chapter iii · socio-economic profile of the study...
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CHAPTER III ·
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE OF THE
STUDY AREA
CHAPTER III
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFI~ OF THE STUDY AREA
The picture of population ageing and the characteristics of aged population
can be associated with the socio-economic and cultural differences between the
two states. The socio-cultural background of aged population in Uttar Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu needs to be understood before commencing with the detailed analysis
of the focal problem of the study. What is the difference in the demographic
characteristics of the aged population in the two states? How does the
socioeconomic scenario of the people differ and to what extent does it influence
the situation of the aged persons? These questions are sought to be answered in
this analysis. This chapter thus presents an overview of the contrasting situation in
terms of demographic and socio-economic characteristics in the two states from
which the study area has been derived.
fhe first part of the chapter talks about the overall demographic
differentials in the two states with regard to aged population specifically, as per
the information available from the census. The second part provides a general
background of the study area, helpful to. understand the differences between the
two areas surveyed. In the third part of the chapter is presented a summary of the
general socio-economic profile of the population covered by the primary survey
and the situation ofthe aged persons therein.
The Cultural Context
Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu represent the hubs of two major cultural
realms of Northern and Southern India, which are also marked by significant
differences in demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the population.
No1ih Indian society, with its roots in the agricultural economy of the Indo-
60
Gangetic Plains, is essentially patriarchal and structured on the caste hierarchy of
Jatis interacting within the Jajmani system 1•
Over the millennia, the elements of Greater Hindu tradition have brought
about some uniformity at the macro level between northern and southern India,
such as the adherence to theory of 'Varna' and the 'Caste' system, the primacy of
Vedic rituals, and the patriarchal setup. However, the Southern Indian society is
differentiated on the basis of elements of the original matrilineal culture that
manifest themselves in aspects such as matrilineal descent, preference for
matrilineal cross-cousin and maternal uncle-niece marriage, and the greater
freedom and rights enjoyed by women in the society. These differences are more
objectively manifested in the higher sex ratio, higher female literacy, lower
maternal mortality and higher female wGtk participation rate in Southern Indian
states. The discussion which follows, attempts to examine whether the above
mentioned differences manifest themselves in the demographic and socio
economic features of the aged population in the two regions as well.
111.1 Demographic Profile
The first aspect which needs to be looked into is the overall temporal
pattern of demographic ageing in the two states. The pattern of ageing in Uttar
Pradesh is quite different from Tamil Nadu, as can be seen in Figure 111.1.
Srinivas, M.N. (1965): 'Social Structure' in K.N. Chopra (ed.) The Gazetteer of India, New Delhi;p502
61
Figure 111.1: Growth of Aged Population, 1961-2016
14 -----1
12
0 .IJ • 10 oil 0 .. ,
8 • Cll • c 0 6
"' .. -; Q. 0 4 II..
~ 2
0 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001. 20()6• 2011. 2016.
~------------------;-1
--India ------- UP ----.- TN I ---------
*-Projection_ Smtrce: Census of India (1991), Ageing Population l?[ India -An Ana~vsis of the 1991 Census Data, New Delhi.
Figure Ill. I presents an interesting picture of the situation of demographic
ageing in the two states. It reflects on the slow progress of demographic transition
in UP_ The state had a higher proportion of aged persons till 1981 (above the
national average), after which the proportion actually declines and more or less
remains stagnant, remaining much below the national average. Tamil Nadu, after
overtaking Uttar Pradesh as well as India on the whole, shows a much more rapid
process of ageing and much higher projected proportion of aged population_ Uttar
Pradesh is yet to reach the stage of demographic ageing of population while Tamil
Nadu is already facing demographic ageing. However, in terms of quantum of
aged persons, Uttar Pradesh being the most populous state in India, also has the
largest elderly population numbering 9.5 million according to the I 99 t census.
Tamil Nadu, on the other hand, has a lower aged population of 4.2 million,
projected to reach 9 million only by the year 2016, by which time Uttar Pradesh ' s
elderly population would have reached over 16 million according to census
projections.
62
Table III.l: Selected Demographic Statistics for Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh Selected Demographic Statistics: Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Total Population, 2001 62.1 million 166 million Proportion of Urban Population, 2001 43.8% 20.8% Literacy Rate, 1991 73.4% 57.4% Sex Ratio, 1991 (females per thousand males) 986 898 Work Participation Rate, 1991 (workers per thousand population) 44.8 32.7 Crude Birth Rate, 2000 (per thousand population) 1.9.3 32.8 Infant Mortality Rate, 2000 (per thousand live births) 51 83 Crude Death Rate, 2000 (per thousand population) 7.9 10.3 Life Expectancy at birth, 1995 63.3 years 56.8 years Old Age Sex Ratio, 1991 923 787 Old Age Literacy Rate, 1991 33.7 19.9 Old Age Work Participation Rate, 1991 40.0 45.0 ~faged among dependants, 1991 12.5 6.4
Source: Census of lndw (1991), Agemg PopulatiOn of lndra- An Analysis of the 1991 Census Data, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi.
SRS (1997), Compendium of Fertility and Mortality Indicators, 1991-95, SRS Bulletin, April 2002.
Uttar Pradesh is the fourth largest Indian state in terms of area, with the
largest populat!on in Il}dia. In 2001, the population of Uttar Pradesh was 166
million. Tamil Nadu, the southern most eastern coastal state, is much smaller than
Uttar Pradesh, ranking sixth in terms of area and tenth in terms of population: 62.1
million in 2001.
The demographic differentials between the two states reflect upon the
social differences as well as the status of the aged therein. Tamil Nadu has a
greater level of urbanization than Uttar Pradesh. It also has a much higher sex
ratio, both for general population and specifically for aged population, indicating a
higher status for women in Tamil Nadu. This has resulted in higher literacy and
workforce participation among females in Tamil Nadu than in Uttar Pradesh. This
consequently has an influence on the fertility and health indicators. Thus, Tamil
Nadu has a higher longevity, lower mortality, infant mortality rates and bhih rates
as compared to Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh in fact has one of the highest birth
rates in the country at 32.8 per thousand.
Uttar Pradesh has a predominantly agrarian society, which is able to
support the huge population. The aged population numbers about 9.5 million as
per 1991 census, as compared to 4.3 million in Tamil Nadu. The aged persons :in
such an agrarian setup find economic support through participation in the family
labour at the farm. Rural work participation rate among the aged is as high as 70%
in Uttar Pradesh. The grea~er need for work participation, spurred by the poorer
economic status of the aged is reflected in the higher Old Age Work Participation
63
Rate (percentage of workers in the total aged population) in Uttar Pradesh, while
in Tamil Nadu the aged persons are able to withdraw from occupations and lead a
retired life. The percentage of aged among dependants is consequently much
higher at 12.5% in Tamil Nadu as compared to 6.4% in Uttar Pradesh.
District-level Pattern of Aged Population:
The pattern of distribution of aged population at the district level shows a
higher proportion of aged people in the predominantly rural and less developed
districts of both Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Uttar Pradesh, the whole of
Eastern Uttar Pradesh, which is facing large out migration of young people in
search of employment, has a higher proportion of aged to total population.
Consequently such districts show higher work participation for the aged as
compared to other districts with lower proportion of elderly. Districts with higher )
urban population and higher industrialization, such as Lucknow, Kanpur (Nagar),
Allahabad, Ghaziabad, Agra and Firozabad generally show lower proportion of
aged population. This indicates the largely rural base of the aged population and
the consequent problems relating to poverty, lack of family support, and
destitution among the aged. Some districts in southern Uttar Pradesh also have
low proportion of aged population, such as Jhansi and Sonbhadra. The Terai
districts of Pilibhit and Bareilly along with neighboring districts of Rampur and
Moradabad have a low proportion of aged population mainly because of a
prosperous agriculture and industrial base, which prevents out migration of young
people in search of employment. Another belt of relatively higher proportion of
aged people is in Western Uttar Pradesh, comprising mainly the districts of
Meerut and Bulandshahr. The high proportion of aged in these districts may be
due to better life expectancy due to improved medical facilities. In Tamil Nadu on
the whole the districts have a much higher proportion of aged people. The
proportion is very high in the southern districts of Kanya Kumari, Tuticorin and
Tirunelveli, and also in the industrialized and agriculturally developed belt of
Coimbatore and neighboring districts. The agriculturally rich districts of Cauvery
delta have a comparatively lower proportion of aged people. The districts of
northern Tamil Nadu on the whole have lower proportion of aged as compared to
the rest of the state.
64
Uttar Pradesh
Pattern of Aged Population 1991
% Population above 60 years of age
c=J Below6 c:=JS-7
7-8 .. Sand above
Source: Census Of India, 1991
Tamil Nadu
Pattern of Aged Population 1991
%Population above 60 years of age
Below 6 6-7 7-8 8 and above
Source: Census Of India, 1991
66
111.2 Study Area: A Socio-economic Profile
The primary survey was divided into two components - rural and urban. In
order to .represent the urban aged, the capital cities were selected from both states
- Chennai in Tamil Nadu and Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh. Both cities show major
differences in size, socio-economic structure and level of infrastructure
development. While the former is one of the four metropolitan cities in India with
its urban spread encompassing a major part of the neighboring district of
Chengalpattu as well, the latter is among the twelve largest cities in India though
much smaller in size than Chennai. However, they were selected on the
assumption that the living conditions and nature of problems faced by the urban
aged in both cities would be similar due to similar economic background and
cor1ditions of urban living among the people surveyed. A representative sample of
80 households with aged members was taken in each city.
The rural areas covered by the primary survey· were located in the
neighboring districts of Chengalpattu in the case of Tamil Nadu and Unnao in the
case of Uttar Pradesh. This was necessary in the case of Tamil Nadu because
Chennai is a wholly urban district and hence rural areas necessarily fell in a
neighboring district. In the case of Uttar Pradesh the villages were chosen on the
basis of their distance from the main city of Lucknow, keeping the conditions as
similar to the case of Cheru1ai as possible. The villages in both states were located
within a day's commuting distance from the capital cities. However, while in
Chennai though they were more distant, yet interaction was regular due to greater
c01mectivity and flow of transportation. However, in case of the villages in
Unnao, though they were at a lesser distance from Lucknow, the connectivity was
poor and people did not prefer going to Luclmow. In both the areas, access to
urban health centers was limited, in the former by the high cost of transportation
and in the latter by the absence of means as well as reluctance on part of the
villagers to venture out.
67
Urban Localities
To elaborate further on the differences between the two districts in which
urban population w<.s surveyed, let us examine the figures in the table below.
Table 111.2: Selected Demographic Information for Chennai and Lucknow, 1991
CHENNAI LUCKNOW (U)
Total Male Female Total Male
Area (square km) 174 - - 360 -Female
-Population 3841396 1986278 1855118 1731224 925291 805933
No. of households 798279 - - 302613 - -Density of population 22077 - - 4816 - -Sex Ratio 934 - - 871 - -% of 60+ population 6.7 6.5 7 5.3 5.4 5.2
60+ Literacy rate 60.3 76.9 43.7 49.9 64.3 32.6
% Main 60+ workers 16.8 30.1 3.4 23.6 39.81 4.2 Source. Census of lndra, 1991
··.;·
The huge difference in area of the two districts is because while Chennai is
an entirely urban district and includes only the Chennai Municipal Corporation,
Lucknow includes the Lucknow Urban Agglomeration (constituted by Lucknow
Municipal Corporation and Cantonment Board). Lucknow has a larger urban area
than Ch~nnai constituted by nine_ statutory towns. But it has a much lower density
of urban population as compared to Chennai. The urban population in Chennai
was 3.84 million in 1991 (with a combined metropolitan population of 5.4 million
inclusive of the urban sprer.d in Chengalpattu district included in Chennai UA) as
compared to 1.7 million in Lucknow (the population of Lucknow UA being 1.67
million), ___ Urban population constituted 62.66% of the total population of Lucknow
district. The discussion here is restricted only to urban population of Lucknow
district, since the comparison is with an entirely urban district.
In Chennai, as in the rest of southern India, sex ratio is high. In Lucknow,
on the other hand, sex ratio is much lower. Lucknow has a lower proportion of
main workers to total population at 26.6% as compared to 30.5% for Chennai.
With higher work pmiicipation, dependency ratios are consequently lower in
Chennai (539) as compared to Lucknow (687).
Chennai has a higher proportion of elderly at 6.7% as compared to
Lucknow which has 5.3% elderly population. The proportion of aged females
68
(7%) is higher than aged males (6.5%) in Chennai. In Lucknow the proportion of
aged females (5.2%) is almost the same as that of males (5.4%). The aged
population in Chennai is more literate than in Lucknow. The old age dependency
ratio is also much higher in Chennai (103) as compared to Lucknow (90). The
reason for this may be greater sense of security among the aged people in Chennai
than in Lucknow, which permits them to enjoy a retired life after 60 years of age
without having to support themselves through work. This is also reflected in the
_f~r:t;,/:b::\tJh,.·~-~:.·.,;,~~·:~11 -::f'main workers to total population in the 60+ age group is
much lower in Chennai (16.8%) as compared to LucKnow ~L.J.o~·o). This is true for
both aged males and females. Thus the aged population in Chennai shows a higher
dependency and lower work participation than the aged population in Lucknow.
Within the two cities as mentioned earlier three localities each were
selected on the basis of relative economic status, based on type of residential
areas. The localities were one each of high, middle and low income residences. A
sample of 25-30 households were surveyed from each locality to derive an idea of
the problems and needs of the aged in these localities as representative of the
overall problems and needs of the aged belonging to similar economic status
living in urban areas. Information available on these localities from the 1991
census has been summarized in the table below.
Table III.3: Localities Surveyed in Chennai and Lucknow: Basic Information from the 1991 Census.
Chennai Lucknow --Madipakkam Triplicane Perambur E Wazirganj Saadatganj Nirala Nagar
Population -Total 114Y 23772 1849~ 34447 41118 46323
-Male 5898 12141 9693 18343 2189~ 26351
-Female 5539 11631 8801 1610~ 1922~ 19972
INo. of households 245( 488( 3784 5023 5268 717(
Sex Ratio 939 958 908 878 878 758
Literacy Rate - Persons 90.87 78.81 88.51 61.24 61.7( 78.74
Males 94.91 86.98 93.2( 66.62 69.98 85.49
Females 86.61 70.28 83.27 55.02 52.21 69.60
Work Participation Rate for main workers:
-Total 29.23 28.12 32.31 51.912 47.93 41.49
-Male 48.4( 49.7 51.2~ 53.3( 51.9~ 49.45
-Female 8.7( 5.52 11.43 18.8 9.53 14.71 Yo of Scheduled Caste Population 13.2( 6.97 0.22 7.01 10.0( 6.45
Source. Census of lndta, 1991.
69
The three localities surveyed in Chennai were Madipakkam, Triplicane
and Perambur East. Lying on the outskirts of southern Chennai, Madipakkam ·
colony was developed with the purpose of decongesting the old residential
localities within the municipal corporation. Plots were sold at low prices and
attracted many middle class families with income largely between Rs. 8-15,000
monthly.
Triplicane, the second locality surveyed, is one of the oldest settlements in
Chennai and was the home of educated upper classes, mostly Brahmins. With the
expansion of the city, it degenerated due to lack of scope for expansion or
provision of civic amenities. The ·richer families moved out into newer, better I
-' planned colonies, with better facilities and lesser congestion. It is now a
predominantly low to lower-middle income residential area, with a lingering
significant Brahmin presence. Triplicane has the unique appearance of an old
township with narrow lanes and congested closely packed houses.
Perambur, being a large area, has been divided into three zones, of which
one was ·covered in the survey.- Houses were selected mainly from a private
residential area with large plots belonging mostly to the upper and upper-middle
classes. This part of Perambur has a well established upper class residential area
with wide roads, open spaces and good infrastructure facilities.
Madipakkam has the lowest population among the three localities
surveyed in Chennai. The almost exclusive movement of retired professionals into
Madipakkam has raised its literacy rate to 90.87%. Madipakkam thus has the
highest literacy among the three localities followed by Perambur East (88%) and
Triplicane (78%), which had comparatively low literacy since the population
belonged·mostly to the lower income group.
The structure of employment shows highest proportion of primary workers
in Madipakkam, since it was earlier a village and has now been usurped by urban
growth. Still some agriculture is practiced there, mostly market gardening.
Secondary workers were highest in Triplicane (mostly factory labour and transport
70
workers) while they were lowest in Perambur. Consequently te1iiary workers, also
the highest paid category, were highest in Perambur followed by Madipakkam and
Triplicane.
The localities surveyed in Lucknow were much larger in size in terms of
population and number of households as compared to those surveyed in Chennai.
The three localities surveyed were Wazirganj, Saadatganj and Nirala Nagar.
Wazirganj is an extensive area consisting of several residential colonies and
commercial areas. One of the middle class residential areas within Wazirganj was
covered -in the survey.
Saadatganj, like Triplicane in Chennai, is a typical old residential area of
the old city, facing considerable decay and neglect. Its narrow lanes or Galis an}
open drains along with poor facilities and extreme congestion no longer appeal to
the moneyed classes, who have moved out to better residential areas. Hence
Saadatganj has now become a low income residential area occupied mostly by
factory workers, low grade employees, artisans, small retailers and the like.
Nirala Nagar is a comparatively new locality, settled mostly after
independence. It is provided with wide roads. and open spaces since residential
purpose was kept in mind while laying it out. Though it includes some
government colonies, the houses surveyed consisted of largely upper class homes
constructed in large freehold plots.
Njrala Nagar was also the largest of the three localities surveyed in
Lucknow, followed by Saadatganj and Wazirganj. Though Wazirganj was largest
in areal extent, it had lesser number of houses and lower population because of a
large part under commercial use, such as hospital, city railway station, markets
and office complexes. The Scheduled Caste population was highest in the lower
income neighborhood of Saadatganj, followed by Wazirganj and Nirala Nagar,
showing a caste bias in favor of the upper castes in the higher income groups.
It is interesting to note that the locality with the highest literacy rate, Nirala
Nagar, has a literacy rate of 79%, which is equal to that of Triplicane, the locality
71
with the lowest literacy among the localities surveyed in Chennai. Another
interesting feature is the higher female Work Participation Rate in general in the
Lucknow localities as compared to the Chennai localities (19% in Wazirganj, 15%
in Nirala Nagar and 10% in Saadatganj). This again may be the result of greater
economic need resulting in more women taking up jobs. Also, among the Muslim
families it is very common to find women engaged in Chikan and other
embroider~' work to supplement family income, which may also lead to higher
work participation among them.
The composition of main workers shows that primary workers, though
very low in proportion in Nirala Nagar and Wazirganj, are high at 10% in
Saadatganj. This may be due to the prevalence of livestock rearing - buffaloes
among the Hindus mostly and goat/sheep/cattle rearing among the Muslims.
Secondary workers are highest in proportion in Saadatganj (25%), followed by
Wazirganj and Nirala Nagar. Tertiary workers are highest in proportion in Nirala
Nagar (85%) followed by Wazirganj (83%) and Saadatganj (61 %).
Thus several common as well as contrasting features can be identified
between the localities surveyed. The upper class residential areas - Perambur and
Nirala Nagar- both showed lowest sex ratio, high literacy and highest proportion
of tertiary workers and extremely low proportion of the Scheduled Castes.
However work participation was high in Perambur while it was lower in Nirala
Nagar. The middle class residential areas were marked by high sex ratio and high
propmiion of tertiary workers, though Wazirganj ranked low on literacy, lowest in
proportion of Scheduled Castes and ranked highest in work pariicipation.
Triplicane and Saadatganj, the two low-income localities ranked high in sex ratio,
low in literacy and had the highest propotiion of secondary workers. But the latter
ranked highest in proportion of Scheduled Castes, second in overall work
participation rate and first in the propmiion of primary workers. These trends are
contrary to the pattern seen in Chennai.
72
Rural Localities
Chengalpattu in Tamil Nadu and Unnao in Uttar Pradesh were the two
districts in which the rural component of the primary survey was carTied out.
Chengalpattu, containing a substantial part of the urban outgrowth of Chennai
metropolis, is the larger and more developed of the two districts in which rural
surveys were carried out. It has a lesser number of villages and a lower rural
density of population as compared to Unnao, which indicates a larger number of
smaller sized villages in U1mao. The average number of households per inhabited
village in Chengalpattu was 332 while in Unnao it was 202 only. This shows the
smaller size ofvillages in Unnao.
Table III.4 Selected Demographic Information for Ch~ngalpatflu and Unnao, 1991
CHENGALPATTU (R) UNNAO(R)
Total Male Female Total Male Female
V\rea 7155 4504 No. of inhabited villages 1690 1693 Population 2565583 1298354 1267229 1901099 1015650 885449
No. ofhouseholds 561643 341878 Density of population 359 422 Sex Ratio 976 872 Vo of 60+ population 7 7 6.9 7.5 7.8 60+ Literacy rate 25.9 41.9 9.3 16.1 26 Yo Main 60+ workers 40.2 61.8 17.9 45.5 77.3
Source: Census oflndra, 1991.
There is a vast difference in the sex ratio of the two districts, it being 960
in Chengalpattu and considerably lower at 873 in Unnao. This is consistent with
the larger regional difference in sex ratio between the two states. Rural sex ratio is
higher in case of Chengalpattu.
The prop011ion of older people is more in the district ofUnnao (7.2%) than
in Chengalpattu (6.6%), the aged being proportionately higher in rural than in
urban areas in both districts. The high proportion of aged in Unnao is due to large
out migration of young people into neighboring more industrialized and urbanized
districts of Lucknow and Kanpur in search of employment opportunities.
73
7.3 4.1 6.9
Dependency among the aged is much higher in Unnao (136) than in
Chengalpattu (1 09). This is more so in rural areas than in urban areas. Though
there is a higher dependency among aged in Unnao, the proportion of main
workers among aged is also higher in Unnao (44.4%) than Chengalpattu (30.6%)
in case of both rural and urban areas. The aged in Unnao are greater in proportion,
but the lesser developed between the two regions, with lower literacy, greater
gender disparity and lower status of females, higher dependency and greater work
participation.
The rural areas covered included three villages each in the two states,
located at some distance from the main cities surveyed. The rural sample of
households constitutes the bulk of houses surveyed. The selection process was
cmried out on the basis of 1991 census information on the villages in the region in
the case of Tamil Nadu, while in the case of Uttar Pradesh, assessment was made
on the basis of field visits for lack of published 1991 census data for the districts.
Villages had to be selected in such a manner that they would not be under the
direct area of influence of the cities. Care was taken to select villages with
households with an equal proportion of members of all age groups to avoid areas
with predominantly aged persons.
The three villages covered in each of the states differed in several aspects
from each other. While the villages in Chengalpattu were large in size on average,
villages in Unnao were smaller in size but more numerous. Thus while a total of
136 valid households were covered in the three villages in Chengalpattu, the
sample of 120 households for Unnao had to be made uniform by covering four
villages and a much larger proportion of households in these villages as compared
to those in Tamil Nadu. Thus while houses in Tamii Nadu villages constituted
only 8. 7 % of the total households, the Uttar Pradesh households constituted about
14.2% ofthe totalhouseholds in the four selected villages.
74
RURAL r---
Table 111.5 Selected Demographic Information for the Villages Covered in the Primary Survey
TAMIL NADU UTTAR PRADESH
DISTRICT- CHENG ALP A TTU DISTRICT- UNNAO Madoo Marwi
Sirudavoor Manamathy Amoor Sersa Khera Nairn pur Bhitrepar
rrotal population 2085 2650 2078 1551 1035 1195
No. ofhouseholds 488 613 469 303 187 216 Sex Ratio 960 1011 973 857 946 850 Density of population I sq. km 2.57 4.49 3.65 3.36 4.44 4.35 Literacy Rate - Persons 51.43 55.54 40.79 40.93 30.43 30.45 Work Participation Rate for main workers: -Total 39.66 33.25 47.06 32.04 35.17 32.22 Yo of Scheduled Caste Population 71.18 36.11 74.3 62.67 36.14 60.50 Source: Census of Indza, 1991
The three villages surveyed in Tamil Nadu, Sirudavoor, Amoor and
Manamathy belonged to the Thiruporur C. D. block in Chengalpattu taluk of
Chengalpattu district. They are located along the road leading from the small
temple township of Thiruporur to Chengalpattu, a commuting distance of about
four hours from Chennai. All three have pucca roads approaching the state
highway from the village. The villages have a unique morphology, with houses
spread out along narrow lanes, often surrounding a temple or a large tank. The
poorer households belonging to· the lower castes and mostly agricultural labour
were situated in the fringe of the main settlement, in rows of thatched huts with
small yards in front. The more prosperous houses had pucca structures with
thatched shades in the yard for keeping cattle. They were located in the village
interior, surrounding the tank or temple.
The bulk of villagers were agricultural labour, with a small percentage
being cultivators. Many of the agricultural labour had moved to urban areas as
construction labour, leaving their families behind. They often came during the
harvest and sowing· seasons to work in the fields but again returned after that to
the cities: Consequently a large number of aged persons could be found in the
houses, looking after the property in the absence of their children.
75
697 140 864
-4.44
38.17
29.70
37.45
All three villages were large in size (above 550 square km). In terms of
population Manamathy was the largest with 2650 people in 613 households.
Scheduled Castes were in majority in Amoor (74.3%) and Sirudavoor (71 %)
though in Manamathy they had a much lower propmtion at 36%. Sex ratio and
literacy were much higher in the Chengalpattu villages as compared to the Unnao
villages.
In contrast to the Tamil Nadu villages, the Uttar Pradesh villages were not
only much smaller in size, but also provided with a much lower level of amenities.
The four villages covered in the survey were Sersa, Madoo Khera, Marwi
Naimpur and Bhitrepar. All four villages were located in the Nawabganj C.D.
Block of the Hasanganj · tehsil in Unnao district. Some segregation could be
observed-on the basis of caste in the location of settlements. The villages were
connected with each other by cart tracks. Sersa was the only village with a 6km
long semi-pucca approach road, connecting it with Nawabganj, the block
headquarter and market town on the Lucknow-Kanpur highway. Only cycle
rickshaws were available for commuting between Nawabganj and Sersa. As
mentionea earlier, the level of amenities in the Uttar Pradesh villages was much
lower than the Tamil Nadu villages. Piped water supply was available to most
households in Chengalpattu, which was augmented with well/hand pump for their
drinking water needs. In U1mao, on the other hand, wells were the only source of
water supply.
Agriculture was the predominant occupation in all the villages. There were
numerous small cultivators having very small land holdings and also working as
agricultural labour and cultivators on lease, along with large cultivators who
owned extensive agricultural land. Several young people had moved out to
Kanpur ro work as construction and factory labour. Consequently the elderly were
left behind with the tiny holdings, often cultivating them, or giving them on lease.
They also worked as agricultural labour on other farms.
In no village was the population above 2000. The proportion of Scheduled
Caste population varied between the villages from a high of 63% in Sersa and
61% in Marwi Naimpur to a low of37.5% in Bhitrepar and 36% in Madoo Khera.
76
Work participation rates were in general lower than the rates in Tamil Nadu
villages, the difference being primarily the result of much lower female Work
Participation Rate in Uttar Pradesh as compared to Tamil Nadu.
111.3 Profile of the Surveyed Population
The primary survey covered a total population of 2246 persons from 422
households. Persons aged 60 and above, the primary subjl-cts of the survey,
numbered 274 in the Chennai-Chengalpattu sample and 283 in the Lucknow
Unnao sample. Of these 166 belonged to Chengalpattu and 108 belonged to
Chennai, while 165 belonged to Unnao and 115 belonged to Lucknow. The older
population covered in the primary survey proportioned about 23% in the rural
areas.;:md slightly higher in urban areas (26.5% in Lucknow and 28% in Chennai).
Though the aged had a lower literacy than general population, they were more
literate in the Tamil Nadu sample than in Lucknow-Unnao. Female literacy was
also higher in Chennai-Chengalpattu, as per the general trend.
The age-sex structure shows a higher concentration of population in the
younger age groups as compared to older age groups for both Lucknow-Unnao
and Chennai-Chengalpattu. The higher proportion of older persons in the
population is due to the selection of only those households in the sample, which
have older member/s.
Table 111.6 Age-Sex structure of the Surveyed Population
Percentage of Population to Total Population
Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh
Age-groups Chengalpattu (R) Chennai (U) Unnao (R) Lucknow(U)
(Years) Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
0-4 4.3 5.3 4.2 3.7 3.8 10.5 2.0 0.0
5-14 18.2 18.1 10.4 15.9 25.9 18.7 17.1 18.9
15-49 48.7 46.5 46.4 40.7 45.2 40.6 45.9 47.6 :
50-59 2.9 10.1 6.8 15.9 1.8 7.0 3.9 11.0
60 & Above 25.9 19.9 32.3 23.8 23.4 23.2 31.2. 22.5
Total Population 347 377 192 189 394 315 205 227 Source: Pnmary Survey
77
Persons below 15 years of age vary from 19% in Lucknow to 29% in
Unnao, and from 22.5% in Chengalpattu to 17% in Chennai. They also form the
group often looked after by aged members in the absence of, or to supplement, the
working members. Taking care of grandchildren is one of the primary
contributions of the aged members to the joint family.
The age group of 15-49 years varies in propmiion from 40-49% in the
surveyed population. This can be taken as the group of care-givers and workers on
whom the aged persons may be dependent. A larger proportion of persons in this
age group were recorded in Chengalpattu and Lucknow. In Unnao their proportion
was lower due to greater out-migration of persons in this age group in search of
employment.
The age group of 50-59 years is a kind of transitional stage, preparatory to
old age. In this stage the person begins the mental process of preparing for the
changes related to ageing. Many features typical to old age begin manifesting
themselves, such as health problems, growing psychological insecurity and
marriage of children leading to changes in the family structure. It must be borne in
mind that old age is not a well defined chronological 'age' but actually a stage in
life which sets in effectively after the children get married. According to the
Ashram theory, the parents enter into Vanaprastha after the marriage of tlie· son,
which is a kind of voluntary transfer of the functions of the household to the
children followed by a gradual withdrawal from family life. This is in preparation
to the complete withdrawal from the role of the householder to a life of pious
reclusion till death, termed the Sanyasa Ashram. The Ashram theory, being a
basic tenet of the Greater Hindu Tradition, is adhered to in both the North and
South Indian cultures.
In the age group of 50-59 years, females are much higher in proportion as
compared to males in Chennai-Chengalpattu as well as Lucknow-Unnao. This
could be a feature caused due to selection of aged-member households, since the
wives of most currently married aged males were in the 50-59 age group.
78
The persons aged 60 and above formed the actual body of respondents and
have been taken to represent the aged persons in the study. This is more of a
statistical convenience rather than an actual age to demarcate ageing, which, as
discussed earlier, cannot be represented by a single specitic age threshold. The
proportion of aged persons was higher in urban than in rural areas, possibly
because the greater longevity in urban areas.
Before going deeper into the social profile of aged persons a background
of the caste structure and income levels of the surveyed population is essential to
build a background for explaining the family status and other features of the aged
persons.
Caste Structure
Caste stratification of sample was possible only for the rural areas, hence
the caste-family dynamics and the effect on aged persons of this is better
understood in the rural context In several cases the caste identity of the household
was withheld and hence in some cases caste identity is not known. This problem
was faced in both Chennai and Chengalpattu. In Unnao no such problem was
faced, though in Lucknow in a few cases this problem was observed.
Figure 111.2: Caste Composition of Households Surveyed
160
140 ! 0 120 s;
' l !----.,
II) 100 ::J
1-
0 80 J: 1- 1-.. 60 0
0 40 z
!----i
! - 1-----,
20 - ~~ 0
Chengalpattu { R ) Chennai { U ) Unnao { R ) Lucknow { U ) I
L ~pper o Intermediate o Low o Others/not ~-p~Zifi~
Source: Prtmary Survey
79
Table III. 7 List of Individual Castes Covered across Caste Categories
Caste Categories Constituent Castes
Tamil Nadu Naidu, Chettiar, Mudaliar, Sengundar, Brahmin, Nair, Karuneegar,
Upper Telugu Vaisya, Rajput, Vellalar
Uttar Pradesh Vaisya, Thakur, Brahmin, Kayastha, Khatri, Baniya
Tamil Nadu Arjuna, Vanniyar, Yadava, Vishwakarma, Achary, Naicker,
Intermediate Thattan, Gramani, Nadar
Uttar Pradesh. Mali, Ahir, Yadav, Nai, Kahar, Teli, Kalwar, Bari, Lodh
Tamil Nadu Low
Adi Dravida, Dhobi, Vettai Karan, Adi Andhra
Uttar Pradesh Pasi, Chamar, Dhobi, Kori, Dhanuk, Guria Mallah
Tamil Nadu Malai Karavan (ST), Caste not revealed Others/not specified
Uttar Pradesh Muslim, Caste not revealed
Source: Pnmary Sun'ey
In Chengalpattu, low castes were numerically predominant in two of the
three villages covered. The third and the most prosperous village had a majority of
upper caste households. Among the low castes Adi Dravidas were the most
numerous. They form the bottom of the caste hierarchy in Tamil society and are
mostly agricultural labourers at present. The other low castes covered in the
survey were Vettai Karan who are traditionally hunters by occupation, Dhobi
(washer men), Gramani (toddy drawers) and Adi Andhra (migrants from coastal
Andhra Pradesh).
Among the intermediate--castes were mainly cultivating castes such as
Vanniyar, Naicker and Yadava who are predominantly agriculturists, and castes
identified mainly by their occupational specialization, such as Vishwakarma &
Achary (mostly stone masons and idol carvers), Nadars (palm cultivators and
liquor makers) and Tbattan (goldsmith). The Nadars though ranking low ritually,
have pi~ogressed in the socio-economic ladder mainly through political
mobilization. The upper castes were mostly Bralm1ins, Chettiars, Mudaliars,
Karuneegars, Vellalars and Sengundars. Brahmins were most numerous in urban
areas. Mudaliars (and their sub-caste Sengundar) are the dominant land owning
caste in Chingelput district, and they were the more numerous in the surveyed
villages. --Most of the land-owning families are based in cities, with only
80
supervisory control over their land. This is especially true among Bralm1ins and
Chettiars. Land is generally leased out to cultivators belonging to lower or
intermediate castes.
The Chennai sample is composed of mostly upper castes, apart from a
large section not revealing their caste identity. Among the higher castes, about
eleven castes were covered. Brahmins and Mudaliars were the most numerous. A
total of just four low caste households and one service caste household could be
covered.
The caste structure in Uttar Pradesh shows that low and intermediate
castes are more numerous. in Unnao. In the surveyed villages Pasis and Chamars
were the most numerous among those ranking lowest in the caf,te hierarchy. The
more landed among them had assumed the characteristics of dominant caste --
within the village community, since most of the erstwhile dominant castes had
migrated out from the villages. Kori, Dhanuk and Guria Mallah were the other
low castes. The intermediate castes were Ahir, Yadav, Dhobi, Mali, Nai, Kahar,
Teli, Kalwar, Bari and Lodh, of whom Mali and Lodh were the most numerous.
Residential segregation was observed in case of Thakurs whose settlements
(Tolas) were located at some distance from the settlements of the lower castes and
often on higher ground. Among the upper castes Thakurs were the most numerous
followed by Brahmins, Kalwar and Kayastha.
In Lucknow again the overwhelming majority ·was upper caste households
among Hindus. The caste identity of the Muslims was not ascertained, hence has
not been analyzed. Among the upper castes the most numerous were Kayasthas,
followed by Rajputs, Khatris, Baniyas and Brahmins. Only a few intermediate and
low castes could be covered.
---
Economic Status:
Information provided by respondents on their income suffers from lack of
reliability since generally people were reluctant to disclose the information, and
on some insistence it was either rounded off, or understated. Yet a broad idea of
81
their relative economic status can be ascertained. The average monthly per capita
incomes in Chengalpattu were higher than in Unnao as a whole, being Rs. 582.02
as compared toRs. 278.85 in Unnao. Among the urban areas, per capita income in
Chennai was lower at Rs. 2818.54 as compared to urban Lucknow (Rs. 3331.46).
There is a greater income inequality observed between the three localities
surveyed in Lucknow as compared to Chennai.
Households were divided into quintile groups on the basis of average per
capita incomes. This has brought out starkly the difference in income levels in the
areas surveyed. Incomes in all classes were higher in Tamil Nadu as compared to
Uttar Pradesh for rural areas. Average income in the lowest group for Unnao was
even less than Rs. 100, indicating extreme poverty in the rural areas. It is only in
the fomth quintile group that the rural income in Unnao (Rs. 292.42) becomes
comparable to Chengalpattu's lowest category income of Rs. 255.53. The reason
for the exceptionally low incomes in Unnao may be because the region is
depressed as far as economic development is concerned.
Table III.8 Average Incomes and Distribution of Households Surveyed by
Income Categories
Average monthly per capita income by quintile groups (rupees)
Average Quintile Groups: Average Monthl Mor:thly y Per Househol Capita d Income Income
(Rs.) (Rs.) 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100
Tamil Nadu Sirudavoor 2919.05 577.61
Chengalpattu !Amoor 2592.5C 608.24 255.53 394.30 501.28 665.55 I 081.99
(R) Manamathy 3077.78 560.22
Tamil Nadu Madipakkam 10661.11 3117.72
Chennai frriplicane 8551.72 1969.11 686.55 1469.30 2247.98 3438.54 5964.76
(U) Perambur 16760.0C 3368.78
·Uttar Pradesh Sersa 2413.75 432.52
Unnao Madoo Khera 966.25 239.44 63.51 123.59 187.10 292.42 712.02 Marwi
(R) Naimpur 667.5C 164.59
Uttar Pradesh Nirala Nagar 23907.0C 5471.72
Lucknow Wazirganj 11873.21 3888.99 346.35 845.39 2962.96 4693.23 7467.51
(U) Saadatganj 4493.33 633.66 Source: Prrmary Survey
82
Total tpopulation
in each group
27.2
16.2
24
17
Variation in monthly per capita mcome by caste categories was not
relevant in the urban sample because of the almost completely upper caste sample.
In rural areas, however, some trends could be observed. In the Chengalpattu
villages, OBCs had the lowest incomes in all three villages. Scheduled Castes had
the highest incomes in the two villages where they were in the majority, while in
Manamathy where they were a third of the population, the forward castes had the
highest per capita monthly income. A similar trend was observed in the villages in
Unnao, with OBCs having lowest monthly per capita income and Scheduled
Castes showing the highest.
Land ownership is another important indicator of economic status. The
proportion of aged persons reporting :~and owdership was highest in Unnao (61 %)
followed by Lucknow (17%). In Tamil Nadu, aged persons in both Chengalpattu ·
(16%) and Chennai (8%) had a low ownership of land. In Unnao though·land
ownership was high, it was in the form of highly fragmented tiny holdings (1-5
bigha) providing some minimum security to the aged in the face of poverty. But it
wasn't sufficient to provide forthe family; hence most cultivators in Unnao also
repmied agricultural labour as their chief economic activity. Aged women also
showed high work participation in agricultural labour.
Dependency and Work Status
A majority of the older population reported their status as that of
dependent non-workers. A larger number of dependents belonged to urban areas
as compared to rural areas, since in the predominantly agrarian rural society, the
elderly continue to participate in farm labour as long as they are physically
capable to do so. As a result of extreme poverty, dependency among the aged was
lowest in Unnao where the older had to work in order to suppmt themselves.
Females generally were engaged in house work and thus kept themselves
sufficiently occupied.
Work status has to be analyzed in terms of both earlier and current
occupation of the older, since most elderly who were working earlier have either
83
retired or shifted to other occupations. Reasons for working after retirement are
mostly to pass time in urban areas while it is a financial necessity in rural areas.
The occupational structure shows higher work participation among males than
among females in all areas. Workers in rural areas were mostly either cultivators
or agricultural labour, while in urban areas the occupational structure was more
diverse and belonged mostly to secondary and tertiary sector.
Table 111.9 Distribution of Older Population by Work Status- Urban
Number of Workers Percentage of Workers
Chennai (R) Lucknow (U) Chennai (R) Lucknow (U)
Occupation Categories- Urban Earlier Current Earlier Current Earlier Current Earlier Current Proprietors - large enterprises, senior !Male 37 4 32 I
officials and professionals. IFemale I8 4 2I 5
Clerical, supervisory and Male 20 2 7 I other lower level staff IF em ale 6
..
2 2 I Self Employed Male 5 0 8 6
Female I 2 2 2 Wage labour- Skilled Male 0 0 I5 I5
Female 0 I 6 4 Wage labour- Unskilled Male 0 0 0 0
Female 0 G 0 G Others - urban Male 0 I I I
Female 4 2 0 I Total Workers Male 62 63 24
Female 29 II 31 13 Note: Occupatron categorres as per Nat10nal ClassificatiOn ofOccupatrons Source: Primary Survey
60 57 5
62 . 36 6
32 29 I 2I I8
8 0 I
3 I8 0 0 2
0 9 I 0 0
0 c 0 I4
14 I8 IOC 100 10 IOC IOC 10
Most of the retired aged persons among the higher income groups were
either professionals (teachers, doctors, scientists, etc.) or senior officials. A
significant proportion also belonged to the categories of clerical and other lower
level staff. Work participation among females was prominent only in among
salaried professionals in both Chennai and Lucknow. In Lucknow a significant
propmiion also belonged to the skilled labour category, mostly chikan and zardozi
embroidery workers. It is interesting to note that the skilled workers are
continuing in their occupation in spite of age, while in other categories there is
drastic reduction in the number of workers currently continuing in the same
occupation.
84
4
38 4 8
25 I5 63 3I 0 0 4 8
IOO IOO
Table 111.10 Distribution of Older Population by Occupational Structure, Unnao and Chengalpattu
Number of Workers Percentage of\Vorkers
Chengalpattu (R) Unnao (U) Chengalpattu(R) Unnao (U)
Occupation Categories- Rural Earlier Current Earlier Current Earlier Current Earlier Current
Cultivators Male 9 4 52 52 10 •(J 57 Female 2 2 38 36 3 5 90
Agricultural labour Male 45 35 22 16 51 54 24 Female 31 28 2 2 61 67 5
Skilled Non-farm Workers Male 12 7 15 I 13 II 16 Female 8 5 0 0 13 12 0
Unskilled Non-farm Male 8 II 3 0 9 I 3 Workers
Female· 12 7 0 c 20 I 0
Petty Trad~rs Mille I 5 0 c 8 8 0 Female 0 0 0 ( c 0 0
Employees/Salaried Male 5 2 0 c 6 3 0 Workers
lcemale 1 0 0 c 2 0 0 Others. - rural Male 3 I 0 o. 3 2 0
rcemale I 0 2 2 2 0 5 Total Workers ~ale 89 65 92 69 IOO IOO IOO
Female 61 42 42 40 100 IOO 100 Source: Pnmary Sun>ey
Family Characteristics
Close to two thirds of the respondents (67-70%) lived in joint families in
Chingelpattu, Chennai and Unnao. In such families the older parents lived with at
l~ast one married son/daughter. The lowest proportion of joint families (56%) was
in Lucknow. In rural society, the poorer households generally break up sooner into
nuclear units due to lack of any binding economic asset/property2, hence the aged
tend to be living either alone, or with one child's family only. Since such low
income and absence of property is generally associated with lower castes,·the aged
in this category have a higher probability of living in nuclear units. As per the
primary data, majority (70%) of the aged living alone or two-member families of
older co)lpies in rural areas belonged to low or intermediate castes.
2 Ibid. p 552.
85
7 9 2
10
10
Nuclear families in general were larger in proportion in urban areas. Half
of the a~d persons living alone ~elonged to_ t~e lowest income quintile. The aged
couples living alone belonged mostly to the middle income group of third and
fourth incorne quintiles (56%), while the aged were more uniformly distributed
among income groups in case of joint families. In urban areas, economic status
was not the only influence on living anangement. Nuclearization of families is a
trend associated with Westernization and modernization in urban society. Caste
did not play as strong a role in family type of the aged in urban as in rural society.
In urban areas older couples or individuals had mostly_ chosen to live alone
because they did not want to be a burden on their children. They felt that such an
arrangement would hamper the freedom and privacy of the children as well as the
older themselves. Breaking up of the family into nuclear units, however, did not
imply severance of ties with kin-group, which were found to be strong for most ";f
the urban aged. They were maintained by regular interaction and periodic co
residence of the aged with each of their children's families.
Table 111.11 Distribution of Families Surveyed by Family Type and Size
Average Family No. of households covered Total Size Nuclear Joint Extended Households
Chengalpattu (R) 5.30 42 92 2 136 Chennai (U) 4.70 32 48 I 81 Unnao (R) 5.90 39 81 2 120
Lucknow(U) 5.01 37 44 4 85 Source: Prrmary Survey
The average family size varied among the localities surveyed from less
than four to more than six members. Rural areas had larger family size on average
as compared to urban areas. The smaller family size reflects on the number of
surviving children per elderly person, which was lower in Tamil Nadu sample
(3.2) as compared to the Uttar Pradesh sample (4.1). Children traditionally bear all
responsibility of supporting and caring for their old parents. In this sense it is one
of the reasons for high fertility preference in traditional societies3, since in
traditional society sons are looked upon as providers of support in old age, and
hence larger numbers of children ensure greater security.
3 Dharmalingam, A. (1994): Op Cit. p 5
86
Table III.12 Distribution of Households Surveyed by Family Size Groups
% of Households by Family Size <3 members 3-5 members > 5 members
Total Households
lfamil Nadu Chengalpattu-R 18.4 36.0 45.6 136
Chennai-U 22.2 50.2 27.2 81
Uttar Pradesh Unnao-R 26.7 2u.o 53.3 120
L Lucknow-U 24.7 40.0 35.3 85 Source: Pnmary Survey
It is interesting to note that the largest proportion of less than three
member families (which here implies single aged or aged-couple households) was
in U1mao, which is also the economically the most backward of the areas
surveyed. Within this group there was a predominance of low castes. It reflects on
the fragmentation of families and the out-migration of youth leaving behind aged
parents under force of poverty. To the second category of 3-5 members belong
parents living with either unmarried children or with one married child. It is most
fi:equent in Chennai and Lucknow. Large families with more than five members
were found in the rural samples in both states, especially among families with
some land ownership (73%). In such families participation in family farming
activity and joint tilling of land keeps the unit together for a longer time. A higher
fertility rate also accounted for larger family size in Uttar Pradesh as compared to
Tamil Nadu, in both urban and rural areas.
Table III.l3 Distribution of Older Population by Living Arrangement
Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh
Chengalpattu (R) Chennai (U) Unnao(R) Lucknow (U)
Living Arrangement Male Female Male Female Male Female Male 1 Fem~~ Alone ~ 2 I 0 II 6 2 With spouse only 14 5 14 8 12 6 1 9 With unmarried children 18 8 9 4 IC 8 I 6
f<\lone with married children 9 34 9 18 15 15 13 With spouse and married hildren 43 19 25 II 41 34 2 17
With other relatives 2 8 4 4 3 4 4 ~otal Older Persons 90 76 62 45 92 73 6 51 Source: Pnmary Survey
87
Examination of the living arrangement of the elderly in greater detail
showed that most of the older people live with their sons, as per the tradition of
sons looking after parents in old age. Most of the older persons lived with their
married or unmarried sons and also widowed children in some cases. Some older
persons also lived with theii· m'arried daughters in Tamil Nadu where it is common
for the daughter also to care for her parents even after marriage. In many cases
elder married siblings had moved out often leaving such families of older persons
with children who had not yet become economically independent.
The older were heads of households in cases of nuclear families where
they were either living alone or with spouse and unmarried children. In such cases
their savings, or income in case of them being employed still, was the chief
economic support of the household. In several cases older' persons living in joint
families with married son/s also were heads when the financial control was in
their hands and their decision making held sway over the rest of the family. This
was especially true in case of families with own business. However, in some
families, though the oldest member was the titular head, his/her role in the family
was more of ritual significance. The de facto head was the oldest earning member,
yielding true authority on the household.
Table 111.14 Distribution of Older Population by Head of the Household Status
Head of the Household Status among the No. of Older Persons as Heads Proportion to total elderly Male Female ~otal frot Older %to total
jfamil Nadu iChengalpattu (R) 45 5 50 166 ·-· ichennai (U) .. 33 0 33 I07
Uttar Pradesh Unnao (R) 34 8 42 I65 Lucknow (U) 40 5 45 I I 5
Source: Pnmary Survey
About one third of the elderly respondents in Tamil Nadu were heads of
households in both rural and urban areas. In Uttar Pradesh the proportion was
lower at 25% in rural areas and higher at 39% in urban areas. In some cases older
women too were heads of households. This was in case of widows mostly in all
the areas. Their number, however, was not significant.
88
30.1 30.8 25.5 39.1
111.4 Discussion
Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu can be differentiated from each other
socially on the basis of some major differences manifested in some of the
demographic variables indicating better status of women, lower fertility and
mortality and greater longevity among people in Tamil Nadu. The process of
demographic ageing has been more rapid in Tamil Nadu than in Uttar Pradesh.
The aged population also reflects a greater work participation in Uttar Pradesh
while they are more dependants on kin in Tamil Nadu. The old age dependency
ratios were consequently higher in the districts surveyed in Tamil Nadu. The rural
population covered in the survey in Unnao was economically more backward than
the Chengalpattu sample, suffering from very low income levels and migration of
people in search of better opportunities. It also suffered from lower literacy levels.
It was poorly provided as far as basic amenities were concerned, and transport
connectivity was also poorer as compared to Chengalpattu. The urban population,
on the other hand, was more or less comparable in terms of income levels and
living standards, and also availability of amenities.
Most of the aged persons covered in the higher income groups were
retirees, while in rural areas they participated in farm labour. Poorer aged persons,
whether they were agricultural labour in Chengalpattu and Unnao, or Zardozi
workers in Lucknow, had to work till their health would permit. Among the
poorer families in rural areas, the incidence of nuclearization was more frequent
since they did not have any binding economic asset. Aged persons were found to
be living in smaller units in case of poorer households as compared to more
prosperous landed units where joint families made economic sense in pooling
family labour on the farm.
At the macro level the values and tradition that govern inter-familial
relations between the ageq and their kin, and the role of the aged in the family are
similar in both the areas surveyed, since both are governed by the fundamental
Hindu tenets of Ashram theory and the laws of Karma. Yet at the ground level
differences are created due to different socio-economic factors operating in the
two regions, which lead to variations in the situation of the aged in the areas
39
surveyed. Thus we find in general a more dependent yet more secure aged in
Chennai-Chengalpattu, a poorer and more stressed aged in Unnao, and aged
suffering from higher degree of economic insecurity and preferring separate
residence from kin in Lucknow. All these factors, their status in the household,
their control of resources, availability of physical, financial and emotional suppmi
and living arrangement play a vital role in influencing their health status, health
needs and fulfillment of the needs. A more substantial discussion in the .
forthcoming chapters shall elucidate this.
90