52

CHAPTER – II

SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF THE PEOPLE

Attur region sustained and nurtured ancient civilization. The

archeological excavations conducted at the places of korkai, palayakayal,

Adichanallur. Alwarthirunagari, Tenthirupperai, Poraiyur. Angamangalam,

Sugantalai, Nallur, Kayalpattinam, Virapandiyanpatinam, Tirukkalur,

Alagiyamanavalapuram and Malavarayanattam asserted that there might have

been pre historic Dravidian settlement in this region. Arch aelogists found out a

variety of iron tools, implements and burialurns. From this discovery it self we

can conclude that in the prehistoric period. Hinduism had its existence in Attur

region. The present social and cultural land scape of Attur is the result of a

succession of people living in a dynamic environment for more than 5000 years,

each group of people has left their distinctive imprint on the landscape in the

form of material remains.

The people who settled at Attur are Dravidian stack. But they divided

among themselves in the caste issues which is prevailing in the entire

TamilNadu. The rulers from the sangam pandyas to the Nayaks gave a steady

social life to the their subsects. In that Hinduism and its culture was the

connecting force among them. Thus dynastic changes did not break the socio

53

cultural continuity of this people.1 As the division between the people of various

professions became stronger these professions and the stigma attached to them

gained religious recognition. The result of such social division automatically

created various shades of culture. In course of time there surfaced conflicts

between these various socio cultural regions, the socio cultural climate was

favourable for the spread of the new religion. The people who were discon

tented with the social setup and cultural values accepted this new religion.

Islam neither imposed the social values of Arabia nor perpetuated the

existing values of this region. The consequence of the acceptance of this new

faith was the birth of new socio cultural value.2 It was during the period of umar

as the second kaliph in 632 A.D Islam entered into Kayalpattinam. Aship under

Malik lbin Dinar reached kerala and spread to different parts including

kayalpattinam. The oldest monuments of kayalpattinam are located in the old

core of the town called kasumari. Kadarkarai palli situated in these are was

constructed (657 A.D) before 1362 years ago. An inscription in this masjid

mentioned the word sonakar denoting Muslims from Arabcountries and also

described how these Muslims merchants donated by the pandianking with land

grants. One of the coins excavated while digging for a dam at srivaikundam was

dated as HIJIRI 71 (692 A.D) These coins might have been brought by the

Arab muslims from Kayalpattinam. So the first Islam settlement in this region

1 Luniya,B.N. Life and culture in ancient India, Indure, 1978. P.500.

2 Manavai Mustfa, Meygnona lakkiam (Tamil) Madras, 1980.pp.15-16.

54

was made in kayalpattinam 1362 years ago. According to the 1991 census the

total Muslim population of the Thoothukudi3 district is 665,02. They reside

mostly all taluks but the density of Muslim population is high in Attur

Kayalpattinam Thoothukudi and Srivaikuntam.4

Islam that began to make its presence felt in the seventh century did not

become dormant with the change of times. The fact remains that since the

seventh century A.D it has continued to remain an important phenomenon that

keeps affecting the socio cultural and even political life of the people. More

over Islam did not bring about a total change in society since it was not backed

by political rule. The Medival pandyas who ruled from the later part of the sixth

century were interested in art and architecture buildings forts and temples and

many economic welfare schemes. But they did not take efforts to liberate the

lowcastes. By the medival period these social evils created a series of conflicts

in society with dominance and exploitation of the upper caste Hindus from one

side and rigor of the monarchy on the other, the low caste Hindus in particular

could not change their conditions for the better. We can identify at least three

major external forces which were responsible for bringing about the long

awaited social change in this region.

The advent of missionaries in 1549 resulted in mass conversion. These

missionaries established schools and hospitals. The converts gained status in

3 Sinnakani.R. GAZETTERS OF INDIA, THOOTHUKUDI. DISTRICT Chennai . 2007 p.300.

4 Census of India 1991 – series 23. Religion.

55

society. Anda result the awakening was of the said structure. As was the case

with Islam, Christanity too could not rootout all the social evils inspite of the

latter being the religion of the British regime. It is probable that Attur being a

part of pandya country following the Hindu religion, the Britishers could not

effect a total change here. The next important factor was liberal education. The

reason why the Britishers succeeded in popularzing liberal education in this

region was that it promised to give a new language and a more useful education.

With a much wider acceptance of this education there was a rethinking about

the worth of the local culture and it values. The people having gained

anawarness they began to demand certain changes. The third important factor

was the rule of the British officials like Munro, that brought major changes in

society. They began to voice, the grivances to the madras presidency

Government on behalf of the people. Thus interference was responsible forming

social changes. Abalition of the feundal services and the temple entry

proclamation in 1936 were a few important social changes brought about by this

external phenomenon.

Information on the social life of Attur is available in abundance. The

inscriptions found in Attur, Somanatheswarnar temple and kailasanathar temple

through much light on the social customs and institutions of the age. The

customs and traditions which continue to be invague at the present day are of

immense value in elucidating aspects of the social history of the past.

56

Throughout its known history the people were divided and subdivided

into a number of castes and sub castes, the hierarchy that these castes formed

one over the other placed the lower castes at a greater disadvantage and the

upper caster made the best use of their status in society. Brahmins vellalars,

Illathupillaimars, Maravars, Nadars, Adidravidars, Kuravars, Kuyavars and

vaishiyas were the early settlers of Attur region. The other caste people are

living in a limited number. The society in the beginning was free from social

divisions based on castes. However it was they after the advent of the Ariyans

in the south that a rigid caste system evolved.

Most of them are Hindus by tradition. Due to the spread of Islam and

Christianity the oppressed sections were converted. They either became

Christians or Muslims. Christianity never has given up it caste identity to a

notable level and united as Muslims by spirit.

BRAHMINS

The temple is surrounded by streets invariably occupied by the Brahmins.

The Saiva Brahmins5 live in the immediate neighbourhood of the temple.

Communal settlements are indeed the order of the day in the ancient and

medieval times. Only in the recent decades some changes have been occurred

towards a free mixing of the communities.

5 ARIE (1926-1929) No. 467, p 48.

57

The Brahmins though they constituted a small portion of the population,

occupied a conspicuous position in the society of Attur.6 The Brahmin villages

were usually known as Brahmadeyas or Chaturvedimangalam. The village Attur

itself was one such.7 The Brahmins were well-versed in vedic studies and served

as priests, prohits and astrologers. They were primarily divided into two well-

known religious sects, the Saivites and the Vaishnavites. Their ancestors were

immigrants from the north who were induced to settle down permanently

through liberal grants of fertile lands exempted from taxation. Medivalpandyas

instituted free feeding houses for the Brahmins.8 Child marriage was practiced

among the Brahmins. The strict adherence to vegetarianism, their puritanic

traditions, study of Hindu, Sanskrit and vedic knowledge helped them to retain

their individuality and respectability.9

Their place of in habitations were known as Agraharam. They are known

as 1 years, Iyengars and pattars who are the temple priests. Pattars do puja to

saivai to temples and iyengars doing puja in vaishnava temple and are known as

patacharias. They reside to the southernside of somanather temple area known

as Agracharam street. The Brahmins in the Attur are mostly landed proprietors.

They are an enterprising community and the high social status they enjoyed in

6 James Hough, The History of Christianity in India vol- II, London, 1839.

P.226.

7 ARIE (1926-1929) No. 393, p 40.

8 SII, Vol. XIV, No. 186, pp.102–103.

9 Revathy, G., History of Tamil Nadu, The Palayams, New Delhi, 2005, p.118.

58

the earliest days helped them to become a progressive community only a few

Brahmins now earn the living by priest hood, Majority of them migrate tourbon

areas. A few of them were land owners employing hired labourers. The

strictadherence to vegetarinanism their puritanical traditions and study of Hindi,

Sanskrit and vedic knowledge helped them to retein their individuality and

respectability.

The practice of child marriage led to an evil consequence of the

occurrence of a noticeable number of child widows and remarriage of such

widows was prohibited on religious considerations. The Brahmins were

generally influenced by their religion ensured them to go to any territory

unmolested. A distinction was made between the two groups of Brahmins-

Vaidika or devoted to religion and Lokika or meant for worldly concerns.

Sometimes, the Lokika Brahmins gave leadership to popular agitation against

the British administration. When the Faujdar of Tinnevely broke an idol of a

local temple near Attur into pieces, the Brahmins of the district including Attur

area organized hartal, people stopped their production and harvest and

demonstrated for several days.10

10

Military Consultations, 3 March 1799, Vol. 250, pp. 1210-1215.

59

Besides the Brahmins, there were people belong to other communities

who had landed property and who also had a lively interest in the temple. They

rendered numerous services to Somanather temple. The Vellalas11

looked after

the temple lands and cultivation. The Dasanambis were in charge of the flower

gardens of the temple.12

The shephered class maintained the cattle donated to

the temple and supplied ghee, butter, curd etc., to the temple.13

Besides these,

there were many professionals and artisans such as the stone-masons, carpenter,

metal workers, umbrella makers, pipers, musicians, dancers from Attur had

served the temple.

NON BRAHMINS

The Brahmins are adjusting themselves to the need of situation. Except

the Brahmins, the other commanding castes of people of Attur have some inter

in natural character. This is known through the common Tamil saying that

“Kallan Maravan, Akamutaiyan ,Mellavanthu, vellalarkalaki Mutaliyar Aannar.

“According to it kallan, Maravan, Akamudiyan by slow degree became vellala

and they called themselves as Mutaliyar.14

These people called themselves as

non Brahmins. These high caste non Brahmins are hesistant in granting liberty

11

ARIE (1926-29) No. 416, p. 43

12 ARE 1929-30 No.495.

13 SII, Vol. XIV, No. 135, p. 70.

14 Nabi Arouran.K Tamil Renaissance and Pravidian, Nationalism Madurai, 1983. Pp. 30 –

31.

60

and equality to the down trade section of society. It reveals that hated truth that

the snake of casteismis scotched but is not killed.15

VELLALAS

Next to the Brahimins the vellalas occupied the second position. The

vellalas are described as a peace loving frugal and Industrious people and in

attention, they have no equals.16

The vellalans as the great former caste of the

Tamil country and they are strangly represented in every village.17

The word

vellalan is derived from vellam (Water) and aanmai meaning cultivation.18

Tolkappiam a sangam grammatical work mentions vellalars as one of the four

divisions of Tamil Society19

. An inscription found on the north wall of

somanather shrine of the 24th regnal year 1009 A.D of Raja Raja I records the

gifted sheep by a vellala of Marudur in Managaviravalanadu.20

The twentieth

regnal year 1006 A.D Inscription of Raja Raja I mentions the gift of an image of

Trisuladeva to the temple by one singanali, a vellala of Attur.21

An Inscription

of sixth regnal year 1024 A.D of Chola pandya king Jatavarman sundara chola

pandya registers a gift of two buffaloes by vellala of Attur for the lamp in the

temple of somanather and these were left incharge of two sivabrahminans of the

temple, who had supply the ghee necessary for the burning of the perpetual

15

Proceedings of the Fifth international conference seminar of Tamil Studies,

Madurai, 1981. P.6-39. 16

Census of India 1871. Dr.Cornishers report. 17

Census Report of India 1891, 18

Edgarthurston and Rangachari.K.,Castes and Tribes of south India vol VIII 1909. P.261. 19

Pillay.K.K. A social History of the Tamils Vol_I University of Madras,1975, P.230. 20

ARE, 1929-30., No.413. 21

ARE, 1929-1930, No. 386.

61

lamp.22

Anotjher inscription states that the vellala residents looked after the

temple lands and cultivation.

All these above records through light about the vellala community in

Attur. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries the vellalas had

played the role of the political advisors to the poligars of Ettayapuram and

panchalam kurichi.23

Generally the vellalas who are in considerable number live

in Attur with their money and man power. Most of this community people are

highly educated and have great knowledge in Tamil. They are agriculturists and

saivaites. They perform worship in their own houses and study the writings of

Tamil Saivasaints (tirumurai) as Brahmin read vedas.24

In their marriages the

vellalas employ gurukkal of their own caste and not the Brahmins. In Attur they

are living in North car street, South car street, East car street, West car street

and cross streets. More than five hundred families are residing in Attur.25

Upto 1985 they held the posts of hereditary village Accountant and

kanatckar and village Munsiff. Due to the abolition of hereditary, village

Munshiff posts, they ost their position. Now they are well educated and served

docters, Engineers, Lawyers and Government officer they have established their

caste Association in East car street namely Saiva vellalar sangam. Once in every

22

ARE, 1929-30. No.416.. 23

Revathy.G. Op.cit., p.119. 24

Pate.H.R. op.cit., p.103. 25

Saivavellar sangam Records. P.9.

62

year they assembled their association building and discussed the various

problem and Annual accounts.

In Attur the vellala caste has been divided in to three endogamous

division. Vellalas, Tondaimadala vellalars or mudaliyars and sengunthars.

Tondaimandalam vellalas or Mudaliyars are migrated from kanchipuram, during

the time of vijayanagar invasion to the southern part of Tamil country. They are

engaged in business and educational professions respectively. Like the vellalas

the Mudaliyars are respectable and highly influential people. They considered

themselves above the vellalas in social status. But they are limited in number

compared to the vellalas in Attur. They are saivaites and vegetarian. They own

lands and cultivated them with of the low caste people.

As early as sangam age the kaikolars or sengunther lived as a caste of

weavers. They come to be known as sengunthar (reddaggar) and Mudalis. The

name kaikolan is stated to have been derived from kai (Hand) and Kol (shuttle)

this suggests the traditional association of the caste to weaving. Kaikola

community have been divided into 72 nadus and Desams, of these forty four

formed the mel (western) and 24 kil (eastern) Nadus. Some of the kaikola

women become dedicated to temples and they become dancer. They are

residing at sengunthar street in Attur. Their main occupation is dying and

weaving. They were the owners of power looms and dying industries of Attur.

They weave sarees, dhoties, Lungies towels and kerchiefs etc. which are

63

transported to various places of Tamil Nadu. They worshiped their own house

hold god vandimalaichi Amman temple situated at Sengunthar street. They are

saivaites and non vegetarion.

ILLATHU PILLAI OR ILLATHARS

Illathupillaimars are one of the main sub caste of pillai who are thickly

populated and reside in Illathar street of Attur. One thousand family members of

Illathars formed a Association in the name of Illathar samuga sangam. Once in

three years they assembled in the Illathar sangam and elect their association

office beerers. In every year on first April they hold their General body meeting

in their Association building to resolve their problem.26

According their oral

tradition in the past their ances stores were apothecaries. They performed

montha rigam. They are called panikkar in kerala Nowa days they are engaged

in business and Government organisations. They maintained matrimonial

alliance with maternal uncle daughters. They do not get alliance with niece.

They worshipped their own house hold God Arulmigu Muthu Thandevan and

Goddess Srimutharamman.

SENAI THALAIVARS

The original name of senai Thalaivars is said to have been Elai (Cleap)

vaniyan for which the more high sounding seni kudaiyan (cowner of an army)

has been substituted. The title Muppon is borne by the members of the caste.

26

Illathar Somuga sanga Records, Attur, p.31.

64

The senai kudiyans, are betelvine cultivators and betel leaf sellers who are

found in large numbers in the Tirunelveli district and to a smaller extent in other

parts of Tamil country.27

They contribute 500 persons in the population of

Attur.

MARAVARS

Another important caste living in Attur is the Maravars. They are

considered as one of the sub caste of Thevars. In the past they were the warrior

class.28

They occupied the social status next below the vellalars. They are meat

eaters and will exchange hospitality with idaiyans. They are wearing sacred

ashes of siva. In the political sphere they seem to have wielded considerable

influence under the pandyas. The pandyan monarches are belived to have

themselves belonged to the maravar caste.29

The Maravas engaged themselves

in the kaval duties of forts in srivaikuntam and Tiruchendur region. They were

populary known as kavalkars and now they are utilized by the wealthy people to

do such duties.30

The earliest reference to the Marava community as a warrior class is

found in kulavamsa. The Maravars did military services to their chieftains very

few Maravas who worked in the lands were soldiers for every Maravar was a

solider. These soliders were guarding the village forts and assisted their leaders

27

Edgar Thurston. Op.cit, vol.v.p.360. 28

Pharoah and co, A Gazetteer of South India, London, 1885. P. 441. 29

Pillai.K.K., Studies in the History of India with special reference to Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1950, p.332. 30

Kadhirvel.S. A History of the Maravas, 1790 – 1802, Madurai, 1977. P.17.

65

in wars. When drafted. In the erst while Tirunelveli district the Maravars were

employed as kavalkars either under Marava poligars or kaval chiefs. The

institution of kaval gave Marav ars an opportunity to be united under a leader

and make him powerful. The system was officially abolished by the British East

India company in 1816. As time went on the they had to live a life of acute

poverty. As a result they began to enter in to the criminal activitieslike robbery,

murder and rowdysim in around Attur. Their activities earned for them bad

name. They are living in Kiranur of Attur., Their settlement in Attur increases

recently. They are living mostly in nearyby village of Attur. Viz, Mukkani,

Rajapathi, Kurumbur, Tenthirupperai, Arumugamangalam and Angamangalam.

Now some families of this caste people are economically well in Attur and

some others are working as coolies in Daranga thare chemicals and

V.V.minearls. They are having their own cult shrines. Some of them worship

karuppasamy a hunter god. They also perform the annual worship of kodai

forsas tha, Sudalai mada samy., Petcchi amman, Brahmmarehchasi, Madasamy

and other fulkdeities. Animal sacrifices are very common almost in all the cult

shrines. They are having their own caste persons serving as priest during the

kodai festival. Every year they celeberate Mutha Ramalinga Thevar Jeryenthi in

the town.

66

YADAVAR

They yadava community is also an important cast group up to 1935. They

were called as idaiyars or konars which denoted the cattle breeders. Idaiyars are

mentioned in the sangam works. The shepereds and cow herds known as Ayars

were a large and important community. By their profession they are cattle rears,

Daily farming was their principal occupation and mean of subsistence.31

They

sell milk, curd butter and ghee in and artound Attur. The Yadavas of Attur

considered shenkottai as their home land.32

They are peace loving people and

follow the rituals of vaishnavasect. In Attur they are living in Yadavar street.

NAYAKKARS

The Naidus or Nayakkars of the kombalathars, Kammavars and Pandiyars

are living small number in Attur. All these three castes are agricultural and their

mother tongue is Telugu. The original home country of these three castes was

the track of country north of vijayanayer. When krishnadeva rayer deputed

nagama Nayakkar and his son visvanathanayakar to Madurai, several other

Telgu speaking communities arrived in the these regions. They are living at

Naidu street in Attur.

31

Pillai.K.K. A Social History of Tamils. Op.cit., p. 201. 32

Nambiar.P.K. District census Hand back, Tirunelveli, Vol. IX Madras, 1965. P.24.

67

KAMMALARS

The Kammalars in general occupy a position similar to that of the

Yadavas Maravars etc. These communities maintain friendly reiations and

consider themselves as equals. Yet in the recat past the kammalas comparised of

five seetions namely the goldsmith, the bross smith, blacfk smith, the carpenter

and the stone archy. They wear the sacred thread and many of them observe the

regular thread investiture ceremony like Brahmins. Both men and women of this

caste wear cloth in style of saivaite Brahmins. Many of them are strict

vegetarions. They take pride in pursuing the customs and manners of

Brahmins.33

They suffered economically much except the gold smiths. Locally

they are called as Tatter, kal Thattar, Kollar respectively. They constitute a

minor community and spreadover all the parts of Attur town. They are

collectively called as Asari. They claim to be the descendants of viswa karma,

the celestical architect according to the purans. They have established

visvakarma Mahajanasagam in the west car street. They also give importantance

to worship vishwa Brahma who is sistigartha and kamatchiamman. Five faced

lamp is used in the every house of this caste people in the pujaroom. This lamp

indicates their five occupations. They are manu, Mayan, Duvasta, silbi,

Vishvakarma. They celeberate vishwarkarma Jeyanthi in the Tamil month of

purttaasi and Avani Avittam. They arrange a procession at the time of Jeyanthi

celeberation.

33

Saraswathi.S. Minorities in Madras state, New Delhi, 1974, pp.21-22.

68

VANIYARS

Vaniyars are reside in vaniar street. They adopt Brahmanical ceremony of

upanayam. They are eilmanger whole sale and retail grocery dealers and cloth

merch arts. More than hunded families are living in Attur. They built sri Mari

Amma temple. Every year kodai festival is celeberated in this temple.

NADARS

Nadras are an enterprising community which constitute a sizable

population of Attur. The community was referred to as shanars also. But the

correct form is said to be chantror derived from Tamil word sal. The expression

chantror are derived from the some root.34

The Nadras were illtreated by the

upper caste people. They were socially very poor.35

They were chiefly known as

palmyra climbing and toddy tapping in Attur. They reside inperumal puram

street. They were counted little above the untouchable communite like pallas

and the parayers. The Naders were considered inferior to sudras and suferior to

parayes.36

By the advent of Christian missionaries must of the people got

converted to Christianity.However considerable number of Nadras continued to

be Hindus in Attur. They have built pathirakali Amma temple. They are leading

and flourishing merchant at Attur. One shanmugasundara nadar Higher

secondary school is run by this community people.

34

Nagama Alya (ed) The Travancere statemanual. Vol – II, Trivandrum. 1906. P. 392. 35

Pate.H.R. , op.cit., p. 125. 36

Raja Ram Rao., Ramnad Manual, Madras Govt press. 1889. Pp.35-37.

69

THE DEPRESSED CLASS

The important branches among the depressed class are pallas, ?Valluvas,

chakkiliyas. Kuravars etc.37

They form considerable portain of the society of

Attur. In the past they are educationally, economically and socially backward

even regarded as untouchables, unshadowable, unapproachable and outcastes.

The tearm Adi Diravida is commonly used to designate the untouchables of

Tamil nadu. But it was not used in Government records prior to 1920. The

change in the nomenclature of the Depressed classes into Adidravide was done

as a result of the concerted effort taken by M.C.Rajah a leader of the Depressed

classes.38

Harijans the literal meaning of the term Harijan is children of God, In

the Hindu pantheon “Hari” is the presever of the world. Since the untouch ables

were totally neglected by the bulk of the society. God “Hari” becomes their

father. Hence Mahatma Gandhiji called them Harijans.39

The government have directed the term Harijans should be used to denote

persons belonging to the scheduled castes in all public records except in

proceedings under statutory enactment until the statute is amended.40

Pallar,

pariyar and chakkiliar are among the various sects of Harijans living in Attur.

Among the Harijans pallas form majority. They reside in thalaivanvadali and

sernathamangalam. They are serving hired as agricultural labourers and as

37

Nampiar.P.K.op.cit., p.124. 38

G.O.No.117 Low (General) Madras 1922. P.25. 39

Gandhiji.M.K. Removal of untouchabllity, Ahamadabad, 1957. P.13. 40

GH.O.No.850 Public (Education) 18.3.1947.

70

coolies for various purposes. As they are the tillers of the soil, till now they

have been engaged by the vellalas for their land cultivation. They are also asked

by their masters to do kaval duties to keep the growing crops from the peril of

the theft and from the treat of cattle recording during the harvest time. They are

social degraded and are made as serfs and slaves by their masters. They drag the

temple cars during carfestivals they contribute five hundred families to the

population of Attur. Total population of Adidravidas are 1065 persons.

One of the most down trodden caste in Tamil Nadu is that of the parayer.

They served as grave diggers watch men and scavangers. They also under take

agriculture and masonary works. They were considered to belong the lower

strata in the society. In Tamil “Parai” drum. Thus they served as drummers on

occasionssuch as funerals village festivals and also used to announce the

government orders and other commercial announcement by beating the drum.

Apart from these an inscription of Raja Raja III gives the name of the Kovil

kaval.41

Chakkiliaror Arunthathiyar form the third strata of Harijan community.

They seem to have come from Telugu and kannada regions. Their conditions

entirely different from Adi Dravidas. They are serving as scavengers and

41

ARE, 1932-33.No.43

71

sweepers in the local administrative office and government and private

hospitals. They speak Telugu with mixed Tamil.42

They are very low in economical social standards than the Adidravidas.

They have no property. They are workers on leather. It is duty to remove the

dead cattle from villages. In return they have supply leather for agricultural

purposes. At Attur they served as slipper sewers in order to earn their lively

hood.

The other important minority people living in Attur area are the

Ambatters (Barber) the dhobis (Vannars) the Kuyavars (Velars) the Pandarams

and the Kaniyans.The early name of the Barber is Ambatten. He is also called as

Kudimagan, Maruthuvar or Panditan. The Barbar indue esurse of time became a

Musician, Particularly a player on the pipe. Quite often he was a medicine man.

He was also having the knowledge of Ayurvedic system of medicine.43

The

barbers are engaged in the funeral functions of the Hindus. They used to tonsure

the sons of the dead persons.

In ordinary days they earn by opening salons for hair cutting. The Barber

women attend to the maternity cases in village sides and even in the orthodox

families of Attur they used to take care of bathing children for certain months.

They reside in vasantha nagar Bose nagar and pudhugram.

42

Nambiar.P.K. District census Hand Book, Tirunelveli, Vol.17. Madras, 1965, p.25. 43

Pillai.K.K.Studies in the History of India op,cit, p.339.

72

The vannars or the dhobis are the washer men in Tamil country. The

name vannan is derived from the word vannan. Which means beauty. There is a

tradition that they are the descendants of mythological hero Virabhadra, who

was ordered by siva to wash the cloths of all men as on expiation of the sin of

putting many people death in Dakshasyaga.44

Some vannars assumed the name

irongolli or irukuli.45

They washed clothes with a kind of soil called Uvarman.

In the process of washing and starching, the wives of the washer men were

expert.

Muslims form an important community in Attur. During advent of

Muslims and their establishment Kayalpattinam resulted in conversion of

Hindus to Islam. Under the Nawabs of Arcot the Hindus suffered, untold

miseries which led to fast conversion to Islam. They are reside in Various parts

of Attur first especialty at town pallivasal street and muslim street. They

contribute 4600 persons to the population of Attur. They are living in peaceful

manner respecting other religious people. Muslim agriculturists are found in

small numbers in Attur, poor Muslims are labourers and retails shopkeepers.

Mats of Korai grass are made mostly by Muslims.

The religious authority of the Brahmins, whose superstitious preaching

and their prosupporters, ill treatment and non-admission of low caste Hindus

into the real Hindu fold in Attur have accelerated conversion into Christianity.

44

Edgar Thurfston, op.cit,VolII (Ct-2) p.315. 45

Ibid,p.372.

73

By abjuring Hinduism the converts come to a conversion that they could

improve their social status. In Attur there are growing number of Christians. But

they are divided into Roman Catholics and protestants. Both religious sects are

maintaining their own churches most of these religious people are Hindu

converts duer to the social and economic situations and the monotheist principle

preached by the Portuguese and British missionaries.

RATIONAL MOVEMENT

The Brahmins alone are allowed to act as priests. It gives the Brahmins a

predominant place in the field of religion. By getting religious sanction the

Brahmins in the by gone centuries occupied key posts in the government. The

other Hindu caste people who styled themselves as non Brahmins consider the

Brahmin authority as a revolt of a dominant minority against an oppressed

majority. It had two divisions among the Hindus some accepted the domination

of Brahmins while those who objected Brahmins began to hate Hinduism and

become rationalists. In the recent times particularly during and after the days of

E.V.Ramasamy Naicker, Attur has also become one of the centers of

rationalism. These rationalists politicalized the religious matter. As a result, the

rationalists called themselves not only as religious reformers but also as

political and social reformers. They commonly participate in the organization

called Dravida Kazhagam which was started in 1944.

74

SOCIAL HABITS AND CUSTOMS

The question of dress is pertinent at three junctures. When we look at the

various castes, we will also have to keeping mind the fact that the people

belonging to various communities were identified by a particular dress.

Secondly when we speak of the economic condition of the people. We will also

have to imagin at least three different styles of dressing. While caste remained

upper most in the mind of any individual, dress often preserved the caste

barrier. The poor had only one set, these moderate two and wealthy three or four

per year. And finally this queation becomes relevant at the level of sex.

In general the common men wore dhoti, wrapped around his middle,

without a shirt but they hung a towel from one shoulder. Rich women wore a

Chelai (Saree) of eight yards; poor women wore a saree of five yards. With

regard to the state of present day dresses, it is sufficient to say that post

independent India witnessed mass scale unification in matters of dress. Earlier

while dress indicated ones sex, religion and state today surprisingly one or two

or all these three facts have changed we can see that irrespective of any of these

social markers, people dress as they like. This is mostly a city trend that does

not spare the present Attur region too.

75

ORNAMENTS

Women from rich families wore a variety of ornaments made from many

materials and metals. To say the least, this custom only reflected the gaudy and

typically Indian tastes of this sex. Usually the head, ears, nose, waist, legs or

toes were places from where ornaments hung.46

It is very likely that their waists

fingers and necks too were covered with ornaments. The ornaments were made

of precious metals, stones and glass. Which they used at all times.

HOUSES

As in case of dress even here economic factors determined the type of

houses in which one lived. It was not obligatory for someone to be in a

particular type of house for the simple reason that he or she belonged to a

specific community. As is always the case houses here too were meant to be

convenient shelters for families. Poor people lived in Cadjan houses mutt huts

which were thatched with cadjan leaves. The upper middle class lived in houses

built with on burnt or burnt bricks. The roofs were either thatched or tiled. The

upper class lived ion houses built with burnt bricks and wood. This house had a

common plan inspite of their varying sizes. There was a Drawing room, Store

Bed room and Kitchen.

From various sources we understand that the upper class lived in joint

families. These houses consisted of four blocks built in a quadrangle. The

46

Samuel Mateer, Land of charity, London 1870,p.201.

76

central courtyard was common to these blocks. The house on the whole was so

big that it could accommodate nearly 150 to 200 members often the flooring

was given a coating of cow dung. The houses of Brahmins stood in a block

arranged in double rows facing one another. The sudrahouses for made compact

block. The castes which were large in number had their own distrinct quarters.

Vallalars, and Mudaliars inhabited the same region. The half polluting castes

like the shanars and Yadavas lived outside the main villages where as the

paraiyans lived in the still remote places.47

FAMILY

The unique feature of the society in Family was the joint family system.

The family the smallest unit of the social fabric functioned as on established

institution. The family was well integrated homogenous and stable. Since the

entire family shared the pleasures and pains, mental unsta ablity was arrested.

The father exercised dominant authority over the family and women occupied a

subordinate position. They were hospitable, went to the temples. Participated in

domestic functions and treated the husband with respect. The practice of the

Muslims kept their women in inferior position as their religion inculcated

female modesty.

The income of all the persons of the family were added to the general

pool of the family and expenditure was met. The command of the elder was

47

Sarada Ruju.A.Economic Condition in Madras presidency Madras 1941, p.111.

77

unquestionable in the family. The system of inheritance and succession were

widely prevalent among the Hindus. The eldest son retained the personal effects

of his father and with the consent of his brothers retained his house but the

value was deducted from his share in the property. Among the vellalas and

Mudaliars lineages were traced through the male members and the properties of

the deceased naturally went to the sons.

The western ideas of family and family life had very little impact on the

traditional concept of the Hindus. Western education, Ideas, Customs and

Manners did not create an enduring impression on the people, as a result they

remained true to their old heritage and culture.

Water was often scared. Each community had wells for exclusive use.

Rich people dug well in the backyard of their houses. The wells used by upper

castes were out of bounds for the other castes. We can understand the living

conditions of the people of this region better through the following account.

As is the case with dress in case of houses too some basic changes have

set in one important reason for the change in the design of houses is the change

from the joint family system. House being built for a single family much

sophistication is desired of course we do not see the earlier wood work

dominating the present day house construction. Modern houses are built with

cement. Housing today is the major concern of the government, private bodies

as well as individuals. Thus we can see modern houses being built in plenty.

78

Renovation and demolishing existing ones and building more modern ones in

their places is the order of the day in Attur. Everyday women rose early and

went out to fetch water in huge earthen pots obviously; the rich women carried

water with brass pots.

FOOD HABITS

Rich was the stable food at all times of the day. The rural Brahmins and

vellalar preferred a cold supper at night and earned a reputation for frugal

habits. They were for bidden to take meat or liquor. On the century the

agriculturists, labourers and artisans took Kanji or cold rice water in the

mornings. In keeping with certain customary social norms men were served

food first and they are in brazen vessels. Rice and curry were put in them with

the help of ladies made of bomboo for a handle and coconut shells for the actual

container. They set on mats spread on the floor while eating.

It is interesting to note how this rice was processed through indigenous

methods. People bought paddy build it lightly in order to soften it then, they

dried it in the sun and beat it or threshed it in the master still the husk come out,

while they mostly are the brown rice that’s till had the bran. As this task was

tire some rich women employed maid servants for the purpose. While the husk

met with a variety of uses like fuel and the burnt husk was used as tooth

powder. The bran though very nutritious, was fed to fowl and cattle.

79

It is interesting to contrast the present day practice of this region with the

above account. The first point to note is that the tedious work of processing rice

is nearly extinct in this region. For the amount of labour involved in processing

if spent in another effort would yield high returns. Thus rice is often bought

from open markets, and ration shops. The second point to note is that rice is not

more a necessity alone. It is taken for taste and often for status too with the

dissemination of a variety of information about best tasty and nutritious food,

the food habits of these people have changed remarkably. We can note these

changes in both the method of preparation and services. In brief today more

time and money is spent in making both the process of cooking and eating,

interestingly and costly. This change has finally linked various communities.

Thus today it is not always possible to tell from food served in a house ones

social status or community or regions in which one lives. If at all there can be

indication of such features than one can guess the social status from the variety

of food served and types of vessels used. However the thing to note here is that

the vegetarian, non vegetarian food habit distinction holds good to a large extent

even today.

SUPERSTITIONS

People had faith in superstition and omens and astrology.48

Often people

mind submit to the irrational. They cultivate some unfounded fear for certain

48

Luniya B.N.op,cit, p.529.

80

objects and actions. The reason was that these people did not distinguish

religion from social norms. Having confused both they treated then with awe

and the result of such predicament is the dominance of beliefs. Which cannot be

explained rationally but all the same accepted by the people dogmatically.

Hundreds of such beliefs dominated life in Attur. Ragukaalam was observed.

Everyday nearly one and half hour was called Ragukaalam. Now also this

custom prevails in this region.49

MARRIAGE

Marriage, customs and ceremonies differed from caste to caste and

community to community in the talk and they also observed certain marriage

taboos. The ceremony presented an integrated compound of vedicrituals tribal

customs rites and formalities. Though Kalavuvalli or love marriage was

theoretically and aesthetically present, they were not given the liberty to select

their partners even among their own caste. Inter caste marriage was never

accepted and if any person restored to he was expelled from the community.

The people married an early age. The parents of the gird invited their son-

in-law and daughter to the house and entertained them for several days during

the first year of marriage and during festivals. In the subsequent years they sent

rice, coconut, jiggery and plantains as gifts. Child marriage was common and a

49

Ragu – inauspicious Kalam – Period.

81

girl of five to nine years was given to a man of sixteen or sixty.50

The wedding

ceremonies varied from caste to caste. The typical Brahmin marriage was

celebrated for five days and it was marked by distinct stages namely,

Kasiyathirai (Pilgrimage by the bride groom to Kasi) Kankana (exchange of

threads by bride and bride groom) Kanniyadana (gift of virgin) and

Mongalasutra Dasana (fastening the sacred thread round the bride’s neck).51

Polygamy was unknown among the Vellalas and the chastity of their women

was zealously guarded.52

They employed Gurukkal of their own caste during

marriage.

The Naicker celebrated marriage for seven days the bride was presented

with a few measures of grain, which was taken in procession and handed over to

the bride grooms party and the priest tied the chain around the neck of the

women and the marriage was conducted at the bride’s residence. When the

marriage was completed the bride grooms sister presented money and cloth to

the parents of bride and tied horsehair at the neck of the girl and girl was taken

to the bridge grooms house where both exchanged Valuthadi (Curuedstick) as

mark of their alliance. Divorce was permitted.

The shanar girls were married either before or after puberty, the thali

tying ceremony took place just before sunrise. Question of divorce occasionally

come for decision before a Nattamai. Divorce was not for bidden. All the 50

Abbe Dubois.J.A, Hindu manners, customs, ceremonies, oxford, 1897.pp-175-176. 51

Ibid, pp – 217-218. 52

Hill.S.C,Yusufkhan the rebel commandant, London, 1914,p.4.

82

wealthy people erected Pandals, lined there of with calico and decorated the hall

with red cloth, white gauze, tinsel, coloured paper paint and silk cloth

embroidered with flower and gold. The auspicious day was fixed with the

consultation of the astrologer. Nathaswaram, Veena, Kinnara were played and

large drums were beaten at the time of marriage. Dinner processions formed

regular factures. Fire, Oil betelleaaf, nuts, sandal, coconut, turmeric, plantains,

and flowers occupied honoured positions at different Ceremonies.53

The

formalities and rites through it seemed absurd to the outsiders, reflected the

continuity, of the communal traditions.

WIDOW HOOD

The custom of elderly men marrying small girls, left many women as

widows in their early youth. The thali (Mangala) was taken away from her neck,

her hair was cut off and she was not permitted to remarry by most her caste

people. The people avoided the presence of widows in domestic functions and

considered seeing here face as a bad omen. Certain sections of the people

induced widows to commit sati. Hindu widowhood changed radically in the

course of life the women. The Brahmin widows had to shave their head, wear

white cloths and were prohibited to wear ornaments. The non Brahmins

believed that the superiority of caste depended upon the strictness with which it

enforced the above isolating observances of puritan widowhood.

53

Pandian.T.B, The ancient heroes of South Indian Peninsula, Madras, 1893, pp – 20 – 21.

83

DEVADASI SYSTEM

Women artists who were experts in the art of Bharatha Nastiyam and

instrumental music were employed in temples, which maintained thousands of

female called Devadasis. The rulers gave endowments soon they developed into

a hereditary caste and possessed peculiar social, material customs and rites. The

Devadasi systems become a ground for the non Indian Evangalis of other creeds

to use agairst Hinduism and secure convets.

FEUDALISM

Feudal custom like Uliyam and Virutti existed in Attur for centuries.

There were many such evil customs. Workers were made to work without any

payment. This was Uliyaam. Virutti also seems to do to the some custom. The

existence of Uliyam meant the exploitation, of the down trodden. Village

officials exploited the Palla, Paraya, Shanar and Pulaya riots. Such an exploited

class could not rise up the ladder of society. Consequently, their economic

condition, education and especially morals remained poor and men. They could

not bear the economic exploitation. They were forced to supply the provisions

to the temples.

SLAVERY

In feudal setup slavery can thrive well. Further in social setup where the

caste system suppose all sorts of social norms. The most natural line of thinking

84

is slavery. With the very structure of the society and the mind of the people

being ready to encourage slavery the next step is Slave trade. All the forward

communities possessed slaves.54

When these slaves were given in human

treatment, they ran away to join Christianity.55

Total population of Attur is 9456

persons.56

54

Samuvel Mateer, Op.cit,p.57. 55

Mudaliar manuscript, Document No.12, dated 675/M.E. 56

Census of India 2011.