child soldiers neg - sdi 5 week

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SDI 2007 15 Week Child Soldiers Neg

Child Soldiers Neg SDI Strategy Forum

IntelStrategy Sheet (UMICH) .....................................................2Notes ....................................................................................2Case Advantages Outline.....................................................3

UMICH Child Soldiers Plan Text.......................................4UMICH K Adv ....................................................................5UMICH Heg Advantage ......................................................6UMICH 1AC Solvency........................................................8UMICHS 1AC Framework (For K Adv)......................................9UNT Child Soldiers Plan Text..........................................10JDIs Child Soldiers Plan Text .........................................11

TopicalityT: PHA (Human Rights)....................................................12T: PHA (Violence).............................................................13

Solvency

Solvency Frontline (1/3) ....................................................14Solvency Frontline (2/3) ....................................................15Solvency Frontline (3/3) ....................................................16No Solvency: No Desire ....................................................17No Solvency: Ethnocentricity ............................................18No Solvency: Soldiers Elsewhere ......................................19Child Soldiers Population = Exaggerated ..........................20AT: US Key (UMICH) ......................................................21DDR Fails ..........................................................................22Psychologists Fail ..............................................................23Disarmament and Reintegration Fail .................................24Education Fails ..................................................................25Education Exists Now........................................................26Education Doesnt Solve Economy ...................................27

AdvantageAlt Causes Frontline (1/2)..................................................28Alt Cause Frontline (2/2) ...................................................29Alt Cause: AIDS................................................................30Alt Cause: Economic Conditions.......................................31Alt Cause: Extreme Poverty...............................................32Alt Cause: Infrastructure....................................................33Alt Cause: Voluntary .........................................................34Alt Cause: Small Arms ......................................................35No Psychological Damage .................................................36

FrameworkConsequentialism Framework Frontline (1/3)................... 37Consequentialism Framework Frontline (2/3)................... 38Consequentialism Framework Frontline (3/3)................... 39

CP'sUN CP 1NC....................................................................... 40UN CP Solvency EXT....................................................... 41UN CP Solvency Ext......................................................... 42IFESH CP 1NC ................................................................. 43Generic NGO CP Ext. ....................................................... 44Canada CP 1NC ................................................................ 45Canada CP Solvency Ext (Child Soldiers) ........................46Canada CP Solvency Ext. (Education)............................. 47EU CP 1NC....................................................................... 48EU CP Solvency Ext. ........................................................ 49EU CP Solvency Ext. ........................................................ 50

EU CP Solvency Ext. ........................................................ 51AT: US Moral Obligation..................................................52

Links to GenericsSpending Links.................................................................. 53Spending Links.................................................................. 54

Ptx Popular Links..............................................................55Ptx Popular Links..............................................................56

Reps K Links..................................................................... 57Reps K Links..................................................................... 58Education = Dependency K Link ...................................... 59Education = Imperialistic K Link......................................60


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Strategy Sheet (UMICH)

Strategy #1:

The UN CP

Framework

Case Defense

Spending DA

Strategy #2:

Reps Ko The link is present in the plan text the fact that they characterize children as people

younger than 18

Case Defense

Framework

Notes

Most of these advantages are based off the fact that there are child soldiers right now therefore,you can use almost any international agent to do the plan and it would solve the entirety of the

case 100% FHA

o US Food and Humanitarian Assistance Bureau

Bush Bado You are probably on the right side of the disad with this plan being popular

IFESH CPo IFESH is an NGO so you can use a generic NGO CP ext.o IFESH does not have anything good or bad on it really I searched through all four

engines lexis, proquest, project muse, and google scholar and nothing really showedup for it or against it but the solvency card included is pretty sweet!

Education = Dependency K Linko Specific to Africao Not specific to child soldiers education just education in general however, it still links

to their solvency advocate

TVET (Training and Vocational Education and Training)


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Case Advantages Outline

Most advantages cannot be turned because they are simply true like killing little children probably doeshurt morale. So, I created a no solvency frontline and an alt cause frontline.

Advantages (UMICH):

Psychological Problems Hegemony

o The internal link to the disad is that child soldiers exist and are fighting however, the USwill remain the hegemon if the children do not fight anymore therefore, you can solvewith any actor so long as they educate children and send them into rehabilitation,demobilization, and reintegration programs.

Diseaseo Spread of STDs because girls are more likely to be raped

Advantages (JDI)

Warfightingo Children will become killing machines as a result millions will die and refugees will flee

cutting off oil supply to America. Oil-induced economic decline will lead to extinction

Soft Power Terrorism

Democracyo Education For All Act of 2007 key internal link to democracy

Advantages (UNT)

Patriarchyo Girls being discriminated right now


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UMICH Child Soldiers Plan Text

The USFG should substantially increase funding for education efforts to reducethe participation of people less than 18 years of age in armed confl ict in topically

designated areas.


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UMICH K Adv

Contention 1: Bling Bang

Traditional understandings of war as a principled interstate dispute have collapsed. Modernwar is marked increasingly by atrocities committed against civilian populations. In theseconfli cts a child sold ier perishes every 3 minutesP.W. Singer, Senior Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution. 2005. Children at War. Pg. 4-5

The number of child so ldiers is increasing despite international norms to the contraryVeraAchvarina and Simon F. Reich; Vera Achvarina is a doctoral candidate at the Graduate School of Public and International

Affairs (GSPIA) at the University of Pittsburgh. Simon F. Reich is Director of the Ford Institute for Human Security at the University of

Pittsburgh and Professor of International Affairs at GSPIA. International Security Summer 2006

Child soldiers are conditioned to have contempt for life through psychological manipulationdestroying the fabric of their society for generationsMikeWessells, professor of psychology at Randolph-Macon College in Virginia, is a former president of the Division of Peace Psychologyof the American Psychological Association. He has done extensive consulting on conflict resolution and healing the wounds of war, particularly

in Sierra Leone and Angola. BAS 11-21-97This focus on warfare permanently scars its participants- in chi ldren it inst ills the belief thatviolence is more than an acceptable, normal mode of dispute resolution-but that it is theorganizing principle of human lifeJ. Pearn, Department of Paediatrics & Child Health, Royal Children's Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,April 2003, Children and war Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health , http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1440-1754.2003.00124.x?prevSearch=allfield%3A%28child+soldiers%29, DateAccessed : June 26, 2007, Volume 39 Issue 3 Page 166-172, DC

Psychic damage is a precondition to global annihilation- only after psycholog ical defensemechanisms have been weakened through habituation to vio lence is pure war and completedestruction possibleMark B. Borg, Jr. is a practicing psychoanalyst and community/organizational consultant working in New York City. He is a graduate of theWilliam Alanson White Institute's psychoanalytic certification program and continues his candidacy in their organizational dynamics program.

He is co-founder and executive director of the Community Consulting Group. Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society 8.1 (2003)57-67

Psychological peace is a pre-requisite to material peaceJoanna Montgomery Byles is a Professor of English in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, University of Cyprus, Nicosia,Eastern MediterraneanJournal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society 8.2 (2003) 208-213

The effects of this socialization of violence outweigh the negatives disadsVeraAchvarina and Simon F. Reich; Vera Achvarina is a doctoral candidate at the Graduate School of Public and International

Affairs (GSPIA) at the University of Pittsburgh. Simon F. Reich is Director of the Ford Institute for Human Security at the University of



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UMICH Heg Advantage

Contention 1: The Dog-

Child soldiers are proliferating world wide- the US will increasingly face them on the field ofBattleP. W. Singer, Olin Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies at The Brookings Institution and director of the Project on U.S. Policy Toward theIslamic World, Washingtonpost.com 6-12-06

Small so ldiers are a big threat to US hegemony- Their presence escalates conflicts andmakes them intractable, increasing the likelihood of US intervention.Peter WarrenSingeris an Olin Fellow in the Foreign Policy Studies Program at the Brookings Institution Parameters, Winter 2001-02, pp.40-56. http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/parameters/01winter/singer.htm

Engagement with chi ld sold iers shatters unit cohesion, morale, and the resulting publicbacklash will END US engagement and the war on terrorP.W. SingerOlin Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies at The Brookings Institution and director of the Project on U.S. Policy Toward the IslamicWorld, Military Review May 2003

We will control the vital internal links to Hegemony

First, Unit Cohesion- Its the most important factor in mi litary effectivenessWoodruff, William A, Law Professor, Campbell University, 1995, University of Missouri at Kansas City Law Review, Fall, 1995, 64 UMKC L.Rev. 121, p. 162

Second, Morale is key to win warsColonel M. Yu. Zelenkov, MILITARY THOUGHT, November 2000, p.http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0JAP/is_6_9/ai_72703609

Third, Public Suppor t

Cultivation of publ ic suppor t is the most impor tant source of American leadership it is themost likely threat to leadershipG. John Ikenberry, Professor of Geopolitics and Global Justice, Georgetown University, Winter 2002(American Strategy in the Age of Terror Survival) p. 21-22

Material preponderance isnt important if public support for engagement collapses, thenunipolarity will unravel

Charles A. Kupchan, Professor of International Relations, Georgetown University, 2002 (The End of theAmerican Era: US Foreign Policy and the Geopolitics of the Twenty-First Century) p. 63

Fourth, Readiness

A weak mil itary is worse than none at al l- i t promotes miscalculation and warFeaver Professor of Political Science at Duke 2003 (Peter D., Armed Servants: Agency, Oversight, and Civil-Military Relations, p.213 //AGupta)


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Readiness is essential to US hegemonydeclining force capabilities create balancingincentives and undermine US security guarantees.JackSpencer, Policy Analyst at Heritage, 9/15/2000. www.heritage.org/Research/MissileDefense/BG1394.cfm.Fifth and Independently- A focus on reducing the use of child soldiers wil l increase theU.S.s soft power.RameshThakur and SteveLee, Mr. Thakur is vice rector of the United Nations University in Tokyo and Mr. Lee is executive directorof the Canadian Center for Foreign Policy Development in Ottawa, January 19,2000, The International Herald Tribune, 6/28/07,http://www.unu.edu/hq/ginfo/media/Thakur13.html

At tempts to outweigh the case wi ll be both laughable and pathetic-

First, 30 regional confl icts wil l go global in a world withou t US soft powerJoseph Nye, Washington Quarterly, Winter 1996. Conflicts after the Cold War.

Second, A wor ld in which the United States exercised leadership would have tremendousadvantagesKhalilzad 95 Zalmay, the amazing, Washington Quarterly, Spring

Heg Bad, like the negs clothing, is out of style- The US is the only game in townNiallFerguson, international history at Harvard, Fall 2004 (http://www.hooverdigest.org/044/ferguson.html)


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UMICH 1AC Solvency

Contention 2: US Action is Essential

US funding for education based rehabilitation and reintegration is essential. Action will

resolve the perception that Washington condones violenceShannonMcManimon is the Jim Bristol Fellow in the AFSC National Youth and Militarism Program Foreign Policy in Focus 11-2-99

Atrocity cont inues because we ignore it- action by the United States can end the conf lictGRACE GRALLAKALLO, SPOKESPERSON AFFILIATION: WORLD VISION, formerchild soldier, congressional Testimony 4-26-06

The Legacy of colonialism gives us a burden to respondElliott P. Skinner, Franz Boaz Professor of Anthropology Columbia University, International Journal on World Peace, BA NYU, PhDColumbia, former ambassador to Upper Volta, Member of the council on foreign relations 6-1-99

Africa is crucial- biggest chi ld soldier problem is there- age and volume

VeraAchvarina and Simon F. Reich; Vera Achvarina is a doctoral candidate at the Graduate School of Public and InternationalAffairs (GSPIA) at the University of Pittsburgh. Simon F. Reich is Director of the Ford Institute for Human Security at the University of


Health care is crucial to reduce backlash associated with ch ild soldiersP.W. SingerOlin Fellow in Foreign Policy Studies at The Brookings Institution and director of the Project on U.S. Policy Toward the IslamicWorld, Military Review May 2003

A sustained educat ion campaign can help to heal the psychological wounds of warMikeWessells, professor of psychology at Randolph-Macon College in Virginia, is a former president of the Division of Peace Psychologyof the American Psychological Association. He has done extensive consulting on conflict resolution and healing the wounds of war, particularly

in Sierra Leone and Angola. BAS 11-21-97


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UMICHS 1AC Framework (For K Adv)

Contention 3: T.I.A.

Our approach to human pain should be based on universal compassion instead of narrow

self interest. It is the duty of those with means to respond to the suffering of others.Universal responsib ility is essential to surv ivalHIS HOLINESS THE XIVDALAI LAMA OF TIBET THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD CONFERENCE ON HUMAN RIGHTS 15 JUNE,1993 Vienna, AUSTRIA http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/1995conf/dalai1.html

A t radit ional focus on war as interstate dispute impoverishes our understanding of theworld by focusing exclusively on crises based policy making that ignores the omnipresenteffects of global militarism.ChrisCuomo. Ph.D., 1992, University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Philosophy University of Cincinnati Hypatia Fall 1996.Vol.11,Iss. 4; pg. 30

Refuse the model of Crisis centered politics and refocus ing decision making on theeverydayness of exploitation is crucial to negate the short-term crisis crutch that makesstructural injustice and insecurity inevitableHillary Charlesworth Director Centere for International and Public Law and PF Law Australian National University 2002 InternationalLaw: A discipline of crisis Modern Law Review, 65:3, May

A focus on shor t term, low probabil ity r isks necessitates a sacri fice of justice- The planspush for accountability is a better path to peaceM. Cherif Bassiouni Distinguished Research Professor of Law, President, International Human Rights Law Institute, DePaul UniversityCollege of Law; President, International Institute for Higher Studies in Criminal Sciences (Siracusa, Italy); President, International Association

of Penal Law (Paris, France). Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law Spring, 2003

Strictly Consequential decision frameworks are unsustainable- they collapse into ir rationalviolenceMichael Charles Williams,The Realist Tradition and the Limits of International Relations p. 172-3, 2005

Utilitarianism is incapable of evaluating human rights- it instrumentalizes the individualrendering life meaninglessJackDonnely, PhD Poli Sci Berkley, The Concept of Human Rights, 1985 p. 52-55

Interstate war has become obsolete due to economic integration, spread of democracy, andnuclear deterrence

Michael Mandelbaum is Christian A. Herter Professor of American Foreign Policy, the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced InternationalStudies, Council on Foreign Relations, New York. Survival Winter 98/99 proquest


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UNT Child Soldiers Plan Text

PLAN: The United States federal government should fund and expandDisarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration programs focused on publichealth in the region commonly designated as Sub Saharan Africa.


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JDIs Child Soldiers Plan Text

The United States Federal Government should provide all necessary financial andlogis tical assistance for education, rehabilitation and reintegration regardingchild ren in combat in sub-Saharan Africa.


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T: PHA (Human Rights)

A. Interpretat ion: Public health assistance includes prevent ion of diseases, water pur if ication, andmedical supplies.MMWR92 (Public Health Assessment Russian Federation, 1992, February 14)

The FHA assessment ind icated three priorities for public health assistance to the Russian

Federation. First, efforts should focus on the prevention of vaccine-preventable childhooddiseases, including measles, pertussis, diphtheria, and poliomyelitis. The assessment indicatedthat approximately 3 million children aged 1-3 years may be at risk for measles and serioussequelae. In addition to providing measles vaccine, efforts are needed to increase theproduction of other childhood vaccines. Second, support shou ld be provided to water-purification plants, particularly in regions where organic pollution of public water suppliesis severe. Third, medical supp lies should include essential and life-saving drugs and otherbasic supplies.

B. Violation: The aff doesnt do any of these they only provide education to p revent therecruitment of child soldiers.

C. Standards

1) Limits: Under their interpretation, any plan that solved violence would be topical including the genocide in Sudan, small arms, The Great Boer War.2) Ground: The aff can spike out of core disads such as influence tradeoff disads by only

increasing local competition aff can spike any disad that comes off an increase in USmaterial aid

3) Predictability: With the explosion of aff cases, the neg will never be able to predict what affwill be run

D. T is a voter for fairness and education.


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T: PHA (Violence)

A. Interpretat ion: Public health assistance includes prevent ion of diseases, water pur if ication, andmedical supplies.MMWR92 (Public Health Assessment Russian Federation, 1992, February 14)

The FHA assessment ind icated three priorities for public health assistance to the Russian

Federation. First, efforts should focus on the prevention of vaccine-preventable childhooddiseases, including measles, pertussis, diphtheria, and poliomyelitis. The assessment indicatedthat approximately 3 million children aged 1-3 years may be at risk for measles and serioussequelae. In addition to providing measles vaccine, efforts are needed to increase theproduction of other childhood vaccines. Second, support shou ld be provided to water-purification plants, particularly in regions where organic pollution of public water suppliesis severe. Third, medical supp lies should include essential and life-saving drugs and otherbasic supplies.

B. Violation: The aff doesnt do any of these they only provide education to p revent therecruitment of child soldiers.

C. Standards

1) Limits: Under their interpretation, any plan that solved violence would be topical including the genocide in Sudan, small arms, The Great Boer War.2) Ground: The aff can spike out of core disads such as influence tradeoff disads by

only increasing local competition aff can spike any disad that comes off an increase inUS material aid

3) Predictability: With the explosion of aff cases, the neg will never be able to predict whataff will be run.

D. T is a voter for fairness and education.


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Solvency Frontline (1/3)

1. DDR doesnt solve for girls 40% of child soldiersAgence France Presse 06 (October 11, 11,000 child soldiers abandoned in DCR: Amnesty, L/N, NL)

The London-based human rights group saidthe disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR)programme, which aimed to help 200,000 combatants, was failing to meet the traumatised youngsters'needs. Girls in particular were worst affected, with most of those snatched by armed groups in the war-ravaged central African state still unaccounted for, it added in a report critical of the interim power-sharingadministration. In the majority of cases, girls had either been abandoned or misidentified as legitimate"dependents" of adult fighters. President Joseph Kabila's government has done little or nothing to tracethem, it added. In certain areas, Amnesty estimated that girls accounted for less than two percent of thechild soldiers released from armed groups and into the DDR programme. Yet they make up about 40percent of under-18s illegally used to fight by armed forces and groups, said Tawanda Hondora, thedeputy director of Amnesty's Africa programme. A number ofpeople are said to have testified thatcommanders and adult fighters often do not feel obliged to release girls, whom they consider theirsexual playthings, and some DRC officials are willing to turn a blind eye. Some girls are said to consider itimpossible to leave, fearing recriminations including torture and death if they try to escape.

2. Child soldiers inevitable A) Warlords convenienceAfrica News 07 (July 20, Ghana, Ex-UN Force Commander Says the World Has Failed Child Soldiers, L/N,NL)

A former United Nations (UN) Force Commander in Rwanda, Lt. Gen Romeo Dallaire (rtd.) has indictedhumanity for collectively looking on unconcerned as warlords commit the unacceptable practice of recruitingchild soldiers. He argues that the lukewarm posture of the world towards the plight of child soldierscontributed in no small way to their recruitment. He points out that besides the complicity of humanity itis also easier and cheaper to recruit child soldiers. "It is easier and cheaper to recruit child soldiers,and ultimately the world lets them get away with it," said Lt. Gen. Dallaire in a response to the question asto why warlords recruit child soldiers instead of adults in an exclusive interview with the Public Agendaat the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra.

B) Cost-effective services.Manoharan 05 (N, The Hindu, May 24, Child Soldiers, L/N, NL)There are two major factors behind children being preferred for soldiering. First, recruiting andmaintaining children is cost-effective. They eat less, wear less and are paid less. It is estimated thatexpenditure on child soldiers is less than half of what is spent on their adult counterparts. But, when itcomes to work, they are treated like adults - fighting on frontlines, carrying heavy war supplies and, at times,injured or dead soldiers, cleaning, guarding and cooking. The fearlessness and ignorance of children aremanipulated to employ them on the most hazardous tasks such as laying and clearing landmines andhandling toxic weapons.


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3. No solvency Rebels will not release child soldiers in one piece.BBC Monitoring 07 (BBC Monitoring International Reports, Congolese Paper Reports 400 Child Soldiers tobe Demobilized in Car, May 29, L/N, NL)

Damane Zakaria, a self-proclaimed "General," did not clearly indicate when the children will be handed overto the authorities for them to be demobilized. In a communique, UNICEF confirmed that negotiations hadbegun with the non-government armed groups so that hundreds of child soldiers enlisted in the north-east of the CAR will be released and handed over to their families. According to the UN agency, "theUFDR leader has agreed to release about 400 children. An initial list of 220 child soldiers has beensubmitted to UNICEF, stating that the rebels could sign a final agreement in the coming weeks." At the sametime, UNICEF pointed out it had begun discussions with the government in Bangui to study themodalities for demobilizing the children and for their return to civilian life. The peace accord signed atBirao on 13 April has already provided for the integration of the UFDR combatants into the ranks of theloyalist defence and security forces or their reintegration into civilian life. However, this agreement did notmention either the existence of child soldiers or of their fate. The UFDR, that emerged towards the end of2006, by occupying several localities in the north-east of the country, was, before the signing of thepeace agreement, one of the main rebel movements hostile to the regime of the CAR president, FrancoisBozize. Since 2005, the action of these movements, combined with the activities of "those who erected

road blocks" and to the brutalities of members of the regular army, had plunged the northern half ofthe CAR into notorious insecurity.

4. Prefer our evidence its comparative. Non-participants and participants in DDR haveperformed similarly in society.Humphreys and Weinstein 05 (Macartan, Assistant Professor @ Columbia University, and Jeremy,Assistant Professor @ Stanford University, Disentangling the Determinants of Successful Disarmament,Demobilization, and Reintegration, February)

Perhaps the most surprising result is that international interventions designed to aid the demobilizationprocess appear to have only weak impacts on the likelihood of successful reintegration. Non-participants in DDR do just as well as those who entered the formal demobilization program. But thereis some evidence that non-participants may have been aided in reintegration by the programs that targetedother combatants, creating community-level effects that paved the way for their return as well.

5. A) Turn: Western education in Sub-saharan Africa creates a new European racism.Tikly 01 (Leon, Globalization and Education in the Postcolonial World: towards a conceptual framework,Comparative Education, 37:2, 151-171, May 1)

Finally, European racism continues to exert an influence on the trajectory of educational reform insub-Saharan Africa. Hoogvelt (1997) argues that the implementation of structural adjustment policieshas been very much tied in with the spread of the new racism which has come to underpin popularexplanations for the growing political instability and intercommunal conflicts in the marginal areas ofthe global economy (p. 179). This new racism, based on cultural explanations of difference, has come toreplace biologically driven notions of racial superiority in the Western psyche. In many Europeanconstructions of the African Other, Africas malaise is seen to be rooted in Africa itself. Internationalschool effectiveness studies, supported by global agencies such as the World Bank can feed into andsupport such views. Largely based on research, rationalities and an underlying epistemology developedelsewhere, school effectiveness studies lay the blame for school failure at the local level. Understood indiscursive terms, as an example of knowledge/power in operation, school effectiveness can be understood asa disciplinary technology, i.e. as an important tool for managing crisis and apportioning blame (Morley &Rasool, 1999; Tikly, 1999; Harber & Davies, 1997; Samoff, 1994).


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B) Impact: We must take every action to breakdown racism failure risks annihilationBarndt 91 Educator, Trainer, and Organizer in field of Racial Justice[Joseph, Dismantling racism: the continuing challenge to White America,http://militantmoderate.debateaddict.com/forums/showthread.php?p=804#post804]

To study racism is to study walls. We have looked at barriers and fences, restraints and limitations,ghettos and prisons. The prison of racism confines us all, people of color and white people alike. Itshackles the victimizer as well as the victim. The walls forcibly keep people of color and white peopleseparate from each other; in our separate prisons we are all prevented from achieving the human potentialthat God intends for us. The limitations imposed on people of color by poverty, subservience, andpowerlessness are cruel, inhuman, and unjust; the effects of uncontrolled power, privilege, and greed,which are the marks of our white prison, will inevitably destroy us as well. But we have also seen thatthe walls of racism can be dismantled. We are not condemned to an inexorable fate, but are offered thevision and the possibility of freedom. Brick by brick, stone by stone, the prison of individual,institutional, and cultural racism can be destroyed. You and I are urgently called to join the efforts ofthose who know it is time to tear down once and for all, the walls of racism.


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No Solvency: No Desire

No solvency: Children dont want to learn in a formal education system.Panafrican News Agency 04 (April 29, Burundis Former Child Soldiers Dislike Schools, L/N, NL)

Burundian authorities are facing enormous problems to reintegrate former child soldiers into theeducation system after their demobilisation under a series of cease-fire agreements. According to asource at the institution charged with the reintegration process, a majority of the 964 former childsoldiers prefer to learn a trade in a non-formal education system. Unfortunately, this type of training isnot available in all the provinces of the country. The co-ordinator of the national project fordemobilisation, reintegration and prevention of recruitment of child soldiers, Desiree Gatoto said sheplans to encourage the demobilised children to choose other more traditional forms of training that arereadily available. "But such an advise will only bear fruit if it is backed by parents and closerelatives," Gatoto pointed out, adding that the former belligerents were also to blame for the slow pace atwhich they were releasing the former child soldiers within their ranks.

Children dont want to go home because they receive food and most of their family hasalready dead.Marano 02 (Lou, United Press International, When the enemy is a child, June 12, L/N, NL)

The second point was that despite the brutality of their lives, it is a mistake to think that child soldiersare eager to escape. Child soldiers are effectively alienated from their home environment, he said."Their ability to go home is completely removed by the fact that they're forced to commit atrocious andappalling acts." Gray said he never met a child soldier who wanted to go home. In their environmentsomeone who was fed, had a pair of boots and a gun was king. "They become hooked on the power tosome extent." That coupled with the fact that almost no one was left alive between 18 and 40 meantthat no child soldier was trying to escape. "They become a very useful commodity, and they are usedextensively. There are an awful lot of them, and to some extent they are pretty effective."


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No Solvency: Ethnocentricity

Teaching children right from wrong is ineffectiveMarano 02 (Lou, United Press International, When the enemy is a child, June 12, L/N, NL)

Gray made three points, and saved the most dramatic one for last. The first was that in some parts of theworld, ethnocentric moral exhortation won't work. The attitude he encountered in Sierra Leone "issomething we in the West can't really comprehend." He thinks that "preaching" to the leaders of childsoldiers, and telling them that what they are doing is wrong, is ineffective. "You might as well bespeaking Chinese."


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No Solvency: Soldiers Elsewhere

Cant solve for readiness: child soldiers will still exist in Iraq and other parts of the world.United Press International 03 (February 6, US May Face Child Soldiers in Iraq, L/N, NL)

Western experts say there are now around 300,000 child soldiers around the world fighting in 30conflicts, or approximately 75 percent of the world's military battles. "It certainly is not a problemunique to Iraq," said Stohl. "Anyone in the U.S. military forces that are deployed many places oversees islikely to come into contact with child soldiers." Singer said that even if the United States does not go towar with Iraq, it is nearly inevitable that American soldiers will face children in battle somewhere. Headded that Iraq's child soldiers raise not only combat issues for the military, but also pose a potentialpublic relations nightmare given today's global media environment. "The scenes (of American soldiersfighting children) will possibly be played back not only within the United States but also around the world,"said Singer.


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Child Soldiers Population = Exaggerated

Child soldiers only make up 0.05% of the population.Accra Mail (Ghana) July 10, 2007 (WHAT BONO DOESN'T SAY ABOUT THE CONTINENT L/N)

What percentage of the African population would you say dies in war every year? What share of malechildren, age 10 to 17, are child soldiers? How many Africans are afflicted by famine or died of AIDS lastyear or are living as refugees? In each case, the answer is one-half of 1% of the population or less. Insome cases it's much less; for example, annual war deaths have averaged 1 out of every 10,800 Africans forthe last four decades. That doesn't lessen the tragedy, of course, of those who are such victims, and maybethere are things the West can do to help them. But the typical African is a long way from being a starving,AIDS-stricken refugee at the mercy of child soldiers. The reality is that many more Africans need latrinesthan need Western peacekeepers - but that doesn't play so well on TV.


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AT: US Key (UMICH)

1. There solvency evidence does not state that the US is key to solving problems in sub-Saharan Africa.Neither does it state that rehabilitation, reintegration programs, healthcare can solve for the childrenin sub-Saharan Africa.

2. The McManimon evidencea. Discusses that the US has a problem with child soldiers they allow 17 year olds to fight

only by fixing the USs problem will they resolve the perception of condoning violence.b. The US should look over the arms trade because this exacerbates the child soldier problem

opposition groups use US arms - the plan does not solve for small arms

3. Their Akallo evidence doesn't say the U.S. is key -- it just says that people in general have an obligation to"act against atrocity." Even if this card says the U.S. COULD end conflicts, it's not comparative that otheractors are WORSE.

4. Skinner 99 evidence doesnt say the US is key - explains that the international community shouldhelp out African countries because many developed countries manipulated African states during theCold War. Ergo, some international community should help Africa.


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DDR Fails

DDR does not stop recruitment of children and economic incentives are key to preventingre-recruitment not only education.Agence France Presse 06 (October 11, 11,000 child soldiers abandoned in DCR: Amnesty, L/N, NL)

The London-based human rights group saidthe disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR)programme, which aimed to help 200,000 combatants, was failing to meet the traumatised youngsters'needs.This has done nothing to stop the new recruitment of children, including some who were onlyrecently demobilised and reunited with their families, said Hondora, urging international action to tacklethe problem. "The new government must make it their first priority to ensure that all children associatedwith armed forces and groups are released, protected and provided with meaningful educational andincome-generating opportunities to enable them to stay within their communities. "This is the onlyway to prevent the re-recruitment and further abandonment of these children."


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Psychologists Fail

Western trained psychologists fail to address the true problem spiritual discord.Wessels 98 (Michael G., professor of Psychology, Radolph-Macon College, a former president of the Divisionof Peace Psychology of the American Psychological Association, Journal of Peace Research, Review Essay,Children, Armed Conflict, and Peace)

Culture Context, and StressStress, its effects, and the socially appropriate means of responding to it are powerfully influenced by culture(DiNicola, 1996). As Cairns (1996) notes, psychologists have tended to embrace Western models ofstress, acting as if they were universal. In fact, stress is a socially constructed construct that exhibitsconsiderable variation across cultures. In countries such as Angola, where life is colored by spiritualcosmology, a child soldier who has killed may present symptoms such as guilt and sleeplessness, but thedeeper problem may be his belief that he is haunted by the unavenged spirits of those he killed (Green& Wessells, 1995; Wessells, 1997). Whereas Western-trained psychologists might urge this individual toexpress his feelings about what he had done, this approach might not address the spiritualcontamination issue. Failure to restore spiritual harmony can lead to the youths rejection by thecommunity (Green & Wessells, 1995; Wessells, 1997).


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Disarmament and Reintegration Fail

Disarmament and reintegration programs fail because of a permanent education systemand jobs.Wood 05 (David, Newshouse News Service, Child Soldiers Mature Into Threat to Africas Stability, June 20,L/N, NL)

The phenomenon of child soldiers, which burst into the world's consciousness in the 1990s as a series ofsavage civil wars swept sub-Saharan Africa, has morphed into a brutal new form as tens of thousandsof hardened teenage fighters rejoin militias and drift across borders from one conflict to another.Senior U.S. defense and intelligence officials say the re-emergence of child soldiers who are used by rebeland government forces alike is a serious and rising threat to stability across a broad swath of Africa. It comesdespite millions of dollars spent by international donors and aid agencies to disarm and reintegratethem into their local communities, efforts falling short in part because of the lack of sustainingeducation and jobs in Africa's sagging economies. "It's a big problem," said Theresa Whelan, deputyassistant defense secretary for Africa, who has met with former child soldiers who are now experiencedadolescent fighters in Uganda and Liberia.


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Education Fails

Ex-child soldiers find it difficult to participate in education and may revert back toviolence.Wessels 98 (Michael G., professor of Psychology, Radolph-Macon College, a former president of the Divisionof Peace Psychology of the American Psychological Association, Journal of Peace Research, Review Essay,Children, Armed Conflict, and Peace)

The Machel Study establishes just how distant a goal peace is, as it documents that childrens human rightsare being violated on a massive scale. In addition, the Study suggests that the impacts of armed conflict onchildren pose formidable obstacles to the construction of peace. Even after ceasefires and peace treatieshave been signed, societies must find a way of reintegrating significant numbers of underage soldierswho have been trained to kill and who have seen and experienced events viewed traditionally as outside therealm of children. Many war-affected children are at risk of continuing cycles of violence, and they mayfind it difficult to participate fully in education or in wider tasks of development. Intervention andviolence prevention efforts are badly needed. Peace and childrens well-being are inseparable, a pointhaving particular salience in war-torn countries where children make up nearly half the population.


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Education Exists Now

Education and reintegration programs exist now.Menon and Argaese 07 (Geeta, Senior Technical Advisor for Education in Emergencies, and Abby, Inter toBasic and Girls Education Unit, American Institutes of Research, Role of Education and the Demobilization ofChild Soldiers Aspects of an Appropriate Education Program for Child Soldiers, March, NL)

The Christians Children Fund implemented program in Angola, which worked with the communityto legitimize the return of the former child soldiers. The program worked through church-basedmotivators and welcomed returning children in a traditional ceremony involving cleansing rituals. The Savethe Children-run program in DRC layered demobilization activities with their strong Community ChildProtection Networks (CCPN), which focused on preventing and protecting children from all kinds ofabuse, advocating for childrens protection and development, and disseminating and promoting therights of children and legal protection instruments. Because they were already actively engaged in childrights issues, the CCPN played critical roles in demobilization and reintegration activities The USAID-sponsored Community Focused Reintegration (CFR) programs in Burundi, DRC, Liberia, and SierraLeone made community central to the reintegration and education processes. In Burundi, for example,the program consisted of three components: 1) leadership training for esteemed community members,including training on understanding perceptions, communicating effectively, and resolving conflicts; 2)

combined vocational skills and literacy training for ex-combatants and other community members;and 3) small grants for small community infrastructure projects. Together these activities helped toreweave the social networks of the community while reintegrating the returning child soldiers.


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Education Doesnt Solve Economy

Education doesnt solve for the economy - it does not provide jobs.Van Wyk 07 (Anneline, Namibia: Education Does Not Provide Jobs, New Era, August 7)

Despite the fact that education and training are imperatives, they do not provide direct jobs. They onlyempower, enlighten and liberate people. This was said over the weekend by the Minister of Youth,National Service, Sport and Culture, John Mutorwa, when he officially opened the Karas Regional YouthExpo at Keetmanshoop under the theme, Our Youth, Our Gem, Our Assets. He warned that the youthmust remain focused and constructively engage themselves in the country's socio-economic, political,cultural, intellectual, moral and educational activities and development. Young entrepreneurs, artists,youth and cultural groups from all over the Karas Region participated in the event. The overall winner of theKaras Regional Youth Expo 2007 was Thomas van Niekerk from Karasburg, trading under the name ShareezLeather Designs.


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Alt Causes Frontl ine (1/2)

Alt Causes:A) Bulging population, living in cities, shattered economies, and abundance of small arms.Wood 05 (David, Newshouse News Service, Child Soldiers Mature Into Threat to Africas Stability, June 20,L/N, NL)

Some obstacles to reintegration can never be overcome. "Very often the initiation into a militia is to kill afamily member, reinforcing the idea that the kid can never go home," said a senior U.S. intelligenceofficial with long experience in African conflicts, who was authorized to speak only anonymously. "Theyfight without remorse they're frightening," the officer said. What's pushing many of these young menback into warfare now is a powerful combination of factors: a bulging youth population, massivedemographic shifts of youths from countryside to Africa's broken and teeming cities, economiesshattered by warfare and corruption, and a proliferation of small arms.

B) AIDSByriak 07 (George J, The Tragedy of Child Soldiers, July/September, Peace Magazine, L/N, NL)

Peter W. Singer of the Brookings Institution believes AIDS is a significant factor in the rise of childsoldiers. Having watched their parents succumb to this sickness, "many [children] will consider they

have nothing to lose by entering into war." By 2010, more than 43 million children will be AIDSorphans, losing one or both parents to the disease. The numbers will be greatest in Africa, "theepicenter of the child soldier phenomenon."

C) Economic conditionsByriak 07 (George J, The Tragedy of Child Soldiers, July/September, Peace Magazine, L/N, NL)

Prolonged warfare all but destroys normal economic and social conditions, especially in povertystricken developing nations. With schools closed and theirparents unemployed, children join armedforces to "secure daily food and survive." Surrounded by violence and conflict, many volunteer for theprotection they believe carrying weapons will afford them.

D) Government harassmentManoharan 05 (N, The Hindu, May 24, Child Soldiers, L/N, NL)

Children at times readilyjoin armed opposition groups to avoid harassments from the governmentforces. The urge to seek revenge in children for harassment by government forces is built on andcarefully manipulated by armed groups for their advantage. The children also pick up guns for thethrill and power behind wielding weapons. But most child recruitment takes place by force. Kidnappingsand press-ganging are popular methods used in Myanmar and Sri Lanka. Known as " afesa " in Ethiopia,children are picked up in streets by roaming security forces personnel. Orphans, displaced and street childrenare potential victims.


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Alt Cause Frontl ine (2/2)

E) Small armsBoivin 05 (Alexandra, B.A. and B.C.L./LL.B. degrees from McGill University and a Masters degree (DEA) inInternational Humanitarian Law from the GraduateInstitute of International Studies, Geneva, Complicity andbeyond: International law and the transfer of small arms and light weapons, International Review-Red Cross)

While the legal basis for imposing and enforcing arms embargoes falls outside the realm ofinternational humanitarian law, a quick glance at the parties currently embargoed reveals that thistype of response on the part of the international community is closely related to the perpetration ofserious violations of the laws of war. In the past two years, with the Security Council becoming more activeon the question of child soldiers, arms embargoes have been threatened against parties that recruitchildren into their ranks.46 This suggests that beyond the general association of small arms withviolations of international humanitarian law, a specific link is being authoritatively establishedbetween the availability of small arms and violations of the rights of children in armed conflict. Onemay reasonably conclude that embargoes in such circumstances are a reflection of States Common Article 1obligation to ensure respect for international humanitarian law.

F) The aff does not stop voluntary action - Children join the army voluntarily.Leahy 06 (Stephen, environmental journalist, IPS Inter Press Service, Rights: Redefining Justice For ChildSoldiers, October 25, L/N, NL)

Some 300,000 combatants under age 18 -- some as young as six and 40 percent of them girls -- are illegalrecruits in more than 30 conflicts around the world, Popovski and co-author Karen Arts say in the brief,which is based on a forthcoming book that examines how a child rights approach has been graduallyintroduced into the operation of international tribunals. Child soldiers are made to commit serious crimesalongside adults in such strife-torn places as Darfur, Sudan, the DRC, Sierra Leone, the Philippines, Nepaland Colombia. But there are cases of child soldiers clearly in control of their actions, "who were notcoerced, drugged or forced into committing atrocities. Some have become child soldiers voluntarilyand committed atrocities of their own discretion," the brief says. "Children often volunteer becausetheir family members have been gunned down by paramilitaries or other groups," said Marco Puzon ofUNICEF East Asia about the armed conflict in the Philippines.


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Al t Cause: AIDS

AIDS orphans are more easily exploited lack of parents to protect them.Neilson No date (Trevor, Executive Director of the Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, a network of 165international companies fighting the AIDS pandemic and is co-founder of Debt, AIDS, Trade, Africa, AIDS,Economics, and Terrorism in Africa, NL)

The AIDS orphan crisis suggests that they are recruiting in the right place. UNICEF estimates that 12million children under 15 in sub-Saharan Africa have lost at least one parent to AIDS and that therewill be 20 million AIDS orphans in Africa by 2010. Most African countries have no plan to address thecrisis and UNICEF has only recently begun to examine the real costs of addressing the problem. Littleresearch has been done about the link between Africas AIDS orphan crisis and the work of terrorist groupsin Africa but, in examining the role of child soldiers in African conflicts, one is able to paint a disturbingpicture of what is likely to unfold. Hundreds of thousands of children as young as ten years old havebeen forced by adults to participate in violence aimed at provoking political change in Angola,Ethiopia, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Rwanda, Sudan, Congo and other countries in Africa. While somechildren are abducted from their homes, children are most easily coerced into this work when there is nocaring adult in their lives to protect them. The deadly conflicts that have ravaged Africa have created asteady stream of orphans who can be exploited.


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Al t Cause: Economic Condit ions

Children join armies because they are guaranteed food, clothing, and shelter.Manoharan 05 (N, The Hindu, May 24, Child Soldiers, L/N, NL)

The United Nations Report on Impact of armed conflict on children' (1996) notes that " one of the most basicreasons for children joining armed groups is economic." For orphan children,joining armed groups isattractive to guarantee themselves the basic necessities of food, clothing and shelter. At times, povertyforces parents to offer their children for fighting in return for money. However, the children of parentswho involve themselves in armed conflicts drift into soldiering by default. If there is a strong prevalence ofviolence within a particular community in a conflict area, there is a greater likelihood of childrenbelonging to such communities to be part of hostilities. In these circumstances, a gun in their hands is asafer option rather than being without one.


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Alt Cause: Extreme Poverty

Children enlist in the army as a result of extreme poverty.Gray 02 (James, in the process of getting the degree of M.A. in political science, The End of Innocence: ChildSoldiers In Africa and International Assistance, November)

Child soldiers are usually recruited from poor and disadvantaged areas. Poverty often drives childrento enlist in an armed group for the material benefits that are offered food, shelter and clothing.Frequently they come from marginalised groups street children, internally displaced persons, or refugees -with no support structures.14 Children from displaced or non-existent family backgrounds are unable tobenefit from anti-war values or the protection offered by families. Sometimes parents force their childrento enlist in an armed group for material reasons, or because they believe that this is the only way out ofdire situations faced. Extreme poverty can drive people to do extreme things; sending a child off to warmay, in certain circumstances, appear the least bad option.


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Alt Cause: Infrastructure

Rebels increase as a result of a weak state.Sambanis 04 (Nicholas, Yale University, Poverty and the Organization of Political Violence, Muse, NL)

Recently, these theories have been prominently applied by two sets of researchersCollier and Hoeffler, andFearon and Laitinboth of whom explain rebellion as the outcome of rational decision making, subjectto the constraints of the rebel "labor market."13 Fearon and Laitin use income not as a measure ofpoverty but rather a measure of state strength. According to their model, rebel labor supply increases if thestate is weak and cannot effectively police its territory.14 Mountainous terrain and a large populationalso make policing harder. Wars are more likely in new states that are "anocratic" (that is, neither fullautocracies nor democracies) and plagued by political instability, or in newly founded states.Dependence on oil exports also adds to the risk of civil war since it may corrupt political institutions.


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Al t Cause: Voluntary

Children voluntarily join the militias because of insecurity, vulnerability, boredom, andlack of food.Honwana02 (Alcinda, Negotiating Post-war Identities Child Soldiers in Mozambique and Angola)

In Angola, many children pointed to insecurity, vulnerability, boredom and lack of food as some of thereasons that drove them to volunteer. Particularly important was the sense of security and power thatthe possession of a gun seems to provide. In Angola there was direct involvement of the traditionalauthorities in the recruitment of child soldiers. There were cases in which parents had to give their youngboys to the soba2, who would then send them to UNITA. Political and ethnic alliances may also haveplayed a role in this because not everyone had to act in this way. Some sobas, some parents and evenyouths might have decided to take that course of action because, according to their own convictions, that wasthe right thing to do.


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Alt Cause: Small Arms

The availability of small arms directly correlates with the use of child soldiers.Stohl 01 (Rachel, Putting Children First Background Report, UN Security Council)

Greater examination ofthe link between small arms and the use of children in conflict has highlightedthat the availability of small arms is clearly a contributing factor to the use of child soldiers .5

3Without small arms children are generally less useful to armed groups, although they may still be usedas soldiers or in support roles. For example, in the Goma area of the Democratic Republic of Congo, rebelsdid not have enough arms for each soldier and so deployed children unarmed as a diversionary force. Thechildren were instructed to take sticks and beat on trees to draw the fire of the opposition, allowing armedcombatants to attack from a different direction.5 4H o w e v e r, children as young as eight years of age arebeing taught to fire assault rifles and machine guns, to throw grenades, and to carry and repairmortars and rocket-propelled grenade launchers. These weapons have made child combatants just aseffective as adults, to a large extent erasing distinctions between child and adult combatants. Indeed,some adult combatants recognize that they can use childrens vulnerability and immature understanding ofconflict to physically or emotionally coerce children into undertaking dangerous tasks. Child soldiers areoften subjected to life threatening risks, even those beyond the normal dangers of w a r. For example, somehave been made to walk across fields to clear the area of landmines.

In order to rid of child soldiers, the government and international community mustregulate small arms.Gray02 (James Staurt, applying for MA in Political Science, The End of Innocence: Child Soldiers in Africaand International Assitance, http://64.233.179.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:sUX8fqOl0wEJ:www.dev-zone.net/downloads/devnetabstract368.pdf+%22child+soldiers%22+education+fails+psychological+wounds%22sub-saharan+africa%22)

As it is accepted that small arms and light weapons enable children to become soldiers, then analysingchild soldiers needs to incorporate the role of these instruments of war to fully understand the child soldierphenomena. The trafficking, sale and use of small arms is more prevalent in zones of conflict than in areas ofpeace and stability. The breakdown of law and order provides an unbridled market for those trading insmall arms; the conflict results in a high demand for weapons, both by armed groups wishing to activelyengage in fighting, or by civilians seeking to protect themselves. Small arms allow child soldiers to exist,and conflicts provide an unhindered trading ground for such weapons. Therefore, to be rid of childsoldiers requires the cessation of a conflict so that the trade in small arms can be brought undergovernment and international - control and regulation. This may reduce the likelihood of weaponsending up in the hands of children, and the chances of their entering combat functions.


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No Psychological Damage

Turn: Psychological trauma does not occupy the childs mind; instead, the children createstable, dependable social structures.Abatneh 06 (Abraham Sewonet, M.A. in Sociology at the University of South Africa, Disarmament,Demobilization, Rehabilitation, and Reintegration of Rwandan Child Soldiers, Decemberhttp://etd.unisa.ac.za/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-05212007-081452/unrestricted/dissertation.pdf)

The research revealed that rather than being passive victims, some of the youth ex-combatants came out thearmed conflicts with certain resilience and advantages including pride, maturity and respect from theirfamilies and communities. Although youth ex-combatants were understandably distressed by theirexperience, this did not prohibit them from positively, or functionally, rebuilding their lives again.Contrary to the expectation of aid agencies, the scars of psychological trauma did neither pre-occupy theyouths mind nor has caused a lost generation. Instead, the youth were able to develop strong anddependable social structures as combatants as well as survivors and gained stability in their lives.Hence, the notion held by aid agencies about the inevitable vulnerability and passivity of all youngpeople in armed conflicts is wrong and has led to a lack of understanding of the wider socio-economicand political dynamics that greatly influenced the manner in which children participated in and wereaffected by war.


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Consequentialism Framework Frontline (1/3)

Consequentialism subsumes other methods of moral evaluation rights violations mustultimately be viewed as a consequenceDavidSosa, Professor of Philosophy at Waggoner Hill University, 1993(Consequences of Consequentialism,Mind, Vol. 102 No. 405, pp. 103-104, HL)

Rights-based ethical theories are often opposed to consequentialist theories over examples such as this.The hanging of the innocent is wrong because it violates the innocent's rights and no amount of goodconsequences can outweigh that right. Rights trump utilities, as it is sometimes put. The version ofconsequentialism defended here has a response that partially accommodates that intuition.The violation of theinnocent's rights must be weighed along with the other factors in evaluating the states of affairsconsequent upon his hanging. If the officials hang him they violate his right not to be punished unlessguilty. The violation of that right is a very serious harm, perhaps greater even than many deaths whichare not in punishment of innocent people . Of course we need not be absolutist (in Anscombe's sense, see 1958,

pp. 9-19). We can consistently believe that even that great harm could be outweighed(although I do notthink, as consequentialists, we must do even that). If it is wrong to punish the innocent in that case, consequentialism canconsistently explain it. If we do take the non-absolutist line, and hold that the disvalue of the violation can be outweighed,then we disagree with the "trumpers", those who think rights trump utilities. They are at odds even with our partiallyconciliatory consequentialism. For them it is not enough that rights violations figure, negatively, in the evaluation of

states of affairs. But consequentialism can be even more conciliatory. It can allow that some badconsequences trump. Consistent with the version of consequentialism here being developed, we could hold that ifone of the consequences of an act is that a right is violated, then that act cannot be made right by anyamount of positive value of any other kind. This may sound non-consequentialist, but it can beassimilated. The disvalue of a rights violation is so great, goes the consequentialist interpretation, thatno consequences of other kinds can compete. Rights trump (other) utilities, as it were, simply becauseof the enormous disvalue of a rights violation.


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Even if there are other possible frameworks for individuals, moral governments must beconsequentialistLarry A. Alexander, Professor at the School of Law, University of San Diego, 1987, (Scheffler on AgentCentered Prerogatives: Comments and Criticism, The Journal of Philosophy, pp. 282-283, HL)

First, the response exposes the precarious status of the agent-centered prerogative. A moral agent may have anagent-centered prerogative to do A only if another moral agent does not exercise her agent-centeredprerogative to do B. Of course, within consequentialist moral theories other than certain (implausible) typesof rule- consequentialist theories, the permissibility or obligatoriness of an act is always dependent uponhow others are acting. Usually, however, it is possible theoretically for properly motivated actors to coordinate theiracts at an optimal level." Given Scheffler's agent- centered prerogative-his enclave of discretion to deviate from

producing optimal consequences-no stable coordination is morally obligatory and thus realizable (except fortuitously)among properly motivated actors. Second, there is not even available to Scheffler a stable floor, a consequentialist

baseline, a state of affairs that is the worst such state an actor is permitted to produce. For any actor facing such a state ofaffairs would, in the absence of agent-centered restrictions, presumably still be able to weight her projects more than theyare weighted in the measurement of the baseline state of affairs. She may then presumably act to produce an even worseset of consequences, which in turn permits other actors themselves to produce still worse consequences, ad infinitum.Even if each actor can give her projects only slightly more weight than they are accorded in the impartial consequentialistcalculus, the absence of agent-centered restrictions results in the possibility of an endless downward spiral of worse and

worse consequences. An equally important reason why Scheffler cannot plausibly posit conflicting moral permissionsacross the board, rather than as limited to discrete spheres such as athletic and business competition and (more

problematically) self-defense, is that,without agent-centered restrictions, there is one important actor that isalways obligated to produce an optimal set of consequences. That actor is the government. Thegovernment is not the kind of moral agent which can possess an agent-centered prerogative withrespect to its own acts. It must always act as a thoroughgoing consequentialist, giving only impartialconsideration to individuals' weightings of their own projects.Now Scheffler's positing of an agent-centered

prerogative has absolutely no implications for how government must act. Because it has no such implications, it also

places the government in direct opposition to all exercises of Scheffler's agent-centered prerogatives.To the extentthat the agent-centered prerogative entails moral permissions beyond those which are consequentialist-

justified, to that extent it necessarily conflicts with what the state is morally required to see happen.The state would be obligated to attempt to prevent all non-consequentialist-justified exercises of theagent-centered prerogative, perhaps even to the extent of denying the existence of such a prerogative

and inculcating a purely consequentialist morality. Moreover, because resisting the government mighthave dire consequences where the government is acting as a proper consequentialist and whereresistance would be contagious, the consequentialist limit on the agent-centered prerogative mightdictate that the prerogative never be exercised.

Nuclear war and extinction come first. Acting in the face ofany risk of extinction isimmoralGeorge Kateb, political theorist and author, 1992(The Inner Ocean: Individualism and Democratic Culture pp.111, HL)

Schell's work attempts to force on us an acknowledgment that sounds far-fetched and even ludicrous,an acknowledgment that the possibility of extinction is carried by any use of nuclear weapons, nomatter how limited or how seemingly rational or seemingly morally justified. He himself acknowledges thatthere is a difference between possibility and certainty. But in a matter that is more than a matter, more

than one practical matter in a vast series of practical matters, in the "matter" of extinction, we are obliged totreat a possibility--a genuine possibility-as a certainty. Humanity is not to take any step that containseven the slightest risk of extinction.The doctrine of no-use is based on the possibility of extinction. Schell's

perspective transforms the subject. He takes us away from the arid stretches of strategy and asks us to feel continuously,

if we can, and feel keenly if only for an instant now and then, how utterly distinct the nuclear world is.Nucleardiscourse must vividly register that distinctiveness. It is of no moral account that extinction may beonly a slight possibility.No one can say how great the possibility is, but no one has yet credibly denied that by somesequence or other a particular use of nuclear weapons may lead to human and natural extinction. If it is not impossibleit must be treated as certain: the loss signified by extinction nullifies all calculations of probability as itnullifies all calculations of costs and benefits.


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Nuclear war would cause extinction multiple waysGeorge Kateb, political theorist and author, 1992(The Inner Ocean: Individualism and Democratic Culture pp.111-112, HL)

Abstractly put,the connections between any use of nuclear weapons and human and natural extinctionare several. Most obviously, a sizable exchange of strategic nuclear weapons can, by a chain of eventsin nature, lead to the earth's uninhabitability, to "nuclear winter,"or to Schell "republic of insects andgrass."But the consideration of extinction cannot rest with the possibility of a sizable exchange ofstrategic weapons. It cannot rest with the imperative that a sizable exchange must not take place. A so-calledtactical or "theater" use, or a so-called limited use, is also prohibited absolutely, because of thepossibility of immediate escalation into a sizable exchange or because, even if there were not animmediate escalation, the possibility of extinction would reside in the precedent for future use set byany use whatever in a world in which more than one power possesses nuclear weapons. Add otherconsequences: the contagious effect on nonnuclear powers who may feel compelled by a mixture of fearand vanity to try to acquire their own weapons, thus increasing the possibility of use by increasing thenumber of nuclear powers; and the unleashed emotions of indignation, retribution, and revenge which,if not acted on immediately in the form of escalation, can be counted on to seek expression later. Otherthan full strategic uses are not confined, no matter how small the explosive power: each would be a

cancerous transformation of the world. All nuclear roads lead to the possibility of extinction. It is true bydefinition, but let us make it explicit:the doctrine of no-use excludes any first or retaliatory or later use,whether sizable or not.No-use is the imperative derived from the possibility of extinction.


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UN CP 1NC

Counterplan Text: The UN should substantially increase funding for education efforts toreduce the participation of people less than 18 years of age in armed conflict in topicallydesignated areas.

Contention 1: The counter plan is __________________.

Contention 2: The counter plan competes by net benefits.

Contention 3: Solvency

The UN has unique experience in DDR programs.M2 Presswire 06 (December 18, UN: United Nations launches new standards for disarmament,demobilization, ad reintegration of ex-combatants)

The United Nations has been involved in supporting disarmament, demobilization and reintegration

programmes since the late 1980s. In the past five years alone, disarmament, demobilization andreintegration has been included in the mandates for multidimensional peacekeeping operations inBurundi, Cte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Liberia and Sudan. Simultaneously, theUnitedNations has increased its disarmament, demobilization and reintegration engagement in non-peacekeeping contexts, such as Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Congo, Indonesia (Aceh), Niger,Somalia, Solomon Islands and Uganda. This extensive experience has fostered a body ofknowledgeabout the specific needs ofkey groups, including female combatants, children associated with armedconflict, and cross-cutting issues like gender, HIV/AIDS, and health. In parallel, attention has increasinglybeen paid to the longer-term requirements for stability, based on a growing awareness of the link betweensuccessful disarmament and demobilization and genuine and lasting opportunities for ex-combatantsto reintegrate into their peacetime communities.

UNICEF has empirically set up education programs Liberia proves.

Panafrican News Agency 03 (October 15, UNICEF Supports Free Primary Education in Liberia, L/N, NL)Liberia's Education Ministry and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), have started a free primaryeducation programme targeting some 70,000 children in the country, at least 15,000 of them childsoldiers. Liberian officials say the targeted number of child soldiers could be much higher because of thelarge-scale forceful conscription of children by various armed groups in the country. Liberia's outgoingEducation Minister Evelyn Kandakai told PANA Wednesday the programme was part government's "freeand compulsory primary education." UNICEF Representative to Liberia, Cyril Niameago said theprogramme would be in phases, starting with Monrovia, the capital, and extending to the hinterlands as thesecurity situation improves. He estimatedUNICEF's support to the programme at six million USdollars, two million of which, had gone into the purchase of school materials for distribution. The UNagency has also appealed to international donors for additional five million dollars for its "child protection"programme. Niameago saidLiberia's three belligerent forces have been urged to release thousands ofchild fighters for demobilisation and re-integration.


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UN CP Solvency EXT

The UN solves they have reformed their approach to DDR.M2 Presswire 06 (December 18, UN: United Nations launches new standards for disarmament,demobilization, ad reintegration of ex-combatants)

The new Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards acknowledge thedifficulty of transforming individuals who have been scarred by conflict, in some cases for years or evendecades, into productive members of their societies. In order to ease the transition, the Standards call formeasures to provide psycho-social counselling, job training, educational opportunities and mechanismsto promote reconciliation in the communities where they return. Jointly developed, over the past twoyears, by staff members from peacekeeping missions, United Nations country teams and Headquarters, theStandards are being launched together with three accompanying tools that will ensure their widespreadapplication: -- The Operational Guide aims to help users find their way through the IDDRS by brieflyexplaining the key guidance in each area, highlighting practical steps for the planning, implementation andevaluation of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programmes; -- The Briefing Note for SeniorManagers contains key strategic and policy guidance; and -- The web-based DDR Resource Centre(www.unddr.org) includes all of these documents, and serves as the United Nations "one-stop shop" for all

related information. "We've learned that, while different combatants in various contexts may havesimilar concerns and needs, there are also many specific factors that must be taken into account,"explained Jean-Marie Guehenno, Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations. "A child soldiermust be reunited with his family, while a person living with HIV/AIDS will have particular health concernsthat require attention." "By refining our approach to DDR," he continued, "We can better help each ex-combatant to ultimately reintegrate into society, so that they can go from being a cause of insecurity toa force for growing stability in countries urgently in need of committed people who can contribute tothe rebuilding process."

With the release of child soldiers, UNICEF will place children into reintegration programs.BBC Monitoring 07 (Middle East, UN children agency, ex-Darfur rebel group sign pact to demobilize childsoldiers June 23, L/N, NL)

Sudan Liberation Movement [SLM] leader, Mani [Arkoi] Minawi, has reached an agreement withUNICEF this month to identify locations of child soldiers within his faction group in one month's timeto ensure that they are demobilized. According to Swangin Bismarck, communication officer of UNICEFin Southern Sudan, UNICEF in collaboration with the government and other international agencies willsupport the provision of family tracing and community reintegration programmes, with training ofSLM/A field commanders on international child rights and protection standards, inclusive of permanentcessation of hostilities. The SLM/A has indicated that it has already identified a number of children attachedto its forces in South and North Darfur and that a formal process of identifying all children associated with itsarmed groups would start within the next month. "The demobilized children will benefit from life skillsand vocational training opportunities, education support, psycho social activities such as recreational,sports and career guidance," reports Swangin Bismarck.


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UN CP Solvency Ext.

The UN has been successful in convincing army leaders to demobilize child soldiers.Choe Choe 07 (Tan, New Straits Times, and the children lead the way, June 10, L/N, NL)

"War was the biggest vocation and the army was the biggest employer. "But if you create schools, healthcentres and markets, then they have other sources of employment." Dr Sharad remembers vividly a UN-organised workshop called "The Future Search Workshop" where children from warring tribes joinedin. After three days of discussion, "they came up with something called Peace 2005". It was the children'saspirations for the future and they realised that peace could only come through education. "They had neverseen television, never worn shoes, never seen any modern-day things, but they knew education was their wayout of this (conflict)." Towards the end of his tenure there, Dr Sharad helped orchestrate one of thelargest demobilisation of child soldiers in a combat zone in history. The UN managed to convincearmy leaders that children did not have a place in war situations, and within three weeks ofnegotiations, some 3,500 children between 6 and 12 were released.

The UN has had more than a decade of experience in DDR programs.Humphreys and Weinstein 05 (Macartan, Assistant Professor @ Columbia University, and Jeremy,Assistant Professor @ Stanford University, Disentangling the Determinants of Successful Disarmament,Demobilization, and Reintegration, February)

As the UN now has more than a decade of experience in disarmament, demobilization, andreintegration, there has been no shortage of attempts by policy analysts and practitioners to cull thelessons learned from various experiences of implementation around the globe. These evaluations neatlydivide into three categories: lessons that emerge from dialogues among policy experts, from cross-countrycomparisons of program design, and from the outside evaluation of specific DDR programs. While theseapproaches employ distinct research strategies, they share a common aim: to advance hypotheses about thedeterminants of successful DDR at the country level. We discuss each in turn, before highlighting the needfor new evaluation approaches that enable us to isolate the factors that make reintegration more or lessdifficult for ex-combatants and precisely capture the impact of outside intervention.

The UN has now given more attention to the reintegration program of child soldiers.Council06 (EU Concept for Support to Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR), November

13)The UN has recently developed a new approach to enhance coordination between UN agencies, whichsees the sustainable reintegration of ex-combatants as a key objective of DDR, rather than anafterthought, which has sometimes been the case in the past. Consequently, the UN has developed IDDRSwhich set the framework for a more coherent and efficient cooperation of all UN agencies. The WorldBank has also drawn important lessons learned from its engagement in DDR and other international agenciessuch as the International Organization for Migration (IOM) have also conducted DDR activities and haveidentified important lessons while implementing DDR activities.

The UN does not discriminate against women - UNSCR 1325 checks.Council06 (EU Concept for Support to Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR), November13)

UNSCR 1325 reaffirms the important role of women in the prevention and resolution of conflicts,

peace negotiations, peace-building, peacekeeping, humanitarian response and in post-conflictreconstruction and stresses the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in allefforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security. The Resolution urges all actors toincrease the participation of women and incorporate gender perspectives in all United Nations peaceand security efforts, including DDR.


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IFESH CP 1NC

Counterplan Text: The International Foundation for Education and Self-Help shouldsubstantially increase funding for education efforts to reduce the participation of peopleless than 18 years of age in armed conflict in topically designated areas.

Contention 1: The counter plan is __________________.

Contention 2: The counter plan competes by net benefits.

Contention 3: Solvency

IFESH will provide education, counseling, and skills training.PR Newswire US 05 (May 17, The World Bank Awards IFESH an Additional $1.2 Million for Child SoldierPrograms in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Africa, Scottsdale, AR, L/N, NL)

The International Foundation for Education and Self-Help (IFESH) announced today that it has received anadditional $1.2 million from the World Bank to expand its child soldier demobilization andreintegration programs in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Africa. The expansion brings theWorld Bank's current IFESH grant for child soldier repatriation projects in the DRC's Northern KatangaProvince to $2.1 million. IFESH will use the added revenues in cooperation with the United NationsChildren's Fund (UNICEF) to promote the demobilization and socio-economic reintegration ofapproximately 2,215 child ex-combatants in the DRC. "The World Bank grant to IFESH to expand its childsoldier reintegration program in the Democratic Republic of the Congo signals the organization's confidencein IFESH's ability to deliver sustainable development initiatives on the ground. The IFESH program in theCongo focuses on training former child combatants and in providing employment opportunities andcounseling for them, thus reducing the likelihood of their return to conflict. The program relies heavilyon community involvement and consensus building," said Dr. Julie Sullivan, CEO and President of IFESH.The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has one of the largest populations of child soldiers in theworld. Estimates place the number of 9-to-12-year-old soldiers in the DRC alone at 30,000. Tragically,nearly 70 percent of the children who manage to escape the conflict return to fighting because they

have had no schooling and have no marketable skills. Through the intervention of IFESH and itspartners, these children, most of whom have never experienced anything resembling a normalchildhood, will receive extensive counseling, education, and skills training.The success of the IFESHprogram, which provides real world skills for these young men, was a major contributing factor in theWorld Bank grant expansion. IFESH's effort to aid education in sub-Saharan Africa is not limited tocounseling, skills training, and small business funding for the child soldiers because even where schoolsdo exist, they are ill equipped -- most lack desks, chairs or even chalk. Since 1987, IFESH has sent morethan 800 master teachers to Africa, built more than 200 of its planned 1,000 schools, and sent morethan $30 million in school and medical supplies to several countries. Established in 1981, theInternational Foundation for Education and Self-Help (IFESH) continues to uphold the pioneering self-helpphilosophy and transcendent message of hope of its founder, the late Reverend Leon H. Sullivan. ReverendSullivan's work, which earned him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, America's highest civilian honor, isbased on the concept that, for true sustainable development to occur, principles of self-reliance must be

adhered to and integrated into community projects. Headquartered in Scottsdale, Arizona, USA, IFESH,employs more than 160 people in Benin, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Ghana,Guinea, Malawi, Namibia, Nigeria, and South Africa. Ninety percent of IFESH employees in those tencountry offices are natives of the countries in which they work.


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Generic NGO CP Ext.

NGOs have worked with the UNICEF to set up reintegration programs.Wessels 98 (Michael G., professor of Psychology, Radolph-Macon College, a former president of the Divisionof Peace Psychology of the American Psychological Association, Children, Peace Education, and PostconflictReconstruction for Peace)

These practical aspects of peace education are best illustrated by an example from Sier

child soldiers neg - sdi 5 week

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