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Chatper 8: Human Development

D E B O R A H M . L I C H T M I S T Y G . H U L L C O C O B A L L A N T Y N E

Courtesy Dr. Julie Gralow


LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Part 1

LO 1 Define human development.

LO 2 Describe three longstanding discussions in developmental psychology.

LO 3 Identify the types of research psychologists use to study developmental processes.

LO 4 Examine the role genes play in our development.

LO 5 Discuss how genotype and phenotype relate to development.

LO 6 Identify the progression of prenatal development.



LO 7 Summarize some developmental changes that occur in infancy.

LO 8 Describe the theories explaining language acquisition.

LO 9 Examine the universal sequence of language development.

LO 10 Summarize the constructs of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

LO 11 List the key elements of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.

LO 12 Identify how Erikson’s theory explains psychosocial development through puberty.



LO 13 Give examples of significant physical changes that occur during adolescence.

LO 14 Explain how Piaget described cognitive changes that take place during adolescence.

LO 15 Identify how Erikson explained changes in identity during adolescence.

LO 16 Summarize Kohlberg’s levels of moral development.

LO 17 Name some of the physical changes that occur across adulthood.

LO 18 Identify some of the cognitive changes that occur across adulthood.

LO 19 Explain some of the socioemotional changes that occur across adulthood.

LO 20 Summarize the four types of parenting proposed by Baumrind.

LO 21 Describe how Kübler-Ross explained the stages of death.


Voices

SUPERMOM

Jasmine Mitchell is coping with the complex issues of childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood. She juggles motherhood with college and a full-time job.

FOR THE LOVE OF FAMILY

Chloe Ojeah is balancing her college education with caring for two elderly grandparents. Her grandmother, 79, struggles with Alzheimer’s disease, and her grandfather, 85, continues to recover from a stroke.


The Study of Human Development: Part 1

Developmental psychology

Refers to field of psychology

that examines physical, cognitive, and socioemotional change

Socioemotional development

Refers to social behaviors, emotions, and changes experienced in relationships, feelings, and overall disposition



Physical development

Involves maturation wherein the body follows a universal, biologically driven progression in a generally predictable pattern

Cognitive development

Includes changes in

memory, problem solving, decision making, language, and intelligence that tend to follow a universal course early in life and considerable variability with age


• Physical Development

• Maturation: The physical growth beginning with conception and ending when the body stops growing.

• Most babies, for example, become physically capable of sitting up alone at approximately 51/2 months (ranging from 4 to 9 months; WHO MulticentreGrowth Reference Study Group, 2006).

• Cognitive Development

• Infants begin to babble around the age of 7 months and say their first words around 12 months.



Biopsychosocial perspective

Recognizes contributions and interplay of biological, psychological, and

social forces facing human development.

We consider the intricate interplay of heredity, chemical activity, and

hormones (biological factors); learning and personality



THREE DEBATES

Stages or continuity

Does development occur in separate or discrete stages, or is it a steady, continuous process?

Sensitive and critical periods

Experiences during a critical period for this type of automatic response result in permanent and “irreversible changes” in brain function (Knudsen, 2004).

Critical periods are a type of sensitive period of development, during which “certain capacities are readily

shaped or altered by experience” (p. 1412).

There is a critical period for language acquisition. Until a certain age, children are highly receptive to

learning language, but after that critical period ends, it is difficult for them to acquire a first language that is age-appropriate and “normal” (Kuhl, Conboy, Padden, Nelson & Pruitt, 2005). Others suggest that language acquisition is not subject to a critical period, but rather to sensitive periods that all children experience (Knudsen, 2004).

Although some aspects of development occur in stages, others occur gradually, without a clear distinction

between them (McAdams & Olson, 2010) Observing a toddler making her transition into early adulthood, you probably won’t be able to pinpoint her shift from the “terrible twos” to the more emotionally self-controlled young child.


Hereditary and environmental influences

What are the relative roles of heredity and environment in development?

Nature and nurture

Psychologists also debate the degree to which heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) influence behavior and development, but few would dispute the important contributions of both (Mysterud, 2003).

Researchers can study a trait like impulsivity, which is the tendency to act before thinking, to determine the extent to which it results from heredity factors and environment.

In this particular case, nature and nurture appear to have equal weight (Bezdjian, Baker, & Tuvblad, 2011).

The Study of Human Development: Part 4 Continues…


Stability and change

How stable is one’s personality over a lifetime and across situations?

How much does a person change from childhood to old age? Some researchers suggest that personality traits identified early in life can be used to predict behaviors across the life span (McAdams & Olson, 2010).

Others report that personality characteristics change as a result of the relationships and experiences we have throughout life (Specht, Egloff, & Schmukle, 2011)

Psychologists often discuss how experiences in infancy can set the stage for stable cognitive characteristics, particularly when it comes to early enrichment and its long-term impact on intellectual abilities.

The Study of Human Development: Part 4 Continues…


Cross• -sectional method: A research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time. For example, Castel and his colleagues (2011) used the cross-sectional method to investigate developmental changes in the efficiency of memory recall. They divided their 320 participants into groups according to age (children, adolescents, younger adults, middle-aged adults, young-old adults, and old-old adults) and compared the scores of the different groups to see if changes occur across the life span. One advantage of the cross-sectional method is that it can provide a great deal of information quickly; by studying differences across age groups, we don’t have to wait for people to get older.

But one major problem with the cross• -sectional method is that it doesn’t tell us whether differences across age groups result from actual development changes or common experiences within groups, a phenomenon known as the cohort effect.

Members of each age group have lived through similar historical and cultural eras, and these •

common experiences may be responsible for some differences across groups


Longitudinal method• : Researchers can avoid the cohort effect by using the longitudinal method, which follows one group of individuals over a period of time. Curious to find out what “lifestyle activities” are associated with age-related cognitive decline, one team of researchers studied 952 individuals over a 12-year period (Small, Dixon, McArdle, & Grimm, 2011). Every 3 to 4 years they administered tests to all participants, assessing, for example, cognitive abilities and health status. The more engaged and socially active the participants were, the better their long-term cognitive performance.

Using the longitudinal method, we can compare the same individuals over time, identifying •

similarities and differences in the way they age. But these studies are difficult to conduct because they require a great deal of money, time, and participant investment. Common challenges include attrition (people dropping out of the study) and practice effects (people performing better on measures as they get more “practice”). The advantage, though, is that changes are tracked within the same people, to avoid the cohort effect of an era or generation.


Cross• -sequential method: Also used by developmental psychologists, is a mixture of the longitudinal and cross-sectional methods. You might call it the best of both worlds. Participants are divided into age groups as well as followed over time, so researchers can examine developmental changes within individuals and across different groups. One team of researchers used this approach to identify the age at which cognitive decline becomes evident (Singh-Manoux et al,. 2012). They recruited 10,308 participants, assigning each to a 5-year-age group (45-49, 50-54, 55-59, 60-64, 65-70), and then followed them for 10 years. Using this approach, they could observe changes in individuals as they aged and identify differences across the five age groups.


Research Methods in Developmental Psychology: Part 1


Show What You Know: Part 1

1. A 3-year-old decides he doesn’t need diapers, and much to his parents’ surprise, he starts using the toilet. This physiological change likely results from his maturation, which follows a progression that is universal and biologically driven. This is an example of human development, which includes physical, cognitive, and socioemotional characteristics.

2. Explain the three longstanding discussions of developmental psychology.

Developmental psychologists’ longstanding discussions have centered on three major themes: stages and continuity; nature and nurture; and stability and change. Each of these themes relates to a basic question: (1) Does development occur in separate or discrete stages, or is it a steady, continuous process? (2) What are the relative roles of heredity and environment in human development? (3) How stable is one’s personality over a lifetime and across situations?



3. A researcher is interested in studying developmental changes in memory recall. She asks 300 participants to take a memory test and then compares the results across five different age groups. This researcher is using which method?

a. cross-sequential

b. longitudinal

c. cross-sectional

d. biopsychosocial


Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development: Part 1

CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

You are a walking, talking collection of biological building blocks called cells. With the exception of red cells, every cell in the human body has a nucleus at its center. Within this nucleus is material containing the blueprint or plan for the building of a complete person. This material is coiled tightly into 46 chromosomes, the inherited threadlike structures we get from our biological parents – 23 from our biological mother and 23 from our biological father.

Chromosomes

A chromosome contains one molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Chromosomes Inherited threadlike structures composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Molecule that provides the instructions for the development and production of cells

Gene

Specified segment of a DNA molecule. Each gene encodes a particular protein. The proteins encoded by genes determine the textures of your hair, the color of your eyes, and some aspects of your personality. Genes influence nearly every dimension of the complex living system known as YOU.


CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES

Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells (sperm or egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs like those shown in the photo above. These 23 chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as a complete, unique person. The primary component of each chromosome is a single, tightly wound molecule of DNA. Within that DNA are around 21,000 genes, each determining specific traits.




How exactly did you get your genes from your biological parents?

Genes are found in chromosomes.

Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.

Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs.

Twenty -third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.

XX = female; XY = male


Seas of DNA

Researchers with the Human Genome Project have decoded the entire human genome, which contains about 21,000 DNA segments known as genes. (Pennisi, 2012, September 5)

Genes are the blueprints for proteins that endow you with a unique set of traits, including eye color, hair texture, and—to a certain extent—psychological characteristics.




Genotype

These 23 chromosome pairs are unique to you and are known as your genotype.

Includes individual’s complete collection of genes

Does not change in response to environment, but interacts with it—outcome is not predetermined

Phenotype

The color and appearance of your skin, for example, result from an interplay between your genotype and a variety of environmental factors including sun and wind exposure, age, nutrition, and smoking – all of which impact how your genes are expressed. The results of this interaction are the observable characteristics of an individual, or phenotype.

A person’s phenotype is apparent in her unique physical, psychological, and behavioral characteristics.

Our genetic make-up influences our behavior, and psychologists are interested in learning how genes might do this. Consider schizophrenia, a psychological disorder with symptoms ranging from hallucinations to emotional problems. A large body of evidence now suggests that a person’s genotype may predispose him to developing schizophrenia. Researchers report heritability rates as high as 80 to 85%. But the expression or manifestation of the disorder results from a combination of genotype and experience, including diet, stress, toxins, and early parenting. Identical twins, who have the same genotype, may display different phenotypes, including different expressions of schizophrenia if they both have this disorder. This is because schizophrenia, or any psychological phenomenon, results from complex relationships between genes and environment.


Epigenetics

We know that the environmental factors influence the expression of genes, and how this

occurs is the focus of epigenetics.

Epigenetics is a field that examines the processes involved in the development of

phenotypes.

As mentioned previously, the environment cannot change our genetic make -up, but it does impact the expression of our genes. For example, maternal behavior during pregnancy can determine which genes are expressed by the fetus.

As identical twins grow older, their lifestyles, susceptibility to diseases, and a variety of other

characteristics became less and less similar, even though their genetic make-up remained identical.

Examines process involved in development of phenotypes

Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development: Part 3 Continues…


Genes are behind just about every human trait you can imagine • – from height, to shoe size, to behavior. But remember, you possess two versions of a gene from each chromosome pair: one from your biological mother and one from your biological father.

Often one gene variant has more power than the other. This • dominant gene governs the expression of the inherited gene in the pair.

A • recessive gene cannot overcome the influence of a dominant gene. For example, “dimples” are dominant, and “no dimples” are recessive. If one gene encodes for dimples and the other no dimples, then will be expressed.

Characteristics such as intelligence and aggressive tendencies are influenced by multiple •

genes, most of which have yet to be identified.

Even if you could identify every gene associated with every trait, you would still face the •

daunting task of untangling the effects of heredity and environment.

Dominant and Recessive Genes




Dominant gene governs the expression of inherited characteristics.

Recessive gene cannot overcome the influence of the dominant gene.

Urban myth tells us that tongue rolling ability is determined by the presence of a single, dominant gene. (Starr, 2005, June 10)

What do you think?



FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS

Zygote

Is single cell formed by union of sperm cell and egg (also known as ovum)

Under normal circumstances, a zygote immediately begins to divide into

two cells, then each of those cells divides, and so on.

These fast -growing mass of cells begins to move through the fallopian tube toward the uterus.

Multiples

Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception.

Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two different

sperm.


Monozygotic twins• : Identical twins who develop from one egg inseminated at conception, which then splits into two separate zygotes/cells. Monozygotic twins have identical sets of 46 chromosomes, as they originate from the same zygote; the resulting infants are the same sex and have almost identical features.

Dizygotic twins• : Fraternal twins who develop from two eggs inseminated by two different sperm, leading to the development of two zygotes. Dizygotic twins are genetically similar to any sibling pair.

Embryo• : The unborn human from the beginning of the 3rd week of pregnancy, lasting through the 8th week of prenatal development.

Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development: Part 5 Continues…



Germinal Period (Conception to end of 2nd week)

Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth

Embryo Period (3rd to 8th week)

Cell differentiation; formation of major organs

and systems begin

Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal

systems develop by end of period



Fetal Period (2nd month to birth)

Rapid weight gain; clear sleep -wake cycles; all organs, systems, and structures fully developed at birth

Brain weight one -quarter of adult size


Prenatal Development and Periods of Critical Growth



Teratogens

Embryo not protected from all environmental dangers.

Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus.

Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure .



Can you identify the potential effects of each of these teratogens?

Alcohol

Caffeine

Cocaine

Lead

Lithium

LSD

Mercury

Nicotine

Radiation exposure


Can you identify the potential effects of each of these teratogens?

Alcohol – Fetal alcohol syndrome: developmental delay, poor growth, heart problems, growth delay

Caffeine – High exposure associated with miscarriages

Cocaine – Birth defects, miscarriages

Lead – High exposure linked with miscarriage

Lithium – Heart defects, malfunctions

LSD – Arm and leg defects, central nervous system problems

Mercury – Cerebral palsy, developmental delay, blindness

Nicotine – Malformations, low birth weight, cleft lip or palate, heart defects

Radiation exposure – Small skull, blindness, spina bifida, cleft palate

From conception until birth, the developing human is nestled deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains vulnerable to threats from the outside. Listed here are some common teratogens and their effects.




1. ________ are threadlike structures humans inherit from their biological mothers and fathers.

a. Teratogens

b. Zygotes

c. Genes

d. Chromosomes

2. Genotype represents a complete collection of genes, and phenotyperepresents the observed expression of inherited characteristics.



3. A co-worker tells you that she is in her sixth week of pregnancy. She is excited because she has learned that during this embryonic period, her baby is developing a spinal cord; its heart is beginning to beat, and its intestinal system is forming.

a. embryonic period

b. phenotype

c. germinal period

d. genotype


• 4. How would you describe the difference between dominant and recessive genes to someone who has never taken an introductory psychology course?

Genes are behind most human traits, from shoe size to behavior. Each chromosome pair •

provides us with two versions of a gene. We acquire one gene from our biological mother and one gene from our biological father. In some cases, the genes are identical. In other cases, the genes in a pair provide conflicting instructions about the outcome of some characteristic. Often one gene variant has more power than the other. This dominant gene then directs the expression of the inherited characteristic, overpowering the recessive, or subordinate, gene in the pair. A recessive gene cannot overcome the influence of a dominant gene. For example, the gene responsible for cystic fibrosis is recessive. If a child inherits the cystic fibrosis gene from one parent and a normal gene from the other parent, the disease gene will not be expressed (she will not develop cystic fibrosis). However, if she inherits the cystic fibrosis gene from both parents, the gene will be expressed (she will develop the disease).



Kangarooing

Jasmine “kangaroos” with her son Eddie in the neonatal intensive care unit.

Kangarooing, or holding a premature baby to facilitate skin-to-skin contact, benefits both babies and parents.

Some researchers have found that preemies who were kangarooed later performed better on tests of cognitive and motor skills than those kept in incubators. (Feldman et al., 2002)


Infancy and Child Development: Part 1

NEWBORN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Rooting and sucking reflexes

Reflexes or unlearned patterns of behavior

Some necessary for survival (i.e., rooting, sucking )

Others do not serve any obvious purpose

Some fade away in the first weeks and months of life; many will resurface as voluntary movements as the infant grows and develops motor control

What does a newborn do when you stroke its cheek? She opens her mouth and turns her

head in the direction of your finger, apparently in search of a nipple. This rooting reflex typically disappears at 4 moths, never to be seen again. Sucking and swallowing abilities don’t fully mature until the gestational age of 33 to 36 weeks, so babies who are born before that time – like Jasmine Eddie – may struggle with feeding. Breast milk through feeding tube.



NEWBORN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Newborn senses

Prefer human faces as opposed to geometric shapes

Discriminate mother’s voice from those of other women within hours after birth and they show preference for her voice

Recognize their mothers’ voices while on the womb

Hearing is developed and functioning before a baby is born, but sounds are initially distorted

It takes some time for amniotic fluid to dry up completely before a baby can hear clearly

Distinguish smell of mother’s breast milk

Prefer sweet tastes, react to sour tastes, notice differences in breast milk taste

React to sense of touch before – as early as 2 months after conception, for example, a fetus will show the rooting reflex

Smell, taste, and touch are also well developed in newborn infants

Newborns respond to pain with reactions similar to those of older infants, children, and adults

Sight is the weakest sense in newborns. The optimal distance for a newborn to see an object is approximately 8-14 inches away from his face

Have blurred vision for several months because the light sensitive cones in the back of the eye are still developing



INFANT BRAIN DEVELOPMENT


Motor and Sensory Development



Synaptic pruning

Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain

Unused synaptic connections eliminated

Decrease in neural connection by 40 to 50 percent by puberty

Rosenzweig’s rats

Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrate how environment influences animal brain development.

Rats with enriched environment experienced greater increases in brain

weight and synaptic connections.



THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION

Behaviorism and language

Proposes that all behavior —including language—is learned through associations, reinforcers, and observations

Suggests language is learned through positive attention to correct

behavior and unpleasant attention to incorrect behavior




Language acquisition device

Provides universal, innate mechanism for language learning (Chomsky)

Infant-directed speech (IDS)

Used by caregivers worldwide and stimulates infant attention to

socially appropriate partners




Language in the environment

Amount of language in home correlates with SES

Lag in reading, math, and academic achievement in general found in

lower SES status children beginning school




Sequence of acquisition

Cooing

Babbling

Telegraphic speech


Benefits of Sign

Introducing sign to children as young as 6 months may help them communicate before they use verbal speech. (Doherty-Sneddon, 2008)

Early use of sign may also provide a verbal advantage down the road when they enter elementary school. (Barnes, 2010)

A baby and a caregiver communicate with sign

language.



THE VOCABULARY EXPLOSION

Around the second year of life, the rate at

which a child learns new words begins to increase dramatically.

By five to six years old, most children are fluent

in their native language, although their vocabulary does not match that of an adult.


At Play With Piaget

Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget (center) works with students in a New York City classroom. Piaget’s research focused on school-age children, including his own three, who became participants in some of his studies. Children think differently from adults, Piaget proposed, and they experience cognitive development in distinct stages.



PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Schema

Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding

Assimilation

Using existing information and ideas to understand new knowledge

and experiences

Accommodation

Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information


Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development


Assessing Child’s Stage of Cognitive Development


Type of Conservation Task



PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The critics

Cognitive stage with distinct characteristic; transitions more likely

continuous

Cognitive abilities underestimated

Object permanence occurs sooner.

Formal operational stage may not be last stage; distinctions needed

between adolescents and adults of various ages.



VYGOTSKY AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Overview

Social and cultural factors influence cognition.

Children are apprentices in relation to more capable and experienced

others.

Scaffolding

Children are pushed to go just beyond what they are competent and

capable of doing, while providing help in a decreasing manner.


Culture and Cognition

A man and a boy work together threshing rice in the fields of Madagascar. What this child learns and how his cognitive development unfolds are shaped by the circumstances of his environment.

Children reared in agricultural societies may not acquire the same cognitive skill set as those raised in urban, industrialized settings.


Temperament: Kagan

High-reactive infants

Exhibit much distress with unfamiliar stimuli

Low-reactive infants

Do not respond to stimuli with great distress


Temperament: Thomas and Chess

Temperament

Easy: Follow regular schedules; easily soothed; transition easily; 40 percent

Difficult: Erratic schedule; poor transitioning; irritable and unhappy; 10 percent

Slow to warm up: Not fond of change; 15 percent

More than one type of temperament: 39 percent


Nature and Nurture

DESTINY OF THE DIFFICULT BABY

Researchers report that difficult babies are unusually sensitive to parental input.

Children with higher quality parenting style mothers were more likely to succeed academically and socially.

Children with detached and controlling mothers showed more difficulty in school adjustment.

These effects were magnified for difficult babies.


Soft Like Mommy

Research by Harry and Margaret Harlow and colleagues at the University of Wisconsin showed that physical comfort is important for the socioemotional development of these animals.

A baby monkey in a laboratory experiment clings to a furry mother surrogate.



ATTACHMENT

Attachment

Refers to degree to which infant feels emotional connection with primary caregivers

Secure attachment: Around 65% of the children were upset when their mothers left the room, but were easily soothed upon her return, quickly returning to play. These children seemed confident that their needs would be met and felt safe exploring their environment, using the caregiver as a “secure base.”

Avoidant attachment: Approximately 20% of the children display no distress when their mothers left, and they did not show any signs of wanting to interact with their mothers when they returned, seemingly happy to play in the room without looking at their mothers or the stranger. They didn’t seem to mind when their mothers left, or fuss when they returned.

Ambivalent attachment: Children in this group (around 10%) were quite upset and very focused on their mothers, showing signs of wanting to be held, but unable to be soothed by their mothers. These children were angry (often pushing away their mothers) and not interested in returning to play.



ATTACHMENT

The critics of the Strange Situation

It creates an artificial environment and does not provide good

measures of how infant-mother pairs act in their natural environments

Most of early work used mothers; subsequent research should examine attachment to multiple caregivers.

Some suggest that the temperament of infants predisposes them to

react the way they do in this setting

Artificial environment created and does not mirror natural

environment.

Cross -cultural differences not always addressed.


• People who experienced ambivalent attachment as infants tend to have strong desires for continued closeness in adult relationships.

• Those who had secure attachment as infants are more likely to expect that they are lovable and that others are capable of love. They are aware that nobody is perfect, and this attitude allows for intimacy in relationships.

• Infancy attachment may even have long-term health consequences. One 32-year longitudinal study found that adults who had been insecurely attached as infants were more likely to report inflammation-based illnesses (for example, asthma, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes) than those with secure attachments.




ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

Erikson

Proposed human development is marked by eight psychosocial stages from infancy to old age

Suggested each stage marked by developmental task or an emotional crisis that must handled successfully to allow for health psychological growth

Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage



ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES

Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year): In order for the infant to learn to trust, her caregivers must be responsive and attentive to her needs. If caregivers are not responsive, she will develop in the direction of mistrust, always expecting the worst of people and her environment.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 3 years): If his caregivers allow it, a child will learn how to be autonomous and independent. If a child in this stage is not given the freedom to explore, but is punished or restricted, he will likely learn to feel shame and doubt.

Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years): In this age range, children have more experiences that prompt them to extend themselves socially. Often they become more responsible and show the ability to make and follow through on plans. If a child do not have responsibilities or cannot handle them, she will develop feelings of guilt and anxiety.

Check Table 8.2 for a discussion of each stage and its positive and negative resolutions.


ERIKSON’S EIGHT STAGES

Industry versus inferiority • (6 years to puberty): Children in this age range are generally engaged in a variety of learning tasks. When they are successful at these tasks, they begin to feel a sense of accomplishment and their self-esteem increases. If a child at this stage does not succeed at tasks, he will feel a sense of inferiority or incompetence, and theoretically this lack of industriousness in childhood could lead to unstable work habits or unemployment later on.




1. The rooting reflex occurs when you stroke a baby’s cheek; she opens her mouth and turns her head toward your hand. The sucking reflex occurs when you touch the baby’s lips; this reflex helps with feeding.

2. Your instructor describes how he is teaching his infant to learn new words by showing her flashcards with images. Every time the infant uses the right word to identify the image, he gives her a big smile. When she uses an incorrect word, he frowns. Which approach is your instructor using?

a. theories of behaviorism.

b. Chomsky’s language acquisition device.

c. infant-directed speech.

d. telegraphic speech.



3. Vygotsky recommended supporting children’s cognitive development by pushing them a little harder than normal, while providing help in a decreasing manner through scaffolding.

the rooting reflex.a.schemas.b.accommodation.c.scaffoldingd. .

4. Erikson proposed that socioemotional development comprises eight psychosocial stages, and these stages include:a. scaffolding. b. physical maturation.c. developmental tasks or emotional crises.d. conservation.



5. What advice would you give new parents about what to expect regarding the sequence of their child’s development of language and how they might help encourage it?

There is a universal sequence of language development. At around 2-3 months, infants typically start to produce vowel-like sounds known as cooing. At 4-6 months, in the babbling stage, infants combine consonants with vowels. This progresses to the one-word stage around 12 months, followed by two-word telegraphic speech at approximately 18 months. As children mature, they start to use more complete sentences. Infants pay more attention to adults who use infant-directed speech and are more likely to provide them with chances to learn and interact, thus allowing more exposure to language. Parents and caregivers should talk with their infants and children as much as possible, as babies benefit from a lot of chatter.


Adolescence: Part 1

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Adolescence

Puberty

Primary sex characteristics

Secondary sex characteristics

Let’s define each of these terms.


Adolescence: Part 2


Menarche

Involves the point at which menstruation begins

Can begin as early as 9 or after age 14; typical age is 12-13

Spermarche

Involves time when boys experience first ejaculation


Growing Up Fast

Members of the St. Thomas Boys Choir in Leipzig, Germany, practice a chant in rehearsal. Choir directors are struggling with the fact that young boys’ voices are deepening earlier as the years go by.


Adolescence: Part 3


Timing and effects of maturation

Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social anxiety, higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent behaviors; lower self-confidence

Early maturing boys: Generally a more positive experience; however: aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums common


Adolescence: Part 4


STIs

Over 25 percent of girls between 14 and 19 infected with STI

Over one -half of new infections affect 15- to 24-year-olds

Adolescent infections especially risky; often untreated


Adolescence: Part 5


Formal operations (Piaget)

Use of deductive reasoning and critical thinking begins.

Characterized by abstract reasoning, classification, symbol use,

thinking beyond moment, and considering many possibilities and hypothetical situations

Adolescent egocentrism

Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality

Influences increased risky behaviors


Adolescence: Part 6

Adolescent brain

Significant limbic system development compared to prefrontal cortex can lead to increase in risk-taking behavior.

Increased myelination of axons in prefrontal cortex

which is not yet fully developed

Adolescent may not foresee the possible consequences

of reward-seeking activities.

Should this influence decision about teenagers and the death penalty?

Teen inmates stand in line at a Texas prison facility. As of 2005, defendants being tried for crimes committed before age 18 are no longer candidates for the death penalty.


Adolescence: Socioemotional Development in Adolescence

Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role confusion

Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new roles

Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier stages

Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals

Negative resolution = Role confusion


Socioemotional Development in Adolescence

Parents and Friends

Relationships between teens and parents are generally positive, but most involve some degree of conflict.

Many disputes center on everyday issues, like clothing and chores, but the seemingly endless bickering does have a deeper meaning.

The adolescent is breaking away from his parents, establishing himself as an autonomous person.


Social Media and Psychology

THE SOCIAL NETWORKING TEEN MACHINE

How does social media affect young people?

Around 95 percent of American teens use the Internet, and 80 percent of them have established identities on social media sites, primarily Facebook.

Concerns Benefits

What are the concerns and benefits of social media networks?


Adolescence: Part 7

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlberg

Proposed three sequential, universal levels of moral development

Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong

Noted that environmental influences and interactions with others

support continued moral development


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Postconventional level

Stage 6

Universal ethical principle orientation

Moral behavior guided by

universal principles of justice and equality.

Stage 5

Social contract, legalistic orientation

Moral behavior determined by

societal laws, which adapt to meet needs of society.


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Conventional level

Stage 4

Law and order orientation


strict adherence to societal laws.

Stage 3

Interpersonal concordance orientation


approval of others.


Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Preconventional level

Stage 2

Instrumental-relativist orientation

Moral behavior determined by what is received in exchange.

Stage 1

Punishment and obedience orientation


what is punished.


Adolescence: Part 8

KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

The critics

Women’s moral reasoning not represented; importance of caring and

responsibility discounted. (Gilligan)

Theory primarily applicable to Western, collectivist cultures

Moral behavior is defined, but it is not predicted .


Emerging Adulthood

Emerging adulthood

Occurs between age 18 and 25 years

Involves period of exploration and opportunity

Influenced by dependency on families for longer periods of time

Provides opportunities for seeking relationships, education, and new

world views


Age of First Marriage

Many developmental psychologists consider marriage a marker of adulthood because it often represents the first time a person leaves the family home to set out on his or her own. Since the 1950s and 1960s, the median age at which men and women marry for the first time has increased, a trend that appears likely to continue. Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2011)



1. The physical changes not associated with reproduction, but that become more distinct during adolescence, are known as:

a. primary sex characteristics.

b. secondary sex characteristics.

c. menarche.

d. puberty.



2. Your cousin is almost 14, and she has begun to use deductive reasoning to draw conclusions and critical thinking to support her arguments. Her cognitive development is occurring in Piaget’s:

a. formal operational stage.

b. concrete operational stage.

c. ego identity versus role confusion stage.

d. instrumental–relativist orientation.

3. preconventional moral reasoning usually applies to young children, and it focuses on the consequences of behaviors, both good and bad.



4. “Helicopter” parents pave the way for their children, troubleshooting problems for them, making sure they are successful in every endeavor. How might this type of parenting impact an adolescent in terms of Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role confusion?

Answers will vary. During the stage of ego identity versus role confusion, an adolescent seeks to define himself through his values, beliefs, and goals. If a helicopter parent has been troubleshooting all of her child’s problems, the child has never had to learn to take care of things for himself. Thus, he may feel helpless and unsure of how to handle a problem that arises. The parent might also have ensured the child was successful in every endeavor, but this too could cause the child to identify his true strengths, again interfering with the creation of an adult identity.


A Good Life

Chloe’s grandfather, J. M. Richard, enjoys breakfast with his wife of six decades. Mr. Richard says that his greatest accomplishment was marrying Mrs. Richard, whom he still loves deeply. Mrs. Richard struggles with Alzheimer’s disease, but her impaired memory does not stop her activities.


Adulthood: Part 1

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Early adulthood

Sensory systems, muscular and cardiovascular ability are sharp.

Hearing starts decline; lifestyle choices affect health.

Fertility -related changes occur.

Middle adulthood

Genes influence height and bone mass; exercise slows shrinking process.

Wrinkles, sags, and skin spots may appear; hair thins and turns grey; hearing loss

continues; eyesight may decline; bones weaken.


Adulthood: Part 2

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Late adulthood

Characterized by decline in physical and psychological functions

Vision (cataracts; impaired night vision)

Hearing declines; reaction time increases; information processed more

slowly; memory deteriorates

Exercise fosters development of new neural networks


Adulthood: Cognitive Development

Early adulthood

Measures of aptitude remain

stable from early to middle adulthood.

Processing speed begins to

decline.

Middle and late adulthood

Cognitive function does not

necessarily decrease.

After age 70, decline more apparent; some skills become more refined.

Crystallized intelligence

Fluid intelligence


Adulthood: Part 3

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: EARLY, MIDDLE, AND LATE ADULTHOOD

Erikson and adulthood

Young adulthood : Intimacy versus isolation

Middle adulthood : Generativity versus stagnation

Late adulthood : Integrity versus despair


Parenting

Baumrind identified four parenting behavioral styles.

Authoritarian parenting

Authoritative parenting

Permissive parenting

Uninvolved parenting

How would you describe each of these styles to prospective parents?


Changing Social Roles Can Reverse Aging

OLD BEES THAT START CARING FOR YOUNG ONES GAIN COGNITIVE POWER

Recent research suggests caring for the young may delay—and in some cases, even reverse—multiple negative effects of aging on the bee brain.

Amdam’s theory is that when older individuals participate in tasks typically handled by a younger generation, antioxidant levels increase in the brain (and may turn back the clock).

Morgen Peck. Reproduced with permission. Copyright © 2012 Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved.


Adulthood: Part 4

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: EARLY, MIDDLE, AND LATE ADULTHOOD

Growing old with grace

As of 2000, fewer than 5 percent of Americans older than 65 lived in nursing home.

Most older adults in the U.S. enjoy active, healthy, independent lives.

Positive emotions are more frequent; emotional stability increases; stress and anger decreases.


Death and Dying

Kubler-Ross stages of death (2009)

Denial

Anger

Bargaining

Depression

Acceptance


Across the World

DEATH IN DIFFERENT CULTURES

Views of death are related to religion and culture

Every culture has its own collection of ideas about death.

Like any developmental step, the experience of death is shaped by

countless social, psychological, and biological factors.



1. Physical changes during middle adulthood include hearing loss, declining eyesight, and loss of height. As research suggests, which can help limit the shrinking process?

a. physical exercise

b. elastin

c. andropause

d. Collagen

2. As we age, our fluid intelligence, or ability to think abstractly, decreases, but our knowledge gained through experience, our crystallizedintelligence, increases.



3. When faced with death, a person can go through five stages. The final stage is acceptance, and sometimes family members need more support during this stage than the dying person.

a. denial

b. anger

c. bargaining

d. acceptance



4. An aging relative in his mid-seventies is looking back on his life and evaluating what he has accomplished. He feels satisfied with his work, family, and friends. Erikson would say that he has succeeded in solving the crisis of integrity versus despair.


5. Describe the four types of parenting proposed by Baumrind. Think of your two closest friends in high school. Citing specific examples, identify the type of parenting their parents used.

Answers will vary, but can be based on the following definitions. Parents who insist on rigid boundaries, show little warmth, and expect high control exhibit authoritarian parenting. Parents who practice authoritative parenting set high expectations, demonstrate a warm attitude, and are highly responsive to their children’s needs. Parents who place very few demands on their children and do not set many limitations exhibit permissive parenting. Uninvolved parenting refers to parents who seem to be indifferent, are emotionally uninvolved with their children, and do not exhibit warmth, although they provide for their children’s basic needs.


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