CBEM include population and number of households

in urban and rural areas by region from China Statistical Yearbook.

For buildings floor area, firstly, it is necessary to clarify the buildings stock applying

to four subsectors. Only civil buildings (residential buildings in rural and urban

area, public and commercial buildings) are considered in this report, and industrial

buildings such as factories, are excluded. For urban and rural residential buildings,

the floor area refers to the urban or rural residential buildings stock; for NUH, the

buildings stock refers to residential buildings as well as public and commercial

buildings in northern urban China that are connected to the NUH district heat

networks; for P&C, the buildings stock refers to the public and commercial buildings

in both urban and rural China, in which the rural part is small but growing.

Stock module

Annex A Framework


MOHURD used to publish Statistical Bulletin of Urban Building annually before 2006.

After 2007, this source was interrupted and there is no official authoritative source

for China’s buildings stock data ever since. Therefore, BERC built stock module

estimate the buildings stock based on the published data from China Statistical

Yearbook, China Urban-rural Construction Statistical Yearbook and China City

Statistical Yearbook, according to following basic formula:

where Sn is the buildings stock at the end of year n, Cn is the constructed buildings

stock during year n, Dn is the demolished buildings stock during year n, Rn is

redemarcation buildings stock during year n.

CBEM uses buildings energy surveys and monitoring as well as buildings energy-

simulated database to provide buildings energy intensities.

In this model, statistical method are mainly based on large-scale surveys and long-

time monitoring of various case buildings in five climate zones across several

buildings types (mainly residential buildings, offices, enclosed mall and hotels) for

buildings energy-related information.

A building energy-simulated database on engineering physical methods is another

core of the BERC model. Numerous data can be collected by surveys and

monitoring; however, it is not affordable to keep getting national data across a wide

source annually. Furthermore, it is difficult to gather enough real, typical data due

to the huge diversity of climate conditions, building types, envelope performances,

equipment efficiencies and occupant behaviours. Therefore, simulation tools, such

as the Designer's Simulation Toolkit (DeST), are adopted to quantitatively simulate

buildings energy consumption according to surveyed results including key factors, as

supplementary energy data and estimation reference.

Building energy intensity module

Sn=Sn-1+Cn-Dn+Rn

75

Beyond analysing the status quo of China’s buildings energy use and its historical

trends, future technology and policy suggestions are also studied using technology

and policy modules. New technology with high efficiency and good promotional value

is researched in detail both from a technical and a policy perspective. Some best

practice was summarised in another book Best Practice of China's Building Energy

Conservation (BERC, 2016d).

Technology and policy module

Annex A Framework


Acronyms, abbreviations and units of measure

AC Air conditioner

ATCM the average temperature of the coldest mont

ATHM the average temperature of the hottest mont

BERC Building Energy Research Center

CBEM China Building Energy Model

CBEU China Building Energy Use

CDD cooling degree days

CHP combined heating and power generation plants

CNIS China National Institute of Standardization

CHP combined heating and power generation plants

CNTA China National Tourism Administration

CNIS China National Institute of Standardization

CO2 carbon dioxide

DeST Designer's Simulation Toolkit

DHW domestic hot water

EBC Energy in Buildings and Communities

ETS emissions trading system

EUI energy use intensity

FAPC floor area per capita

GDP gross domestic product

GHG greenhouse gas

HDD heating degree days

Acronyms and abbreviations

77

HSCW hot summer and cold winter

HSWW hot summer and warm winter

IEA International Energy Agency

IMF International Monetary Fund

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

ISO International Organisation for Standardisation

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

LPG liquefied petroleum gas

MOC Ministry of Construction of the People’s Republic of China

MOE Ministry of Education

MOF Ministry of Finance

MOHURDMinistry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China

NBS National Bureau of Statistics

NDRC National Development and Reform Commission

NEA National Energy Administration

NHFPC National Health and Family Planning Commission

NGOA National Government Office Administration

NUH northern urban heating

OB occupancy behaviour

P&C public and commercial

PC personal computer

RR rural residential

SHJJWShanghai municipal commission of housing and urban-rural development

SZJS Shenzhen bureau of housing and construction

UR urban residential

USD US dollar

Acronyms, abbreviations and units of measure


Gtce gigatonnes (109 tonnes) of coal equivalents

kgce kilogram of coal equivalents

kWh kilowatt (103 watts) hour

kWhe kilowatt (103 watts) hour electricity

m2 square meter

Mtce megatonnes of coal equivalents

tce tonnes of coal equivalents

tCO2 tonnes of carbon dioxide

TWh terawatt (1012 watts) hour

TWhe terawatt (1012 watts) hour electricity

Units of measure

79

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Building Energy Research Center of Tsinghua University

The Building Energy Research Center (BERC) was founded in 2005 at Tsinghua

University. The mission of BERC is devoted to the development of energy-efficient

and environmentally responsible buildings in China in accordance with national and

international energy and environmental targets, including buildings research and

innovation.

The principal research activities within BERC include:

• Assessment of the current buildings status in China and the provision of strategic

outlooks on buildings energy consumption and efficiency.

• Occupant behaviour and building simulation research.

• Research and development (R&D) of innovative high-efficiency buildings

technology and systems.

• Energy efficiency application research on subsectors, including: space heating in

Northern China; rural residential buildings and urban residential buildings; and

public and commercial buildings.

Since 2007, BERC has published ten Annual Report on China Building Energy

Efficiency, to provide data reference, technical and policy suggestions to policy

makers and engineers in the building energy conservation sector. BERC is also

involved in international exchange and cooperation, including on-going collaboration

with the International Energy Agency.

Homepage of BERC is https://berc.bestchina.org/.

china building energy use 201810 china building energy use 2018 the people's republic of china...

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