chapter iii analysis · tomikazu nakaji, and kimi nakaji. grampa, papa, and mama nakaji are all...

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CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS

This chapter contains the analysis to find the answers to the research

questions in this thesis which are “what is anti-Japanese sentiment as reflected in

the novel Under the Blood-Red Sun?”?” and “how does the anti –Japanese

sentiment affect to the construction of the Japanese-American ethnic identity?” To

answer the research questions, the analysis is divided into two subchapters. The

first subchapter is about the Japanese immigrant family in Hawai‟i. It explains

about the anti-Japanese sentiment towards the Japanese family. The focus of this

subchapter is to understand and analyze the racial and ethnic antagonism towards

Tomikazu and his family before and after the Pearl Harbor incident. The second

subchapter is about how the identity of Japanese-American is acquired. In the

moment of hostility towards Japanese-American and in the moment of war with

Japan, people with Japanese ancestry have several options regarding their identity:

embracing their ethnic identity or abandoning it to conform to the mainstream‟s

identity. This problem is explained in the second subchapter. Thus both

subchapters answer the questions of what anti-Japanese sentiment is and how it

affects the Japanese American ethnic identity.

A. Anti-Japanese Sentiment as The Factor that Influences Japanese

American Identity in Hawaii as Reflected in The Novel Under the

Blood -Red Sun

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1. Prejudice and Stereotypes: Before the World War II

In Under the Blood Red Sun (UBRS), Nakaji family is a fisherman family.

It consists of Grampa (ojii-chan) Nakaji, Taro “Papa” Nakaji, Mama Nakaji,

Tomikazu Nakaji, and Kimi Nakaji. Grampa, Papa, and Mama Nakaji are all Issei,

Japanese immigrants. Papa Nakaji came from Japan to work as fisherman, so did

Grampa. Mama Nakaji came from Japan as a picture bride, but her former suitor,

a sugarcane plantation laborer, was killed in a gambling fight so Mama Nakaji

ended up with Papa Nakaji who took pity on her.

Nakaji family lives in a small house owned by Wilson family in Nu‟uanu

Valley, a rich haole (white) neighborhood in Honolulu, O‟ahu Island. Most

fishermen families live in Kaka‟ako, a place Tomikazu describes as:

“…an area crammed down with old buildings down in the hot and dusty

part of town. The place was poor and pretty rickety. Japanese, Hawaiians,

and Portuguese lived there, but separated into their own sections…. Down

there you found the people who did the hard kind of work…”

(Salisbury, 1995, p.36)

Tomikazu and his family live in a rich section of the town because his

mother works as a housemaid in Wilson household. From the narrative, it can be

seen that Honolulu is segmented and segregated. Rich haole families like Wilson

family live in Nu‟uanu, while the poor non-white families live in places like

Kaka‟ako. Haole is the privileged class in Hawai‟i and is on the top of the social

ladder in Hawai‟i. The other ethnic groups like Japanese, Portuguese and native

Hawaiian, are in the bottom.

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The situation in which Nakaji family lives can be described as

disadvantaged, although not necessarily poor. It is a disadvantage because Nakaji

lives in the Wilson family‟s land. Mr. Wilson is the landlord who is capable of

evicting Nakaji family any time. He is always suspicious to Japanese and its

activity. Mr. Wilson has a son named Keet Wilson who once was Tomikazu

Nakaji‟s good friend. But then Keet changes as the time progresses. He, along

with his father, is the representation of haole community who are being anti-

Japanese in the time of World-War II. They hold superior status to Nakaji family

and they use their power to threaten Nakaji family.

After the Pearl Harbor attack, the anti-Japanese sentiment becomes

widespread, mainly because the one who attack Pearl Harbor is Japan. The

suspicion to people with Japanese ancestry was very high and it was shared by the

American government and military. People with Japanese ancestry had to be

careful of what they were doing as everything could be regarded as subversive.

Everything connected to Japan was forbidden and was a symbol of disloyalty to

the States. Those things also happen to Nakaji family.

The life of Nakaji family is different before and after the attack. Before

Pearl Harbor, the discrimination and anti-Japanese sentiment to Nakaji family is

minimal. But after the attack, the family is separated as Taro Nakaji goes to the

detention camp. The anti-Japanese sentiment becomes stronger and harsher.

Nakaji family has to survive from the loss of the family‟s backbone and the severe

anti-Japanese sentiment in Hawai‟i.

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Before the World War II, Nakaji leads a good life in Hawai‟i. Even

Tomikazu Nakaji and Keet Wilson are good friends.

I was about nine at the time, and Keet was eleven or twelve, back before

Billy moved here from the mainland. I used to follow Keet around because

he was older and knew a lot of things I didn‟t. Like how to call his dog

with a whistle you couldn‟t even hear, or how to shoot a BB gun. And Keet

was the one who introduced me to baseball. He even gave me one of his

mitts so we could throw to each other, the same mitt I still used. Keet‟s

name was written on it in fading black ink that I couldn‟t rub off.


From the quote, it can be seen that the relationship between Tomi and Keet

used to be good. In fact, Keet was like an older brother for Tomi. They used to be

friends. Their relationship was mutual. Keet Wilson was eager to share his

knowledge to Tomi. Tomi‟s hobby which is playing baseball comes from Keet

Wilson. Even more, Keet also gave Tomi‟s the baseball mitt so that Tomi could

play with Keet. But then everything changes. “… until one day he started getting

busy.” (p.12). Keet stops playing with Tomi and starts to disappear from Tomi‟s

life. He never answers the door when Tomi comes. The change in Keet is of

course noticed by Tomi.

“Come play,” I said

“No,”

“What?”

“I said no. I don‟t want to play with you anymore.”

“Why?” I asked

He shrugged, “Just don‟t.”


Keet gives no obvious reason when Tomi confronts him about why he

does not want to play with Tomi again. The shifting personality of Keet which

once has been open and friendly to Tomi reflects the shifting of the society which

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once has accepted Japanese with open arms in Hawai‟i. Keet‟s change is so

radical that later he really bothers Tomi and his family‟s life. At first, Keet‟s

motive for not willing to play with Tomi is not clear. But later on, it becomes

rather clear that the motive behind Keet‟s reluctance to play with Tomikazu is

indeed racial.

When Grampa Joji washes Japanese flag and hangs it in the clothesline,

Keet sees it. With the growing concern about the war in Pacific and in Europe,

hanging a Japanese flag is indeed an irresponsible thing to do. People other than

Japanese descendants see it as an allegiance to Japan. Without realizing that Issei,

like Grampa Joji, is Japanese citizens who may have Japan-related stuffs such as

flag and the picture of Japanese Emperor, people are ready to believe that Issei

and their descendants have their allegiance and loyalty to Japan. It happens to

Keet who becomes so suspicious of Nakaji family.

Keet put his face an inch from mine. I saw small red lines on his eyeballs.

“You think I‟m stupid, fish boy? You think I don‟t know what goes on

around here?” A speck of spit hit my lip when he said stupid. “What are

you flying that Jap flag over at your house for?”


Keet, who used to be friendly, becomes aggressive and even uses the word

“fish boy” to refer to Tomi. As the son of haole elite, Keet holds higher status

than Tomi, the son of a fisherman and a domestic worker. The term “fish boy” is

used here in a derogatory sense. Keet demeans Tomi by calling him with the

nickname fish boy. This nickname is for asserting that Tomi belongs to the lower

class. Keet uses the words “fish boy” in an insulting tone to make Tomi feel

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humiliated and ashamed of his social status in the eyes of haole, particularly in the

eyes of his best friend, Billy. Furthermore, the use of “fish boy” reflects the

stereotypical “poor Japanese” who can only works in low paying job such as

fishermen or plantation laborers.

Keet also says “You think I don‟t know what goes around here?” (p.12).

That sentence signifies the anti-Japanese sentiment that becomes prevalent in the

years leading to Pearl Harbor attack. It echoes the sentiments and the prejudice

that Japanese in Hawai‟i are disloyal to the US and become spies for Japan. Keet

sees the Japanese flag and says “What are you flying that Jap flag over at your

house for?”( p.12) that further reiterates the suspicion of Japanese espionage and

disloyalty.

This feeling is also felt by the Hawaiian. Japanese is gaining strength in

the Pacific and making war with countries in Asia and Pacific. The war with Japan

seems to be very near. There is a widespread anxiety about the anticipation that

someday Japan will attack the US and both nations will declare war to each other.

Due to the enormous number of Japanese immigrants and descendants in Hawai‟i,

this particular anxiety is shared not only by haole elites but also by Hawaiian

people in general. There are too many Japanese descendants in the island; most of

them being Issei, Japanese citizen.

But I knew what he worried about –the Japanese, who were making war

with China and arguing with the U.S. about it, making war like the

Germans were. And though the U.S. wasn‟t at war with anyone, maybe it

was only a matter of time until it would be.

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“Lot of people in Honolulu starting to point finger,” Papa said. “They

wondering whose side us Hawaii-Japanee going take and what we going

do if Japan and U.S. got into a fight.”


In the quotation, it is clear that Japanese‟s loyalty is questioned. Anti-

Japanese sentiment is widespread and Japanese family becomes the objects of

public interest. Although the anti-Japanese sentiment in Hawaii is quite mild,

there is still mistrust to the Japanese community. The war makes people worry,

including Taro Nakaji. Taro Nakaji fully understands that the number of Japanese

in the island is the factor that makes most people feel uneasy about Japanese. He

always insists that his family speak English “Too many people worried about

Japanee… speak Ing-lish” (Salisbury, 1995, p.4) to avoid suspicion.

Generally, Hawaiians, like Charlie –Billy Davis‟ gardener and Grampa

Nakaji‟s friend, are kind to Japanese community. However, the public anxiety that

is exaggerated by the media and government officials makes Hawaiians become

more cautious of Japanese immigrants. This is more intensified by the fact that

there are lots of Japanese people who take control of several businesses such as

fishing business in Hawai‟i. Anti-Japanese sentiments by Hawaiian is somewhat

triggered by this.

“The next day, on the way back to the island, we watched another fishing

boat going out. It passed pretty close to us. You could see three men

working around the deck. Billy waved at them, but they ignored him.

“They not going to wave at you,” Sanji said

“Why not?”

“Hawaiian boat… they no like Japanee boat.”

“Why?”

Sanji shook his head, “Before, had only Hawaiian boats… Now got mostly

Japanee boats… and a pretty crowded sea”


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The economic competition triggers the anti-Japanese sentiment. This case

is also found in the mainland where Japanese immigrants are successful in

agricultural industry. In Hawai‟i, Japanese immigrants and descendants mainly

work as plantation laborers, fishermen, and store owners. Taro Nakaji and Sanji

work as fishermen. Sanji explains to Billy that Hawaiian fishermen do not like

Japanese fishermen. It is because the number of Japanese fishermen is quite high

so that the competition to get fish in Hawaiian sea becomes inevitable. That is

why Hawaiian also has certain dislike towards Japanese immigrants and

descendants.

But this economic reason is not shared by the haole. In Hawaii, haoles

enjoy special position as the ruling class. Haoles do not worry of economic

competition. What haoles worry is the racial solidarity among Japanese

community and their loyalty to their old nation, Japan. Moreover, they have the

belief that Nisei, the second generation of Japanese, are still Japanese although

they are American citizen.

"Billy," he said "Come here."

Billy didn't move, Keet glared bloody swords at him.

Slowly, Billy walked over.

Keet put his arm on Billy's shoulder. “Listen…I want you to stop hanging

around with this Jap. It‟s disgusting to see you two acting like friends…It

makes me sick.”


It is common to call people who have Japanese ancestry as „Jap‟. Keet also

refers to Tomikazu as „this Jap‟. Jap is indeed a derogative term to refer to

Japanese descendants. It is not a mere nickname. Although it seems like an

abbreviation to the word “Japanese”, it contains a strong ethnic slur. It is very

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popular during the World War II and functions as propaganda to fight Japan. But

the use of the word „Jap‟ is not only for the Japanese enemy (Those people in

Japan, such as Japanese soldiers). It is also used for calling people with Japanese

ancestry.

Behind the word „Jap‟ to refer to Japanese immigrants and descendant,

there is a strong message: people with Japanese ancestry are still Japanese. Even

Nisei who obtain their birthright citizenship are still considered as Japanese, not

American. It further means that Japanese immigrants and descendants are

inassimilable and incapable of being American. One recalls “We try hard to be

American but American always say you always Japanese.” (Takaki, 1998, p. 211)

This experience is common among Japanese immigrants and descendants both in

Hawai‟i and in the mainland. Tomi Nakaji is no exception. Keet talks to Billy

Davis, Tomi‟s bestfriend, and refers to Tomi as „this Jap‟ in his conversation. This

use implies that Tomi is not assimilated and further does not belong to American

society. Keet wants to make the impression that Billy and he belong to the haole

elite group and American group while Tomi belongs to the Japanese group which

is lower than their group. „This jap‟ is used for pointing out the „otherness‟,

„alienness‟ and „un-Americaness‟ of Tomi. Hence, the stereotype of Japanese

descendants as alien is emphasized here which furthermore points out the

prejudice of Japanese descendants being disloyal to the States.

“Listen to this, boy,” he said in a low voice. “You people are walking on

mighty thin ice around here.” I didn‟t even breathe. For a moment, he

wagged his finger at me without saying anything. Then, in almost a

whisper, he said, “You tell your father I don‟t want to see any more of that

Jap crap around my place … you understand?” p.78

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In this quotation, Mr. Wilson is angry because he sees Grampa Nakaji

sings Kimigayo and waves Japanese flag in Nakaji‟s front yard. Mr. Wilson then

confronts Tomikazu. He tells Tomi that he hates seeing “that Jap crap”. Again, the

word “Jap” is used. He does not use „flag‟ but he uses „crap‟ instead. It means that

he thinks that everything Japanese is disgusting. His thought is parallel to the

growing sentiment that Japanese descendants are being disloyal. He feels

disgusted and he confronts Tomi in a threatening way. He threatens Tomi with the

words “you people are walking on mighty thin ice”. It means people with Japanese

ancestry are in the dangerous situation. They have to be careful in their action to

not showing something that can be considered as subversive. It also refers

specifically to Nakaji family who lives in Wilson‟s property. Mr. Wilson‟s subtle

message is that Nakaji family is in a danger of being expulsed from their house if

they continue to publicly supporting their ties to Japan.

Again, Japanese-related things such as flag and national anthem of Japan

are considered as the symbol of disloyalty to the United States. Before the Pearl

Harbor, Nakaji family as the representation of Japanese family in Hawai‟i at that

time also gets such treatments from haole and also from Hawaiian society. After

Pearl Harbor, this anti-Japanese sentiment is at its peak, which leads to further

unfair treatments to Japanese immigrants and descendants in the internment

period.

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2. Internment Period after the Attack on Pearl Harbor

The attack on Pearl Harbor seems to be a confirmation for all of the

previous suspicions towards Japanese community. There is no real proof that any

Issei or Nissei helps Japanese soldier to attack Pearl Harbor. However, because of

the long-held belief that Japanese descendants in the US are the subjects of

Japanese government who are loyal to Japan, the government then condemns all

Japanese immigrants and descendant to be the culprit of this attack. How exactly

Japan is successful in invading Pearl Harbor becomes the public question. In this

confusion, people then point to the Japanese community as the scapegoat of the

attack. Rumors begin to spread and people with Japanese ancestry become the

object of scrutiny and antagonism, both by civilians and by the military.

After Pearl Harbor, Issei are being caught and detained. Two months after

the attack, the mass relocation of people with Japanese ancestry in the West Coast

commonly called as Japanese Internment/ Japanese Detainment Camps begins.

The Issei and Nisei are caught and detained without any trial. The Internment is

indeed a life-changing experience for Japanese family, especially in Hawai‟i

where many Issei are forcefully separated from their family and sent to the

mainland because they are thought to be dangerous. Among those Issei are fathers

who serve as backbones in the family. No one predicts that in a very short period,

the life of Japanese family is going to change. Sunday morning before the attack,

Billy and Tomi are still playing baseball in the field near their house.

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As usual on Sunday mornings, Billy met me at diamond grass just after the

sun came up. The field was still wet with dew, and in the brilliant sun, the

whole place was alive with sparkles.

Billy brought his bat this time. “We can hit pop flies,”

(Salisbury, 1995,p.104)

They have no idea that in an hour Japanese soldiers are going to launch a

surprise attack in Pearl Harbor. The attack is early in the morning at 7.48 AM

local O‟ahu time. Nobody prepares for the attack. All residents seem to be

enjoying the Sunday Morning.

When the Japanese soldiers attack Pearl Harbor, at first people are

unaware that they are being attacked by Japan. O‟ahu residents are familiar with

the planes flying all over the island.

Far away in the hills on the west end of the island, red flashes flickered in

the sky, followed seconds later by rumbling sounds, like thunder on the

moon.

“Those army guys never stop,” Billy said.

Night maneuvers. I listened to the eerie, muffled explosions.


So when Japanese soldiers start to attack the island, people think that it must be

another maneuver by the US navy. Month before the attack, the defense in Pearl

Harbor is being strengthened and more planes are flying on O‟ahu sky. As Sanji

say about the flying planes, “Before, got one, two a week. But now, get maybe ten

times that in one day.”(p.52). It happens day and night. However, after Tomi sees

the sign of Japan, he understands that they are being attacked.

Billy and I gaped at the pilot. He was so close you could see a white band

around his head. Then it hit me. Dark plane. Not silver. Not a navy plane.

It didn‟t even have a star on it

It was amber. All the planes were amber.

A rush of fear swept over me.

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Amber.

Amber, with a blood-red sun on the fuselage and under the wings… blood-

red sun… the symbol of Japan.


Reality hits Tomi. It is not a maneuver by the army, but it is a real attack.

When Tomi sees the amber planes with „blood-red sun‟, he feels fear. It is because

the fact that Japan is actually attacking the US. The War, which months ago

seemed so far away, is now coming to Hawai‟i. The War alone is a bad thing. It

becomes worse for Tomi, because the attacker is Japan, not Germany. Tomi

realizes that his life as Japanese descendant is going to change. He knows that he

will face more trouble than he has already faced. „A rush of fear‟ sweeps Tomi as

he understands that his country of ancestry has attacked the US and there have

been suspicions to his family and to Japanese community in general. He has been

treated badly by his neighbor, Keet, who keeps spying on Tomikazu‟s family, and

threatened by Keet‟s father, Mr.Wilson. The suspicion to Japanese community is

confirmed by the Japanese attack and there is nothing Tomi can do to prevent

further antagonism towards him and his family.

After spending time with Billy viewing Pearl Harbor from the tall banyan

tree, Tomi goes home. At home he sees his grampa Joji Nakaji waving Japan flag

to the planes. Tomi gets upset and charges Grampa. “Grampa, what are you

doing?” (p.108). It turns out that Grampa Nakaji waves the flag so that the

soldiers do not bomb them “He see flag, he no bomb.”(p.108). Grampa waves the

flag to the soldier in order to preserve his life. It is interpreted by the soldier to

bomb Pearl Harbor. Nevertheless, this action is very reckless. Tomi takes the flag

from Grampa and Billy tries to hide the flag. Tomi fully understands that if

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someone sees the flag, they can think that Grampa is signaling the enemy. It is a

dangerous move and Tomi knows that they could be killed because of that action.

Before I could say anything, I heard the tramping sound of boots pounding

on dry dirt. Billy‟s mouth dropped open. I turned around. Eight US Army

guys charged toward us with rifles and bayonets pointing at our stomachs.

They spread out around the front of the house, dust settling at their feet,

sweat pouring down from under their helmets.


The use of unnecessary force by the soldiers indicates the seriousness of

the problem. The army goes after anyone that possesses any danger to the United

States, particularly those who have any connection with the Japanese army. The

first suspect is people with Japanese ancestry. So when they get the report that

someone has been waving Japanese flag, they rapidly process the report. They

believe the report and as a precaution of meeting the enemy, they equip

themselves with weapons. The army who comes to the Nakaji family‟s house

consists of eight members. Each of them has their own weapon. Even when they

see that their suspects are just kids and fragile old man, they still use their

bayonets and rifles to threaten Nakaji family and Billy. It can be seen that those

military men are ready to believe that every Japanese descendant in Hawaii is

guilty of the bombing.

We waited in the front room while the three men searched the house in less

than a minute. When they finished, the army guy went over to Grampa and

said, “Someone reported that you kept messenger pigeons… How long

have you been sending messages to the enemy?


The army man stopped at the wire clothesline and nodded to one of the

policemen. Mama watched him cut the wire and loop it around his hand.

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He studied the birds, his face blank. His eyes never even blinked. Spooky.

A sudden gust of wind and rain rushed into the field. Little rivers ran down

the guy‟s slicker. Me and Grampa were getting soaked.

“Destroy them,” the man said to Grampa.


In the morning after the bombing, two policemen and an army come to

Nakaji‟s house. They are looking for Taro Nakaji, but Taro Nakaji (Papa) is not

home yet from fishing. Then, they come inside Taro Nakaji‟s house and make

quick observation inside the house. Lucky for Nakaji family, they have buried the

flag and emperor‟s picture the day before. When they do not find anything, the

army man asks Grampa Nakaji about the pigeons. There are Tomi and Mama

Nakaji present. But the one they chose to be investigated is Grampa Nakaji

because he is the older Issei man who has greater chance of being a traitor.

The accusation of having “messenger pigeons” reflects the excessive and

irrational fear in the society. Even the harmless birds can be considered as

messenger birds that Japanese use to send and receive messages. Taro Nakaji‟s

birds are different breed. They are not messenger pigeons. Those pigeons belong

to the group “fancy pigeons” and “racing pigeons”. Based on

http://www.pigeoncontrolresourcecentre.org/html/about-pigeons.html#about3,

highfliers and tumblers are “fancy pigeons” that are bred mainly for show because

of their capability of acrobatic flying. Racing pigeons are “homing pigeon” that

are bred for racing. They are quite different from messenger pigeons which are

bred specifically for carrying and sending messages. While the practice of using

messenger birds during the wartime is common, not every pigeon can be used as

http://www.pigeoncontrolresourcecentre.org/html/about-pigeons.html#about3

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messenger birds. It is true that pigeons are one of the cleverest birds that have a

very good sense of distance and direction. But each breed of pigeon has specific

feature and use. Fancy pigeons and homing pigeons cannot be used as messenger

pigeons and vice versa.

Therefore, when the army man asks Tomi to “destroy” the birds even after

he has examined them, the order to kill the birds does not come from the

rationality but rather from the clouded judgment. Under the guise of “we‟re at

war”, the army orders Tomi to kill all of the birds in the bird cage. Innocent

pigeons become the victim of ill-accusation and misjudgment that stem from the

suspicion towards Japanese immigrants. The fate of the pigeons is parallel to the

fate of people with Japanese ancestry. Here the slaughter of the pigeon symbolizes

the total destruction the US government casts upon Japanese community in the

World War II period. It reflects how innocent people are condemned for the crime

they do not commit. The army orders Tomi and Grampa to kill all the birds just

because there is an unfounded report that Nakaji family keeps messenger birds.

This report comes from Keet Wilson who always keeps an eye on Tomi. How the

army can easily believe a report from a boy is not surprising. It is because people

are ready to believe that people with Japanese ancestry are disloyal to the states.

Any report is treated seriously. Crazy rumors like “somebody went cut big arrow

in the sugarcane fields that pointed to Pearl Harbor”, Japanese pilot wears

“McKinley High School rings” (McKinley is a school in Hawai‟i popular for its

enormous number of Japanese descendant), “water tank was poisoned”, “local

Japanee people are hiding ammunition” (Salisbury, 1995, p.136) are present and

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treated seriously. With the reason that “we‟re at war” (p.126), martial art is

established in Hawai‟i and the army starts to arrest everyone who is considered as

dangerous.

“The army and the FBI arresting plenty Japanee men, and some Italian

and German, buts mostly Japanee,” Charlie shook his head. “They say

they help plan for attack Pearl Harbor…. They say the fishermens being

taking fuel out to submarines…”


Fishermen are included into the list of dangerous Japanese. So when the

war finally broke, they are the ones who are caught immediately, especially those

who are still in the ocean in the time of the attack. “Sampans were actually

escorted back to harbor waving white flags, in accordance with instructions given

them, when they were set afire by navy planes.” (Okihiro, 1989, p.240) They are

gathered and then, shot. In the story, Taro Nakaji and Sanji, his worker, are both

shot. Taro is still alive while Sanji, who is still eighteen, is dead. Again, under the

guise of „military necessity‟, innocent person‟s life is lost just because he is a

Japanese descendant.

Without any news to the family, dangerous Issei are arrested and taken

into custody. The family is kept in the dark about the fate of their family

members. Nakaji family also does not know about the fate of Papa. But, only after

Grampa Nakaji dares himself to find out, they know that Papa is shot and arrested

while Sanji is dead. It is indeed a very sad day for both Nakaji and Sanji family.

Taro Nakaji and Sanji are the breadwinners of their family. They provide the

families‟ living. Here, their capture reflects not only the loss of family members

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but also the economic loss for the family. They are not rich so they must struggle

hard to make ends meet. Finding job is rather hard for them because many

employers do not want to employ Japanese people.

It was Monday and Mama should have been up at the Wilson‟s house,

working. She was so confused she didn‟t know what to do. She was scared

to death to go there after what had happened. She finally decided to go

anyway, but when she got there Mrs. Wilson wouldn‟t let her in the house.


Even Mama Nakaji cannot work as Wilson‟s housekeeper anymore. Mr.

Wilson and Keet Wilson previously have shown their suspicion toward Nakaji

family. After the attack, they do not want Mama Nakaji to work in their house.

Keet even says that his father considers kicking Nakaji out of his property because

“we don‟t want to support any Jap symphatizers.” (p.138). Mrs. Wilson does not

want Mama Nakaji to work because she is an Issei. Mrs. Wilson is suspicious to

Mama Nakaji. As a housekeeper, Mama Nakaji must have known a lot about

Wilson‟s house. Mrs. Wilson is not going to let Mama work because she does not

want an alien enemy to enter and roam their house freely. Wilson family‟s

decision not to employ Mama Nakaji adds more suffering to Nakaji family. Taro

Nakaji is already captured and Mama Nakaji is denied from working. Grampa

Nakaji is too old and too weak from stroke and Tomi is still a schoolboy. Nakaji‟s

family income is ruined because of racial antagonism toward Japanese

descendants.

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The racial hatred that culminates after Pearl Harbor is now more openly

shown by Hawaiian. Hawaiian‟s tolerant climate changes into aggression towards

Japanese descendants.

“Everybody nervous about Japanee, and lots of people with guns and

machete out there. They looking for revenge.”


I studied the dirty paint on the side of the store. Soon, a gap appeared

between Mama and me and the people behind us. In front of us there was

also a gap. I looked behind me again, this time into the eyes of a lady

glaring straight into mine. In my whole life, I‟ll never forget that look. I

realized that what that lady saw wasn‟t just a boy and his mother… What

she saw was a Japanese boy and his Japanese mother.


The stereotype that Japanese is secretive and sneaky makes many people

feel uneasy about Japanese descendants. The general idea is that Japanese soldiers

can attack Pearl Harbor because of Hawaiian Japanese‟s help. It is almost like a

coincidence that there are so many Japanese descendants in the island and

Japanese soldier choose to bomb the island. Mild hatred before the bombing

becomes stern. People blame Japanese descendants for the attack. They start to be

aggressive towards Japanese descendants. The martial law does nothing to subside

the tension among people. Instead, it increases the suspicion. The martial law is

applied to all residents, but it is not a secret that the reason behind the martial law

in Hawai‟i is to control Japanese population in Hawai‟i.

The anti-Japanese sentiment is so high that Tomi and his mother cannot go

to the store without experiencing racial antagonism. They cannot hide that they

are Japanese descendants. It is because of their look. While it is relatively easy for

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German descendants to blend in the crowds, Japanese descendants cannot do the

same thing. Obviously they are not white. Their oriental look gives them away.

They look like the enemy who bombs Pearl Harbor and they come from the

country of the enemy. They are discriminated by their look and their ancestry.

Again and again, the belief that “a Jap is always a Jap” is resounded. The lady in

the store confirms the belief. She sees a mother and a son that look Japanese. In

her mind, she has the pattern of thinking that every Japanese descendant in

Hawai‟i contributes to the bombing of Pearl Harbor. So, when she sees Tomi and

Mama Nakaji, she automatically hates them. She sees them not only as “Japanese

son and his Japanese mother” but furthermore she sees them as traitor and enemy.

Life as Japanese descendant in Hawai‟i during the wartime is difficult.

Friends and neighbors avoid any contact with Japanese descendants. They do not

want to be associated with enemy aliens. “When all the friends, when they see me,

they coming this way, they just step aside. They were afraid to talk to me.”

(Okihiro, 1989, p.219) recalls Haroku Inouye. Japanese descendants are isolated

by their friends and neighbors who believe that Hawaiian Japanese help the plan

to attack the Pearl. Even Billy, who has been Tomi‟s closest friend, starts

disappearing from Tomi‟s life mainly because he sees Grampa Nakaji waving the

flag to the Japanese soldier. However, after a while, he realizes that Grampa

Nakaji is not trying to signal the flag. Rather, he is trying to save his own life by

waving the flag. Mrs. Wilson who at first is afraid of Nakaji‟s family, also

changes her mind. She is ensured by Billy‟s dad and mother that Nakaji family is

loyal to the states and not dangerous at all. She wants Mama Nakaji back to work

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again. “John and … Mr. and Mrs. Davis came over last night to speak to Mr.

Wilson and me in your behalf. We, of course, have been worried, but they assured

us that your family is completely loyal to the United States.”(p.213). But, of

course, there are still people who insist on believing that Hawaiian Japanese are

disloyal. One of them is Keet who keeps on spying and antagonizing Tomi.

Issei and Nisei who are not in the detainment camp are having a hard life.

But life is harder in the camp. In Hawai‟i, the location of internment camp is on

Sand Island, an island not far from Honolulu. Those Japanese who are seized in

moments after the attack are considered as prisoner of wars. If they dare

themselves to fight back, they will be shot accordingly. The camp is not yet a

permanent camp in the few first months, so those internees are living in tents.

When Tomi dares himself to swim across the strait, he knows her father‟s

condition.

Papa looked … awful. Unshaven and grimy, far worse than after a month

at sea without a bath. He walked slowly, limping. He used a stick for a

cane.


Japanese people care about cleanliness. Taro Nakaji looks far from clean.

All the words “unshaven”, “grimy”, and “awful” indicate that in the camp, there is

a lack of personal care. Yasutaro Soga in his memory also recalls “we did not

have any spare clothing” (Soga, 2008 ,p.49). They also cannot shave because any

sharp object is regarded as weapon. The condition in camp is miserable and Papa,

who is always a composed man, looks “sad and lonely” (p.178). Internment camp

breaks even the strongest person, “his weary eyes sagging” (p.179). The burden of

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being a prisoner of war and being so far away from his family indeed makes Taro

Nakaji weary. He worries a lot about his family and he particularly worries about

his son, Tomi, who braves himself to swim to Sand Island just to find Taro. Taro

Nakaji is still limping from the bullet wound, yet it looks like he does not receive

sufficient medical treatment as he walks supported by a stick, not a crutch.

Not long after Tomi‟s encounter with Taro, however, Taro is moved to the

mainland. Two days after Taro is being moved to the mainland, Grampa Nakaji is

arrested. On Grampa‟s arrest, the FBI tells nothing about the reason. “They just

come and take him,” (p.218). They arrest Grampa with force. The arrest of

Grampa Nakaji reflects on how people can be so blinded by racial hatred that an

old frail Japanese man who has a stroke can be regarded as dangerous. Under the

guise of “military necessity”, they catch a man who is so unlikely to pose any

threat to the United States. Grampa is another innocent man who becomes the

victim of the anti-Japanese sentiment. Nakaji family has lost another man, the

oldest man in the house. With no father and no grandfather, the Nakajis have to

survive.

Anti-Japanese sentiment has resulted in prejudice, stereotype, and unfair

treatments to Japanese descendants. Furthermore, it has triggered racially-

motivated policies such as the martial law in Hawaii and also the infamous

Internment. It has changed the life of Japanese descendants at that time and it also

contributes in shaping the identity of Japanese descendants.

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B. The Nakaji’s Journey in Finding Their Identity

Ethnic identity cannot be separated from the ethnic group‟s experience.

The experience may vary from bad experience to good experience. In the United

States, a nation of immigrants, the ethnic groups‟ experience can be seen from its

narratives. The narratives are filled with the story of immigration, assimilation,

integration, and rejection. Together, they help to shape the identity of an ethnic

group.

Due to the generational and status difference between Issei and Nisei, they

have different journey in acquiring their identity. Issei are excluded from the

privilege of having the US citizenship, while Nisei have their birthright US

citizenship. Although both generations experience anti-Japanese sentiments, Issei

are the ones who get the hardest hit. It is because the belief that Issei are alien

enemy that are bound to their nation, Japan. Issei‟s journey towards the

acquisition of their identity is identified by steep and rocky paths. They are

marked people –marked as disloyal alien enemy. It is the identity given to them by

the society. Issei‟s discovery of their identity is the journey to fight off the label

that is stuck to them. Nisei‟s journey, however, is quite different from Issei‟s

journey. Nisei‟s citizenship acts like a shield to protect Nisei from getting the

same mark as their predecessor. Their journey in the discovery of their identity is

about embracing their biculturalism as the mixture of the old world and the new

world.

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1. The Impact of Anti-Japanese Sentiments on Issei

a. Nakaji Issei’s Assimilation to American Culture

Papa stood at the tiller, guiding it with his knee while he rummaged

through a bucket of line, checking the hooks and sinkers. The boat rose

and fell in the dark, smooth and easy, slicing the morning water. The

engine chugged and vibrated in the floorboards and spat out smoky

bubbles in the wake.

“This is a good place, Tomikazu,” Papa suddenly said. “Smell that sweet

air”


There are lots of Issei planning to go back to Japan after working for a

while in America. They are the sojourners who only want to get some fortune and

then return after being successful. But some Issei find themselves to be permanent

settlers in the US. One of them is Taro Nakaji. During the journey to the sea with

his son, Taro Nakaji tells Tomi that Hawaii is a good place. Taro Nakaji is one of

those immigrants that have found their way into American life. By referring that

Hawaii is a good place, Taro Nakaji feels that America is his home now. Taro

Nakaji has changed from a mere sojourner to a settler when he decides to get

married and settle down. The coming of his father from Japan also ensures Taro

Nakaji‟s decision to stay in Hawaii. He finds Hawaii to be a good place to raise a

family so he tries to tell his son the reason why he chooses to stay in Hawaii.

Furthermore, he also wants Tomi to understand that Hawaii is indeed a good place

to live by telling him to “smell that sweet air”. Taro does not need lots of words to

convince Tomi that Hawaii is a good place to live. Instead, he wants Tomi to

experience it himself. The “sweet air” here represents the friendly Hawaiian

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atmosphere, especially before the anti-Japanese sentiment reaches its peak in

Hawaii.

The conclusion that Hawaii is a good place does not come to Taro Nakaji

in an instant. Taro Nakaji shares the experience of many immigrants who come to

America. In order to “make it” in America, immigrants have to work hard and do

everything in American way. Taro is not an exception. His story of integration to

the American life begins with his hard working ethic.

Papa put the bait in the iced fish box, then fired up the old diesel engine,

which made a lot of racket in the quiet harbor. We were lucky to have

diesel. Some boats still ran on kiawe wood, where you have to keep a hot

fire going all the time.


He said he was lucky just to make the payments on the boat.


As a fisherman, Taro Nakaji has his own boat. He is able to purchase a

boat that runs on diesel while many of other fishermen‟s boats are still the

traditional boats. He may call it lucky. But it is not just about luck that Taro

Nakaji can buy a diesel fishing boat. It is because Taro Nakaji is a hard worker.

He practices what Japanese call as ganbari, a work ethic in Japanese. Fortunate

enough, ganbari is parallel to Protestant American‟s notion of hard work. This

work ethic often becomes the highlight of the Japanese American‟s success story.

“I work hard to have a good life, good family.” (p.13). Taro Nakaji works hard

because he wants his family to have a good life. He always works; only take a few

rests at his house. “The only rest Papa ever got was when he spent time with his

pigeons,” (p.7). The Nakaji family is not rich. But they can afford their basic

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needs in the family. Furthermore, Taro Nakaji is able to send Tomi to school.

During the prewar Hawaii, many Nisei have to find a work, mainly in the

plantations, to support their family. It is a common practice at that time. But,

children of Nakaji family: Tomi dan Kimi, do not have to find work to help the

family‟s income. The spirit of kodomo no tame ni or for the sake of the children

enables Taro Nakaji to always provide the best for his children although when it

means that Taro has to work hard.

Taro Nakaji‟s journey toward assimilation into American life is also

indicated by his eagerness to speak English. Although the United States does not

have any national language, English has been widely used since its formation.

English is also the primary language that is spoken in the United States and used

for the communication among Americans. The ability to speak English and the

effort to learn English are two key indicators of an assimilated immigrant. Taro

Nakaji speaks broken English, but he insists Nakaji family use English every day.

“Too many people worry about Japanee… speak Ing-lish” (p.4). Taro understands

that speaking in Japanese, their native tongue, will further cause alarm to people.

So he keeps on using English although his English is far from perfect.

Another indicator that Taro Nakaji has been assimilated into American

culture is how Taro Nakaji has abandoned Japanese traditional clothing. He does

not wear kimono or yukata. Insead he wears simple clothes. Taro wears pants and

tank tops. Those pieces of clothing are more practical to wear than Japanese

clothing, especially for fishing in the ocean.

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Papa and Sanji looked like twins in their long khaki pants and white BVD

tank tops. Sanji even had a ballahead haircut, like Papa.


Clothing is one of example of the cultural artifacts. Each region in the

world has its own traditional clothes. Clothes represent culture. Traditional clothes

worn by immigrants indicate the tie of the old world. Therefore, when Japanese

immigrants wear Japanese traditional clothes in America, people will see them as

unassimilated immigrant. With the increasing antagonism towards Japanese

descendants, showing Japanese cultural signs is not wise. Taro Nakaji understands

that so he wears what is called as “American clothing.

However, as an Issei, Taro Nakaji is still bound to the tradition of

respecting the authority. The example of the authority in Nakaji‟s life is the

Wilson family. As the Nakaji‟s landlord and Mama‟s employer, Wilson family

has its power over Nakaji family. No matter how bad they treat Nakaji family,

Taro Nakaji still respects them. That is why when Tomi fights with Keet Wilson,

he becomes very angry. Taro Nakaji‟s attitude toward Wilson can best be

described like the following excerpt:

“Good evening, Wilson-sama,” Papa said, quickly standing. He bowed to

Mr.Wilson, a smooth, polite gesture, one arm wet to the elbow with fish

slime an bits of blood.


The addition of “–sama” behind a name indicates that someone respects

the person they are referring to. “ –sama” is used for someone who hold higher

position. Japanese recognize several honorific suffixes such as “ –san” which is

used between people with equal status, “ –kun” which is used for referring a

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person younger than the speaker, “ –chan” which is an endearment honorific

commonly used to refer to baby, children, and elderly, and “ –sama” which is

used for referring people with higher status. Taro refers Mr. Wilson with “ –sama”

and he quickly stands and bows to Mr. Wilson. This deep respect is derived from

the hierarchical Japanese culture.

The next Issei in Nakaji family is Mama Nakaji. Although Mama Nakaji is

a picture bride, a typical immigration practice for Japanese women at that time,

she is not a typical Japanese wife who fully submits to the superiority of the in-

law and the husband. Japanese family is hierarchical: wife is inferior to husband

and her parent-in-laws. But Mama Nakaji has a rather equal position in the family.

Mama and Grampa glared at each other.

It drove Grampa crazy that Mama was so stubborn. He was always telling

Papa he should teach her more respect. “She shame you,” Grampa said,

“She shame the family.” But Papa just let Mama be herself.


Mama Nakaji dares to scold Grampa even though in traditional Japanese

family, the daughter-in-law is considered as ”a young female outsider” (Glenn,

1986, p.204). The female outsider has no power over the household, let alone over

her father in law. Mama Nakaji, however, takes control in the family when Taro

Nakaji is not home for fishing. She even repeatedly warns Grampa Nakaji to

always speak English. She is so insistent and “stubborn”. It makes Grampa Nakaji

anxious. But her husband, Taro Nakaji, does not object to her stubbornness. This

indicates that the relationship in Nakaji family is shifting from a strict Japanese

immigrant family to a more modernized and Americanized Japanese immigrant

family. Papa Nakaji is okay with Mama Nakaji and does not try to make her

75

submit to his order, quite unlike many Issei men who are described by their wives

as “a completely Japanese man” (Glen, 1986, p.209).

The development of Mama Nakaji from a frightened picture bride whose

supposed husband dies in a gambling fight “I would probably have sailed back

home… alone. Unwanted bride. Then who will marry me?” (Salisbury, 1995,

p.40) to a strong woman who also helps in the family income shows that Mama

Nakaji is quite non-traditional.

Mama Nakaji is also described as a “very private person” (p.29). In fact,

more Japanese are like Mama Nakaji. Japanese are private person. This sense of

privacy can be seen from their attitude towards guests. Guests are commonly

received in the front room. They rarely invite the guests beyond the living room.

That is because they consider their house as a private sphere. The failure to

understand this behavior leads to the prejudice that Japanese descendants are

secretive, and therefore cannot be trusted. However, all the sense of privacy will

be lost if somebody is close enough to the family.

The third Issei is Grampa Nakaji. He is an older Issei. If Taro Nakaji and

Mama Nakaji are both embracing American culture with open arms, Grampa

Nakaji is quite the opposite. It is understandable because he comes in America in

his old age. Most of his life is spent in Japan, only a small part of it is spent in

America. The result is that his process of integration into the mainstream culture

takes longer time than that of younger Issei. His pattern of thinking is also very

Japanese-oriented.

76

But then, Grampa was Issei, first-generation Japanese immigrant, and

looked at things in a certain way. The Japanese way –which was stern and

obedient… Grampa wanted me to think like that, he wanted Papa to beat

me into “a boy of suitable devotion.”

(Salisbury, 1995, p.5-6)

From the excerpt, Grampa is described as a person who believes in the

Japanese way. He is stern and rigid: he maintains Japanese codes and values, and

tries to impose it to his descendants. Grampa is one of the examples of “Japanese

man” or “Meiji man” who is characterized by having absolute power over the

household and other members are “required to be obedient and respectful” (Glenn,

1986, p.202). He does not want to be mocked, so when Billy and Tomi are both

laughing at him, he gets mad. He is “pretty tough about showing respect”

(Salisbury, 1995, p.2) for elders.

His journey towards assimilation can be described as a tough journey.

Older Issei tend to be more difficult to assimilate and integrate into American life.

The first factor of the difficulty to assimilate is the set of belief that older Issei

bring from the old world. Older Issei spend most time of their life in Japan. They

are more familiar with Japanese way of life. They bring their old culture to

America. Once they arrive, they are in shock because of the cultural and linguistic

clash. The result is they exile themselves from the society. This also happens to

Grampa.

In Japan, Papa told me, Grampa was very well respected. He had a lot of

friends. But he missed Papa and came to the islands. When he got here he

was pretty lonely and hardly spoke to anyone, even to Papa.


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From the quotation, it can be seen that upon his coming to Hawaii, he has

spent his time being quiet in the new land. He has very limited interaction, even

with his own son whom he misses a lot. He withdraws himself and ends to be

lonely. Older Issei often experience loneliness because of the new place. The

strange place with strange cultures baffles older Issei.

The second factor that affects Issei‟s difficulty to assimilate is their attitude

towards Japanese culture. It is not a surprise that Issei prefer Japanese culture to

American culture. After coming to a new place, Issei seek out the Japanese

community and join them. They find familiar faces and culture that remind them

of home. This attitude slows down the process of assimilation to the mainstream

culture.

Grampa and Charlie spent a lot of their spare time together. Mostly they

just sat around and talked. But sometimes, Grampa managed to talk

Charlie into going down to Kaka‟ako with him to watch Japanese silent

movies, the kind where they had a benshi, the actor-guy who would give

you the dialogue. Grampa loved those movies especially when they had

samurai ones.


Japanese community in O‟ahu is centered on Kaka‟ako. There are

Japanese festivals and Japanese movies screenings. Grampa loves going to

Kaka‟ako to watch silent movies. His spare time is spent in Kaka‟ako. Grampa

chooses to integrate with the community that he feels he has a tie in. He places

himself inside a familiar culture instead of trying to assimilate into American

culture. The exposure of Japanese culture makes him difficult in integrating with

American culture. The result of this over exposure to Japanese culture is Grampa

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becomes impervious to the anti-Japanese sentiment. He has excessive patriotism

towards his home country and cares a little about anything else “He did what he

wanted, no matter what” (p. 76). This includes waving Japanese flag and sings

Kimigayo in the open space although at that time the anti-Japanese sentiment is

quite high. It is a risky business, but Grampa still does it anyway because he

thinks that he is Japanese.

Another factor that slows the assimilation of older Issei is the Japanese

ethnocentrism. Although the Japanese ethnocentrism operates in a very subtle way

due to the fact that Japanese is a minority, it is no doubt that older Issei still

believes that Japanese is better in every way than white men.

And anyway, Grampa wasn‟t too sure Papa should let me mix with haoles.


The quotation confirms Grampa‟s ethnocentrism. Racial mixture is not

preferable to older Issei. Grampa believes that it is not a good idea if Japanese

mingle with American. It will make Japanese become more Americanized.

Americanization is not a good thing for the older Issei who tries to impose

Japanese way of life to his descendants. Grampa even frowns upon Taro Nakaji‟s

friendliness and openness. He wants his descendants to think and live in a strict

Japanese conduct, not to be Americanized. The only way to live is the Japanese

way, not the American way.

Grampa squinted at Mama. English was okay for me and Kimi, but for him

it was no fun. He tried to learn it by listening to the police on the radio,

but still wasn‟t picking it up very well. Poor Grampa. I felt sorry for him

sometimes.

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Grampa also has difficulty to learn English. He learns English from

listening to Charlie‟s radio. But, he is not doing well in his English. Language

barrier is often encountered by older Issei, including Grampa Nakaji. Older Issei

tend to have difficulty on learning English due to their old age. Their limited

communication with non-Japanese people also contributes in their poor English.

This also happens to Grampa, who only has one non-Japanese friend, Charlie.

Grampa has limited interaction with the outside world, particularly with people

who are not Japanese. At home, he also prefers using Japanese although Mama

and Papa Nakaji have told him repeatedly to always use English. This action

indicates that older Issei has lower degree of assimilation than younger Issei.

The importance of assimilation for Issei is particularly because of the

growing anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States. The widespread anti-

Japanese sentiment pushes Issei to assimilate and integrate to American life. They

have to abandon their old culture and embrace American culture so that they will

not be thought as inassimilable and disloyal.

b. Issei’s Identity: The Burial of Japanese Culture

Ethnic self-identity is not a static process but one that changes and varies

according to particular social contexts. Individuals, for example, may

avoid situations where their identity is challenged, threatened, humiliated,

and castigated; and seek out and sustain whenever possible settings that

favor the identity state.

(Weinreich in Trimble & Dickson, 2010)

Identity is never fixed. It changes according the situation in certain time

and space. Someone can identify themselves with a new ethnic identity that suits

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them at some point and abandon their old ethnic identity that does not suit them

anymore. This change may be caused by several things, including the aggression

and negative sentiment from other people, particularly from the powerful

majority.

The shifting of identity is also experienced by Issei. They have to abandon

their old identity of being Japanese and have to embrace the American way by

assimilation.

Grampa narrowed his eyes and clenched his fists. His face turned red and

his lips bridged into a fish-scowl. “You Japanee!” he said “Japanee!”

“American,” I said. I took a step back and shoved the flag up onto the

porch, “No good, Grampa. No good at all!”

Grampa‟s face grew redder. He shook his fist at me. “Whatchoo think

you? You Japanee, Japanee inside. Like me, like Papa.”

(Salisbury, 1995,p.3)

“We are Japanese, confonnit… Japanese,” Grampa looked at me like it

was all my fault.


Grampa has no difficulty in identifying himself as Japanese. It is because

he is an older Issei, who spends his life mostly in Japan. His status as Japanese

citizen also plays a role in his self-identification as Japanese. Grampa is oblivious

to the anti-Japanese sentiment in the society so he openly proclaims his identity by

waving Japanese flag and singing Kimigayo. He does not care if his proclamation

is bad for Nakaji‟s life during that time. What he knows is that he is a Japanese

citizen so he behaves like one.

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As the oldest Issei in the family, he feels he has the burden to bequeath his

ethnic heritage to the younger generation of Nakaji. Therefore, he insists that Taro

and Tomi be Japanese like him. By saying “We are Japanese,” Grampa Nakaji

tries to tell Tomi that they are not American. They may live in America, but they

are Japanese. Japanese must be respectful to Japanese‟s flag and Japanese‟s

national anthem. If Grampa respect the flag, so must Taro and Tomi. Here,

Grampa Nakaji confuses the identity of being a person with Japanese ethnic

background with the identity of being a person with Japanese citizenship. When

his grandson tries to remind him that people do not like seeing Japanese things in

the open, he is furious. He thinks that Tomi does not respect his ancestry. Older

Issei are very strict in the field of respecting the country. It is because of one the

Japanese value called as On, or the debt of gratitude. In On value, people have a

debt of gratitude towards the ruler, for the ruler is the one who takes care of the

citizens. So in return, the citizen must respect and honor the ruler.

If Grampa‟s early identity in UBRS is Japanese through and through, Taro

Nakaji does not share the same sentiment. Taro Nakaji as the younger Issei has

different approach on his identity.

“Tomikazu, we are American, it is true… but inside we are also Japanese.

I don‟t care how angry you get, you cannot fight. You must learn gamman-

patience”


By stating with “we are American,” Taro Nakaji tries to identify himself as

American. It is true that Issei are denied American citizenship. But Taro Nakaji

cares little about citizenship. His sense of being American grows from the

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realization that he is now a part of the United States. He works and has a better

live in the United States. He builds a family and is content with his life. He

understands that America is a good place for him. However, at the same time, he

also tells Tomi that there is still a Japanese side in their life. He tries to make

Tomi understand that they have their root in Japanese culture. Taro Nakaji

believes the Japanese value, such as gamman, or patience, is good for their life.

He does not exclusively connect himself just for one culture, but instead he tries to

make Tomi understand that being American does not mean that they have to

abandon all of the old culture, Japan.

Taro Nakaji, unlike Grampa, is exposed to American culture earlier than

Grampa. He knows about the places and people in Hawaii. Moreover he is also

aware of how people in Hawaii think of Japanese descendant. Due to his exposure

to Hawaiian society, he is able to adapt to the condition where anti-Japanese

sentiment is growing. As the result of the exposure, he tries to minimize his

Japan-self and become more Americanized. He cannot change his appearance, but

he can identify himself as an American. However, Taro Nakaji still holds on

Japanese values as his guide of living in America. One of the values that he really

puts the highlight into is the value of Meiyo, or honor.

He stared into my eyes a moment longer. “You have disgraced us,

Tomikazu. That is one thing I cannot accept from you.”


Honor is important for Japanese family. Japanese are afraid of losing face

and shaming the family name. In the days of samurai, it was preferable to die than

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to endure the shame. In this excerpt, Taro Nakaji is angry to Tomi because he has

fought with the landlord‟s son. For Taro Nakaji, such thing is shameful because it

taints Nakaji‟s good name. He knows that Keet Wilson is a bad boy and he does

not want Tomi to be one. “You fight and everyone think you troublemaker.”

(p.13). Taro does not want Tomi to be a trouble maker. He wants Tomi to be

dutiful (giri) so that Nakaji‟s name is still a good name.

Before the World War II, Japanese immigrants receive mild anti-Japanese

sentiment. But shortly after Pearl Harbor‟s air raid, the anti-Japanese sentiment

rises so quickly until it culminates. Japanese descendants are suspected to help the

attack. This suspicion itself, although justifiable by using the rhetoric of “Nobody

knows if there was somebody who helped those planes” (p.159), is anti-Japanese.

By labeling Japanese, particularly Issei, with the identity of enemy aliens, people

further emphasize that Japanese have no place in the United States. People point

to the Japanese descendants in the United States as the traitors of the states. This

general view leads to the mass hysteria. People now are scared of any Japanese-

related things.

Two planes banked overhead, the red suns striking down like hot stones.

Mama stared at them. It suddenly all made sense to her. “Bury it”, she

said, her eyes wide with fear. “Bury that flag.” She ran inside the house

and brought back Grampa‟s photograph of the emperor. “Bury this too…

Go! Now!


Grampa has waved the Japanese flag during the air raid. Grampa does that

in order to preserve his and his family‟s dear life. But, such thing can be

mistakenly taken as signaling the flag. Tomi dan Billy who know that the situation

84

is really grave, try to tell Grampa that it is dangerous to do that. When Mama

Nakaji comes out the house, she thinks that the planes are just the usual army

planes, but then when she sees the “red suns”, suddenly she knows that they are

doomed. Then, she asks Tomi to bury the flag, along with the picture of the

Emperor of Japan she takes from the front room. This is the first burial among

several burials that Nakaji family does. In this first burial, they bury the most

dangerous items they have. The flag and the picture of Emperor Hirohito are two

things that symbolize the tie with Japan as a nation. It is fatal to have those two

items as they suggest that Nakaji family gives their allegiance and loyalty to

Japan. People will see those as subversive items. For Grampa, however, the flag

and the picture of emperor are important in defining who he is. Previously, it has

been stated that Grampa‟s identity is closely related to his citizenship. Japan is his

nation, the country he has spent most of his live in. When those symbolic ties are

buried, it causes Grampa to lose his orientation. He is very sad. “He gave us

sorrowful look, then walked away, slowly, out to the jungle.” (p.109). He becomes

sadder when the soldiers rush to their house and ask if they see anyone signaling

the Japanese army with the flag. His country attacks the country he lives in and

people now are getting frantic about Japanese. It is enough for an older Issei who

puts his faith and identity on his nation to be confused and lost.

Just in the next morning when the military and policemen come to

Nakaji‟s home, Grampa is ready to make sacrifice to prove that he is loyal to the

states. They order Tomi and Grampa to kill the pigeons and Grampa does not

object.

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The policemen let me go and I ran over to Grampa. “No, ojii-chan…

no…” Grampa put his hand on my neck. He pulled me close to him. He‟d

never done that before. In that moment I knew the birds would die.


Gisei, or sacrifice, is a part of Japanese value. Grampa is ready to make a

sacrifice to prove his loyalty. He pulls himself up and determines to kill the

pigeon although he knows that those pigeons are not guilty. He does not protest.

He just silently kills the birds one by one. This act of killing, done by Grampa and

Tomi themselves, is a symbol of the submission to the states and a symbol of

sacrifice. When Grampa is killing the birds, he is killing the pride of being

Japanese. He is killing the Japanese man inside of him.

He wiped his hands on his pants and faced the army man. “We are

„merican,” he said, glaring into the man‟s eyes, “We talk Ing-lish… We no

make trouble.”

I looked at Grampa like it was for the first time in my life. Grampa? Did

you say that? You who gets your flag out and says We are Japanese?


Grampa makes a surprising remark by calling that they are American. He

has previously always tries to impose to his descendants that they are Japanese.

But then he realizes that his identity as Japanese will only harm him and his

family. Besides, he has buried his tie with Japanese nation. He does not want to be

associated with Japan, so he now associates him with America. This self-identity

acts like a preservation, just like when he waves the flag to save his life. He

knows that he has to swallow his pride of being a Japanese and embrace that he

lives in America. His allegiance should be for America, not for Japan.

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On Tuesday morning, Charlie informs that the army and FBI are arresting

Issei all around the nation, including fishermen. Charlie advises Nakaji family a

lot, including “no talk Japanee, no bow like one Japanee, and no wear any kind

Japanee clothes, kimono, like that…”(p.136). Because of this, Mama Nakaji

orders Grampa and Tomi to collect all things that “could bring trouble” and then

“bury „um”.

By noon, everything we had that had anything to do with Japan was

spread out over the kitchen table –Mama‟s beautiful traditional kimono; a

bundle of letters tied together with a white ribbon; a photograph of me

when I was younger, standing in front row of my language school class

with a Japanese flag in the background; Grandma‟s altar; incense

wrapped in thin paper; the family katana, and a few other things that

Mama and Grampa had found.

We all stood around the table, silently touching this and that, picking

things up and looking them over, then putting them down again.

“Bury it,” Mama finally said, her eyes glistening.

I reached toward the butsudan and Grampa stopped me with with a touch

on my arm. Gently, he picked up the altar himself, and taking only that and

the katana, went outside to hide them in the jungle.


This burial is the second burial. If the first burial is about cutting the tie

with Japan as a nation, the second burial is about cutting the cultural tie with

Japan. Those items to be buried symbolize the Japanese cultural artifacts. Kimono

is the traditional clothes of Japan. Grandma‟s altar, or butsudan, is the symbol of

Buddhism. The family katana is the family‟s treasure, handed down from

generation to generation. Those cultural artifacts have to be buried down. This

time, it is not only Grampa who feels lost. Mama also feels the same because she

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has the tie with Japanese culture. Japanese culture is the part of her identity. So

when she buries those things, she feels lost and sad.

After the Pearl Harbor attack, many Japanese families do the same thing.

They bury all the items that can be associated to Japan. The anti-Japanese

sentiment is so high that any connection to Japan can be regarded as disloyal. To

prove that they are loyal, Japanese descendants have to bury their identity and

embrace American culture. Showing any sign of Japanese culture is not

acceptable as it is the enemy‟s culture. Any further insistence to still show

Japanese culture will be regarded as disloyal to the States.

Grampa buries two objects that have the most meaning to him. They are

the butsudan and katana. Butsudan is the altar where Grampa usually pray to. For

a Buddhist, Butsudan serves like a family temple. It also serves as a place to

remember the dead family members. For Grampa, it is the place he puts Grandma

Nakaji‟s picure in the altar. It serves more purpose for him than for the rest of the

Nakaji family. That is why he makes it a personal affair to bury the altar. The altar

is the one that connects him to his spirituality and to his deceased wife. He feels

the greatest sorrow when he has to bury it. He also feels the same way to the

katana. It is the family sword that connects him to the glory of the past. The

katana has been in the family since long time ago. It is symbol of pride and honor.

Grampa Nakaji, as the oldest Nakaji man, is the caretaker of the sword. He is the

one who keeps and cares for it and he now is the one who has to bury it. When he

buries the sword, however, he tells Tomi about the importance of the sword.

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“That belongs to your ancestor,” he said. “Long time ago. Nobody since

then bring disgrace or shame to the name of the family,” He paused for a

moment, watching me, letting his words settle. “My country,” he went on.

“My country, Tomikazu… they… they…”

Grampa turned away, pain carved in his face.

“This island,” Charlie said to Grampa, his voice kind. “This territory,

Joji-san, this is your country now. You couldn‟t help what happened.

Forget it, already. Wasn‟t your fault.”

(Salisbury, 1995, p.163-4)

From the excerpt above, it can be seen that Grampa feels so humiliated by

the attack. He sees the attack as disgraceful. Grampa represents most Japanese

descendants at that time who feel betrayed and disgraced by their country.

Grampa always insists on respecting Nakaji‟s name. He and Papa Nakaji even

have to remind Tomi every time not to do something disgraceful. But now it is

Grampa‟s own country that makes him so ashamed. Because of this humiliation,

Grampa is determined to bury his most honored artifact.

Shikata ga nai, he says. It cannot be helped. The attack on Pearl Harbor

gives a fatal impact to the Japanese American community. Nothing can be done

about it. Grampa has to accept that nothing can undo the damage Japan has placed

upon its descendants in the United States. The damage is irreparable. Grampa

knows that his son is shot in his leg and detained in some unknown place. His

son‟s worker is even worse; he is dead. Japanese descendants are being arrested

around the island because they are thought to be spies. Those who are not arrested

have to bury their Japanese identity, or else, they will be thought as disloyal.

Grampa understands the gravity of the situation, but at this point he still cannot let

go his identity easily. That is why he still feels lost.

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Issei‟s identity is marked by the loss of identity. They are forced to sever

their tie with the old world. They are forced to be assimilated into the mainstream

culture and leave their old culture behind. The label of “enemy aliens” makes

them have to prove that they are loyal, even if it means that they have to sacrifice

their identity. They are lost in the confusion of who they are. Rejected by

Americans but obliged to cut all ties with Japan, Issei lose their identity.

2. The Impact of Anti-Japanese Sentiment on Nisei

Second generations of Japanese descendants are called as Nisei. Nisei are

often caught between two worlds: America and Japan. At home, Nisei have Issei

parents who conduct Japanese rules and customs in the house. At school, Nisei get

the exposure of American culture in their socialization with their peers. They

interact with the outside world. Tomi Nakaji is no exception. He is introduced to

Japanese culture at home by his parents and his grandparent. He follows Japanese

rules and customs at home. Meanwhile, at school, he has friends with different

cultural backgrounds. His friend, Billy, is a haole. His other friends, Rico and

Mose are both Portuguese-American. He does not limit himself to communicate

exclusively with other Japanese descendants. From his interaction with the outside

world, he gets the exposure of American culture. As a result of the exposure of

both cultures, his identity becomes the mixture of Japanese and American culture.

1. Tomikazu’s Attitude towards Japanese and American Culture

Tomi ,as a Nisei, is an American citizen with Japanese ancestry. He gets

the exposure of American culture at school as well as Japanese culture at home.

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Grampa wanted me to think like that, he wanted Papa to beat me into “a

boy of suitable devotion.” Sometimes I thought he had a point. The old

way was fair and honorable, which was good. But it was so inflexible.

Jeese. Who knew what to think?


Tomikazu Nakaji, or Tomi, is constantly reprimanded by Grampa to be a

proper, obedient Japanese son. He is expected to respect his older relatives. But

Tomi always thinks that it is inflexible. At some point he agrees that Japanese

values and customs are good. However, Tomi is reluctant to obey all those rules.

It does not mean that Tomi disrespects Japanese culture. He only feels that it does

not suit him. It is too rigid for Tomi who does not want to be limited and bound by

rules.

Tomi‟s earlier attitude towards Japanese culture is marked by his

reluctance to follow certain customs in the family. It creates tension between him

and his grandfather, sometimes also with his father. His reluctance is influenced

by his exposure to American culture that emphasizes on self-expression rather

than communal beliefs. In his head, there is a constant battle of those two cultures.

However, if it is about honor, he always tries to win Japanese‟s custom of

maintaining family‟s honor. “If you shame yourself, you shame all of us. Be above

it, Tomi… that‟s the only way” (p.28). Tomi does not want to disappoint his

parents again by shaming Nakaji‟s name. So, even though it is hard for him to

maintain dignity when he is mocked and confronted by Keet Wilson, he tries to

practice Japanese‟s conduct of restraint (enryo) and patience (gamman) in order

not to shame his family‟s name. It is sometimes done half-heartedly, not whole-

heartedly. In some cases, however, he does not fear to show his American side to

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his family, particularly to his grandfather. He dares to tell his grandfather if his

grandfather is doing bad things. Grampa‟s refusal to abandon his tradition of

saluting to Japanese‟s flag irritates Tomi. He becomes assertive and does not fear

to break the old code of respecting elders because he knows it is a right thing to

do. “No! Not good! How many times do we have to tell you? This place is

American, not Japanese.”(p.2). He constantly tries to warn Grampa even if

Grampa does not want to listen.

Spirituality is a part of Japanese‟s way of life. Most Japanese believe in

Buddhism or Shinto. Grampa is a firm believer in spirituality. But, Tomi is not.

“The butsudan is a place you can go to, when you need some help, when

you have a problem.”

“The same as going to church?:

“I guess so. Anyway, it‟s very important. Especially for Grampa.”

“You believe in that?”

“Yeah, sort of… I guess… I don‟t know.”


From this excerpt, Tomi is not sure if he believes in the same thing as his

grandfather. He knows that butsudan means a lot for his family. It is a family

shrine that represents the family‟s tie in Buddhism. For Grampa it is more than an

altar. It has a connection to his dead wife‟s spirit. But for Tomi, it means nothing

more than a thing that has been in the family‟s living room since a long time. He

does not share the same connection as Grampa‟s. Therefore, he cannot relate to

the function of butsudan. By hesistantly saying “Yeah, sort of…”, Tomi actually

wants to say that he never thinks of his own spirituality. He accepts the existence

of butsudan in his house just like how he accepts the photograph of the emperor.

“I‟d almost forgotten he was there.” (p.33).

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It is also important to point out that Tomi has a love for baseball: a sport

popular in America. His preference to American sport indicates that he is more

comfortable with his American side. He is not interested in playing Japanese

sports like kendo or karate. Instead, he is really interested in baseball.

Our school didn‟t even have a baseball team, so Billy and I got together

with a bunch of friends and played on our own. Most of the time we played

against two other homemade teams, the Kaka‟ako Boys and another team

called the RBIs. We called ourselves the Rats. Rico made that up.


His love for baseball initiates him to make a team with Billy and other

friends. Their team is called as The Rats. Tomi and Billy also like listening to

baseball matches in Charlie‟s old radio. They even have to fight with Grampa

when they want to listen to the match. Tomi is a baseball fanatic, which

emphasizes on his attachment to American sport, and furthermore, American

culture.

Tomi is more comfortable with his identity as American. Although it does

not mean that he despises his Japanese ancestry, but he chooses to identify himself

as American.

Grampa narrowed his eyes and clenched his fists. His face turned red and

his lips bridged into a fish scowl.

“You Japanee!” he said. “Japanee!”

“American,” I said.


When Grampa points out that Tomi is Japanese, Tomi does not agree.

Grampa is a firm believer that every Japanese descendant is naturally Japanese.

93

Japanese descendants must bow down to Japan and its tradition. This old view is

not shared by Tomi as a Nisei. He has his own belief that if they are in America,

they must become American and do everything in American way. Tomi‟s early

attitude is to favor American culture over Japanese culture. But, in the peak of

anti-Japanese sentiment, Tomi‟s attitude changes over time.

2. Nisei’s Identity: Embracing and Acquiring Japanese-American

Identity

After the bombing on Pearl Harbor, everything changes. It also happens to

Tomi‟s identity. He, who at first is capable to define himself as an American, is

now facing a trial on his identity. Tomi questions himself about his identity. This

question appears when he realizes that his status as American citizen does not

make him impervious to the anti-Japanese sentiment. He has seen and experienced

antagonism after the attack when he goes grocery shopping with his mother. He is

an American, but he still looks Japanese. “What she saw was a Japanese boy, and

his Japanese mother.” Suddenly he cannot boast that he is an American citizen

and that he does not have any correlation with Japan. In people‟s mind, Tomi is

the alien enemy‟s son. He is not counted as American. At this point, he then tries

to find out what it means to be an American born Japanese descendant or

commonly called as Japanese-American.

His realization that he is indeed Japanese descendants puts him through the

path his grandfather walks in. He suddenly becomes conscious that he is Japanese

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descendant. His awareness makes him sensitive to any mention of Japanese‟s

bombing on the Pearl.

“Can you believe the Japanese went bomb us?” Rico said.

I shook my head and averted my eyes. I felt disgraced. Like Grampa.

Mose looked at me and asked, hesitantly,”They treating you okay, Tomi?

… They come arrest your father … and your grandfather?”


In the quotation, it is clear that Tomi is sensitive to what Rico says. Rico,

of course, uses “the Japanese” to refer to the army from Japan who bomb the

Pearl. But the word “Japanese” hits Tomi hard because his ancestry is Japanese.

He feels the shame because he shares the same ancestry with those people who

bombs Pearl Harbor. Tomi is ashamed because he knows that even though his

friend does not mean to connect the enemy with him, he realizes he cannot evade

the fact that he looks Japanese and her parents are all Japanese. Moreover, his

father is also being detained because fishermen are thought to be Japanese‟s spies.

It brings him further shame although he knows that his father is innocent.

But the humiliation of being a Japanese descendant does not last long.

Tomi begins to realize that he has to cut the tie with Japan. He has to disassociate

himself from Japan. Similar to Issei‟s burial of flag and emperor‟s photo, a

symbolic proclamation to sever the tie with Japan as a country of ancestry is

needed by Nisei.

“That‟s right.” Rico said. “I ain‟t letting those Japs take me, man.” Rico

looked at me, kind of embarrassed. “Sorry … everybody saying Japs

now.”

I looked down. “That‟s okay.”

We walked another block. The clinking sound was gone.

95

“Anyway,” I finally said. “If those Japs come back they going to have to

face us three ugly Rats, even if we only have stones.”


Rico uses the “Japs” which is so often used for degrading people with

Japanese ancestry. But he puts it in the context of Japanese army. He does not

use it as a derogative term for Tomi. Instead, he refers “Japs” to the enemy that

bombs Pearl Harbor. Tomi, although a little bit ashamed himself, knows that Rico

does not mean to offend him. He understands that Rico uses the J-word because

Rico is very angry to the bombing. Not long after that, Tomi begins using the

word “Japs”. By using “Japs” to point to the Japanese army, Tomi cuts his

connection to Japan as a nation. He is not one of the “Japs”; he does not belong to

the enemy group. He wants to differentiate himself from the enemy Japanese. This

proclamation is important to get rid of the guilt and disgrace that Tomi feels

because of the bombing. By using insult that people usually use to refer to

Japanese descendants indiscriminately, Tomi directs his anger and put it right to

the enemy Japanese who have tainted the name of Japanese descendants in the

United States. He rejects to be associated with Japan. This pivotal and symbolic

gesture put Tomi, as a Nisei, in a condition where he can separate his ancestral

heritage from his sense of citizenship. He does not belong to the same nation as

“the Japs” so Tomi should not feel guilty or disgraced.

However, nothing is more important to Tomi‟s journey towards his

identity than the day when Grampa Nakaji is finally arrested by the FBI. He feels

angry to the world. Grampa Nakaji is an old man who is a little bit crippled

because of the stroke. He poses no threat to the US. But he is still arrested by the

96

FBI. Tomi feels that it is unfair. But he cannot be angry for a long time because he

has a duty given by Grampa. “Katana o mamore,” and “Nakaji no namae o

mamore” (p.216). Grampa leaves him a duty to save the katana and also to save

the family‟s name. It is the time when Grampa finally pass the katana down to

Tomi‟s care. The katana has been in Nakaji‟s family since a long time.

Under my bed, wrapped in a silky furoshiki scarf and a burlap bag, was

Grampa‟s treasure –the family katana, or samurai sword. He even had an

oil cloth neatly folded in a box in the burlap bag, to keep the blade sharp

and clean. The katana had been in our family for over three hundred

years. Grampa wasn‟t sure, but he thought someone had been killed by it a

long time ago.

If I ever became worthy, Grampa said, he would pass it down to me. He

spent many hours telling me about how important it was, trying to prepare

me for the day he would hand it to me to be its keeper and protector.


Katana is the name of one of Japanese swords. The use of katana can be

traced back in the Tokugawa era (1542-1616). Tokugawa himself said that „the

sword is the soul of the warrior‟ (Turnbull, 2010). Katana was exclusively owned

by Samurai or by people with high rank. In Meiji era, however, Samurai class was

disbanded. Since then, the ownership of katana has been a symbol of an honorable

past of a family. The katana has been in Nakaji‟s family for over three hundred

years. This suggests that Nakaji family has its root in Samurai class. It further

means that Nakaji family comes from a respected, honored family in Japan. Even

though in the story Nakaji family lives in a socially disadvantaged situation,

Nakaji family lives with honor and dignity. And the sword, as a family treasure,

acts as a symbol of honor in Nakaji family. That is why Grampa‟s last words to

Tomi is to save the katana and to save the family‟s name. He asks Tomi to always

honor Nakaji name and do not let it be disgraced.

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Grampa‟s decision to shout the last words to Tomi comes from the

understanding that he, as an Issei, cannot be the one who mends Japanese

descendants‟ name from the disgrace. This heavy task is on Nisei‟s shoulder. He

gives Tomi the responsibility to take care of the family‟s most prized possession

because he knows that Tomi is ready to accept that task. He also believes that

Tomi, as a Nisei, is the future of Nakaji family. Indeed, Nisei represents hope and

a new life in the history of Japanese American ethnic group. Tomi is the hope of

Nakaji family. Grampa has buried the sword, and now it is Tomi‟s job to dig it up.

Grampa buries the honor of the family while Tomi is the one who will return the

honor of the family.

Ancestors. Honor. Respect. It was all just an old man‟s talk. Something I‟d

always listened to with only half of one ear, if even that. But now Grampa

counted on me to save it all, save the katana. Not my katana….but the

family katana It belonged no one, and to everyone…past, present, and

future.

(Salisbury, 1995, p.222-223)

His task makes Tomi, who has been ignoring Japanese culture for quite a

while, finally understands that his heritage matters. Japanese culture is a part of

him. It is his roots. Now it is Tomi‟s job to be the keeper of the katana, which also

means that he is the keeper of the Japanese culture. Katana as a cultural artifact

contains past memories of a Japanese family. By keeping and taking care of the

sword, Tomi also takes care of the family‟s name and culture. He is the part of the

past, present, and future of Japanese descendants in the United States. This is his

ultimate acquirement of his ethnic identity as a Japanese descendant. He finds

himself to be more mature, responsible, and also powerful after he finds his roots.

98

“It means if you tell anyone about this sword and someone takes it away

from me because of what you said, I‟m going to make you pay for it… and

not in money.”

Keet laughed again. “Yeah? You and whose army, shrimp?”

I stepped back out into the clearing, into the sunlight. “Me and this army,”

I said.

“What? I don‟t see no army.”

I tapped my chest with the tip of my finger. “This one.”


Keet the bully confronts Tomi again. But instead of backing up, this time

he defends himself. The sword has given him strength “it almost had a glow to it,

of some kind of energy that you felt in your fingers and your chest” (p. 163). It

enables Tomi to reach beyond his present self. It makes him connected to the past.

This connection puts the power into Tomi. He is able to stand up by himself and

he does not have to use force because he knows that the power is inside him. He

knows that he is not a mere fisherman‟s son. He is a Nakaji. He comes from an

honorable family. His confidence and his strength come from his understanding of

the real meaning of the sword. Although his father and grandfather have been

arrested, he is not alone. The spirit of katana makes him feel like there is an army

inside him and he is not afraid.

Several days later, Tomi walks home from school with his friends. They

meet two men. Those two men confront Tomi and refer to him as “Buddhahead” –

another derogative nick name for people with Japanese ancestry. Rico and Mose,

Tomi‟s hotheaded friends, want to bust the men. But Tomi tells them to leave the

men alone.

When we got to the street that headed away from the canal, we passed two

men working on a car. One glanced up when we passed by. “Hey,

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Buddhahead –you got a lot of nerve coming out in the open after what you

people did.”

(Salisbury,1995,p.240)

“You got it wrong, mister,” I said.”I was born here. I live here, just like

you do. And I‟m an American.”

“Beat it, Jap,” he said.

Be above it, Tomi…

“American,” I said again.

He narrowed his eyes but didn‟t say anything more. I eased away

feeling…strange… very strange. Almost peaceful.


Here, Tomi Nakaji does what he did when he was with Keet Wilson. He,

once again, stands up for himself. When the men call him with “Buddhahead” and

“Japs”, he is not angry because he knows he is not a “Jap”. He is a Japanese

descendant but he does not have any correlation with Japan. Now, he wants to

assert the other identity that he has, he is an American, too. He wants to claim his

birthright citizenship and his identity as American. He is an American citizen

who was born in America and lives in America. After asserting his identity as

American, he feels peaceful. It is because at last, Tomi accepts and acquires his

identity as bi-cultural Japanese-American, a Nisei with American citizenship and

Japanese ancestry. He at last makes the best of both cultures. The conflicts

between two cultures have been over and his new identity as Japanese-American

is the ultimate identity he eventually gets after those journey filled by rejection,

fear, and anti-Japanese sentiment.

chapter iii analysis · tomikazu nakaji, and kimi nakaji. grampa, papa, and mama nakaji are all...

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