CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Background to the Study

Crisis has posed a big obstacle to effective club soccer management around the globe.

According to O’beirne and Ries (2000), sports (including soccer) organizers and

administrators are concerned over the increasing incidences and consequences of crisis, which

has become a global phenomenon and poses an obstacle to effective sports management.

Napravnik (1993) reported that there is currently an increase in both frequency and

seriousness of the act of soccer crises documented throughout the globe especially soccer

violence. Wenn (1989) had observed that crises experienced in club soccer are numerous

including both violent and non-violent crises. He identified violent crises to include soccer

violence, accidents and severe injuries as well as terrorism in soccer arena. Main (1985) had

enumerated other types of non-violent crises in club soccer to include boycott of matches,

strikes by players and officials for non-payment of salaries, allowances and match bonuses, as

well as scandals such as sexual harassment of players and officials. Oyewusi (1991) added

other forms of non-violent crises among soccer clubs to include bribery and corruption,

racism, and match fixing. Ogujiofor (2000) also added disruptive propaganda, costly mistakes

by officials and players, disinformation whereby false information is given intentionally in

order to hide the truth and confuse people, and misinformation in which incorrect information

is given to distort the fact; as well as protests and demonstrations (Patti, 2008).

Many incidents of crises have been recorded among soccer clubs in South-Eastern

States. No Violence (2000a) reported on severe accidents and injuries in the violent incident

in a match between Jasper United and Enugu Rangers in Onitsha on 11 December, 2000 and

(No Violence, 2001) reported on Enymiba Football Cub (F. C.) and Jasper United fans also in

Onitsha on 8 May, 2001. Even in the 2007 Globacom Premier Soccer league, Apu (2007)

reported many incidents of crises such as boycott of matches, match fixing and crowd

violence that left two fans dead and many others injured in the match between Akwa United

and Enyimba International F.C.of Aba on 27 March, 2007. Solaja (2007) reported on protests,

misinformation, disinformation and match fixing in which the Vice Chairman of Rangers

International F.C. of Enugu, Mr. Ray Nnaji protested and alleged a gang-up that led to match

fixing against his club in the 2007 Nigerian Premier League.

Crises during club soccer matches expose both organisers and other participants to

various kinds of risks. Ukwayi (1998) observed that club soccer crises such as violence

exposes participants to the risk of accidents, injuries, discomfort, disabilities and damage to

property and sometimes death. Oyewusi (1991) indicated that apart from the destruction of

human lives and property, cherished names of players, officials and soccer clubs as well as the

standard of the game are damaged by crisis. Main (1985) expressed that some soccer crises

such as violence and terrorism can frighten soccer officials to the point of not being fair, firm

and friendly. According to Wenn (1989), soccer administrators and sports organisers may

become afraid of arranging soccer matches and spectators can be frightened to the state of

boycotting live-games.

It might be because of the above consequences that Wenn (1989) reported that in

1985, the Sports and Recreation Ministers’ Council (SRMC) meeting held in Australia

declared excessive violent-behaviour in club soccer and other forms of sports crises generally

unacceptable. The ministers therefore recommended that strategies and intervention models

should be developed to prevent or reduce both violent and non-violent crises on and off the

playing field. The present study is in response to this call.

Crisis management, a public relations management concept is currently being adapted

into sports to handle the problem of crisis. This is because a crisis, emergency or disaster is

usually a very public event, and performance of any organization or industry caught in crisis

is subject to immediate public scrutiny as it tries to deal with the many consequences of the

crisis situation (White, 1991). The organisation’s performance at such a time, in his opinion,

will be remembered and in some cases memories of how poorly it responded may sooner or

later contribute to driving it out of existence.

Anyanwu (1981), Oyewusi (1991), Mohammed (1998) and Agbanusi (2001) agreed

that most soccer crises emanate from players, team officials, match officials, and fans. The

other groups that can cause crises according to them are security, media and spectators.

Wiener and Kahn (1982) described crisis as a turning point in an unfolding sequence

of events and actions. According to Nwosu (1996), crisis is a breach in the natural order of

things, an aberration in the system or a disruptive force that could destroy the system or

organisation concerned. Hessert (1999) defined crisis as a turning point for better or for

worse, a decisive moment or a crucial time. The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic

Stress (2003) defined crisis as a traumatic event that is typically unpredicted and

overwhelming for those who experience it. Encarta (2008) defined crisis as a situation or

period in which things are very uncertain, difficult, or painful, especially a time when action

must be taken to avoid complete breakdown.

Minaham (1987) also stated that crisis occurs when a person faces an obstacle to set

goal that is for a time insurmountable through customary methods of problem solving. From

the above definitions, crisis is viewed as a moment of great danger, a difficult situation, a

traumatic event a crucial time or a turning point that can result to bad or worst condition. In an

organisation or system, it can breach the normal operations or natural order of things (Chak-

Tong, 2004) and it has the capability of destroying the organisation or system. Crisis occurs

when an orgnaisation can not resolve issues and problems through customary methods of

problem solving. In this study therefore, crisis is defined as a traumatic event, a moment of

great danger, difficulty or a turning point, arising from failure to identify and resolve issue and

problems in club soccer programme or competition, which is capable of destroying the well-

being and reputation of individual players, officials and the clubs. It may be caused and can be

prevented or controlled. It may occur when certain issues and problems are inadequately

handled.

On his discussion of issues and crisis management, Nwosu (1996) revealed that when

certain issues are neglected or ignored and problems inadequately handled or solved, they

might mature and lead to crisis. Main (1985), Wenn (1989) and Ukwayi (1998) are of the

opinion that issues and problems such as poor officiating of club matches; collection of

money by officials to favour a team; use of incompetent and biased officials are some of the

issues and problems, which match organizers and clubs must give serious attention to during

club soccer programmes or competition. According to them, other issues and problems

include insensitivity to players or club petitions, doping, unfair play and threat to win at all

cost. They believed that failure to identify and adequately handle these issues and problems

might help to build up tension, anxiety and aggression, which may eventually reach the peak

and the turning point to trigger off crisis.

On this note, Beaver and Parker (1995) revealed that it is the responsibility of

management to address the issues and problems in an organisation. In other words, club

Officials such as the Club Chairman, Team Manager, Technical Adviser, Club Secretary,

Chief Coach, Assistant Coach, Public Relation Officer (PRO), Team Doctor, Trainer, Masseur

and Team Captain who play management and administrative roles in soccer clubs are

responsible for the management of crisis in a soccer club. These officials and team captains

may be grouped into Management Crew, Technical Crew and Support Crew (See Appendix

A). These individuals are more likely therefore to suggest the best measures that could be

taken to address the problem of crisis in soccer clubs. All registered national and amateur

soccer clubs involved in the National Premier League in South-Eastern States of Nigeria were

utilised in the study. Soccer Club Captains in the states participated in the study as they also

play management roles.

Management according Kreltner (1995) is a process of working with and through

others to achieve organisational objectives in a changing environment. Donnelly, Gibson and

Ivancevich (1998), defined management as a process undertaken by one or more individuals

to co-ordinate the activities of others to achieve results not achievable by one individual

acting alone. Encarta (2008) simply defined management as the skillful handling or use of

something such as resources. Management is therefore the process of working with and

through the players, officials and other club staff to achieve soccer club objectives. On this

note, management is defined in this study as a process adopted by club managers, coaches and

other officials as well as team captains to co-ordinate the activities of other club members to

handle crisis in soccer clubs. A soccer club is used in this study as an organization. This is

because Encarta (2008) defined an organization as a group of people identified by a shared

interest or purpose. When the management of an organisation (such as a soccer club) works

through the staff members and is deeply involved in preventing, responding and recovering

from a crisis, it could be referred to as crisis management.

Crisis management is defined by Nwosu (1996), as an act of taking appropriate

measures to prevent a crisis before it occurs as well as controlling it well when it eventually

occurs. Fink (2000) described crisis management as a new discipline in Public Relations

Management and likened it to risk or emergency management. O’beirne and Ries (2000)

defined it as a process of implementing strategies to counter the negative effects of an event or

action that could damage the reputation and well being of an individual or an organisation.

Encarta (2008) defined crisis management as the business or process of working through a

crisis to solve or cope with the problems as they arise. The individual or organization that

could be affected by a crisis as referred to above could be a player, official or a soccer club in

South-Eastern State of Nigeria. Crisis management therefore is defined in this study as the

practice of taking appropriate measures in order to prevent the occurrence of an impending

club soccer crisis or manage/control it well when it occurs as well as recover players, officials

and clubs involved in the crisis

Crisis management is necessitated by the threat of crisis to the interest and existence of

an individual or organization such as a soccer club. This necessitates the individual or

organisation to deal quickly with it in order to minimize its consequences. Crisis management

in club soccer arises as a result of the great danger, difficulty or negative situations such as

serious accidents, which result to severe injuries on the athletes or officials. The other

conditions for crisis management in club soccer are doping scandal and use of performance

enhancing drugs, scandal of sexual harassment, misinformation or disinformation, match

disruption and abandonment as well as violence, prevalent in club soccer programmes and

competitions, among others (Hessert, 1998b and Reid, 2002).

From the foregoing, it is important to note that crisis management is very essential in

handling soccer crisis in club soccer programmes or competitions. This might be the reason

why, Hessert (1998b) stated that for sports organisation (like soccer clubs) to effectively

handle or avert crisis, the organisation must create a crisis management plan, develop crisis

response strategies and crisis communication. According to him, the organisation must also

develop good media relations and crisis recovery for individual and oranisation involved in

the crises. These steps in his view form the crisis management process, which is crucial in the

management of crisis in an organisation. In addition, crisis management according to Nwosu

(1996) aims at adopting a proactive approach in the management of crisis and applying the

major processes of crisis management to prevent or at least reduce the impact of the crisis on

individuals and organizations. The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress (2003),

revealed that research has emerged over the past ten years supporting a proactive approach to

a crisis, as opposed to one that is reactive in nature. A reactive approach according to the

Academy is spontaneous and not fully thought out, planned and practiced. It can result in

response that is less effective in meeting the immediate and possibly the long-term needs of

the players, officials and clubs. The Academy also expressed that a proactive approach to a

crisis is one that is organized, planned and practiced, and more likely results in response that

can have a dramatic effect on reducing the short and long-term consequences of the crisis on

the individual and organisation.

Crisis management plan is described by Reid (2002) as an anticipatory practice in

crisis planning and an effort to adopt a proactive approach rather than reactive approach in the

management of sports crisis. It is also an effort made by sports teams to predict or prepare for

possible crises well in advance as they plan and prepare for programmes and competitions.

Crisis response strategies according to Hessert (1998b), involve sports teams (or soccer clubs)

developing and implementing action stages of response during a crisis. Crisis response

strategies also involve good crisis communication and media relations. Hessert (1998b) also

explained that crisis recovery measures assist sports teams (as soccer teams), players, and

officials to return to their normal operating conditions after the crisis. In other words, they

contribute to dealing with the aftermath of the crisis. O’beirne and Ries (2000) therefore

expressed that the core functions of crisis management are prevention, response and recovery.

Despite the role of crisis management in planning, preparing and restoring players,

officials and clubs involved in crisis, the crisis management process has not been

appropriately and adequately adapted into soccer clubs. The process has also not been

prioritised in the management of crisis among soccer clubs especially in South-Eastern States

of Nigeria. To the best knowledge of the researcher, there seems to be no remarkable attempt

to develop a model for crisis management to guide club administrators, managers and coaches

in Nigeria, especially for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of the country.

The term model is conceptualized by Knox (1979) as a design, which provides

understanding, prediction of events or efforts in the real case, a guide, plan or action. Ames,

Galein, Humphery, Mason-Kaufman and Osbome (1983) defined a model as a design, a

scheme, a guide or a set of units in purposeful interaction of its fundamental components,

namely: structure, process and product. Encarta (2008) defined a model as a simplified

version of something complex used in analyzing and solving problems. This implies that a

model has pattern (structure), adopts certain activities (process) and brings about desirable

outcome (product). Such a design or scheme, according to Ames, et al (1983), provides

direction for action and needs to be flexible for adaptation, and responsive to exigencies in the

environment. In this study, a model is defined as a design (a guide, plan or action) that has

fundamental components which provide understanding, prediction of events or efforts for

crisis management among soccer clubs. It is composed of factors, which interact to produce a

pre-determined outcome or product. In the present study, the pre-determined outcome is the

crisis management model for soccer clubs, while the factors that interact are the components

of the model. The major components of the model are derived from the submissions of

Okereke (1994); Gozalex-Herrero and Pratt (1995); Nwosu (1996); Hessert (1998b) and

O’beirne and Ries (2000), on the crucial aspects, steps, phases, strategies, processes and

conditions for crisis management.

Okereke (1994) provided a five-step guide for crisis management as issue

identification, priorities setting, organizational response, implementation and evaluation.

Gozalex-Herrero and Pratt (1995) proposed a four-phase conceptual model for effective

management of crisis before and when it occurs. The phases include issue management,

planning prevention, the crisis and post-crisis management. Nwosu (1996) indicated that the

necessary conditions for crisis management are a plan to prevent the crisis before it occurs,

managing or controlling it well when it eventually occurs as well as returning the individuals

and the organisations involved back to their normal business operation after the crisis. Hessert

(1998b) proposed crisis plan, response strategies, crisis communication, media relations and

crisis recovery as crucial aspects of crisis management. He viewed planning, preparation,

strategies, financing, training, communication, education, prediction and analysis as essential

processes in crisis management. The components of the present model cover the three main

areas of crisis management outlined above, namely, crisis management plan, response and

recovery. These components include Soccer Crisis Management Plan (SCMP), Soccer Crisis

Response Strategies (SCRS), Soccer Crisis Communication Activities (SCCA), Soccer Crisis

Mass Media Relations Strategies (SMMRS) and Soccer Crisis Recovery Measures (SCRM)

for clubs.

It has been observed that differences exist in the opinion ofss some officials on certain

aspects of sports sociology, administration and management. For example, Ogu (2000)

observed a statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Coaches of different

ages on the objectives of social network model and skill network. He also observed a

difference in the mean responses of veteran Coaches and beginning Coaches on skill network,

social environment network and image network. In this study therefore, there is need to find

out if differences exist in the mean responses of the club officials (including management,

technical and support crews) on the components of the crisis management model for soccer

clubs especially in South-Eastern States.

However, O’beirne and Ries (2000) revealed that one management process that is

frequently overlooked by sports organizers, administrators and marketers, is the process of

crisis management. According to them, many sports organisers and administrators such as

mangers, coaches and officials have not grasped the value of crisis management. They have

therefore shown unwillingness to prioritise the function of crisis management in sports

operations. The club soccer organisers, administrators and marketers in South-Eastern States

of Nigeria may not be an exception to this fault. Ukwayi (1998) reported that in Nigeria, no

remarkable plans and preparations are made in advance to handle sports crises among sports

teams. This might include soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. Oyewusi (1991)

observed that in Nigeria, the response strategies and management approach to soccer crises

are reactive in nature rather than proactive. This might also be applicable to soccer clubs in

South-Eastern States of Nigeria. Oyewusi (1985) had also observed that in Nigeria, there is

inadequate recovery for individual athletes and teams involved in crises. This situation could

also be applicable to soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

As earlier indicated, no remarkable attempt has been made to develop a model for

crisis management to guide club managers, administrators and coaches in Nigeria, especially

for soccer clubs in South-Eastern State. The frequent over looking of the process of crisis

management and the unwillingness shown by sports managers, coaches and other officials to

prioritise and implement crisis management in sports operations (O’beirne and Ries, 2000)

might be attributed to the absence of a crisis management model for sports teams especially in

Nigeria and for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States. This might have also led to reactive

rather than proactive approach in the management of crisis by sports teams in Nigeria

(Oyewusi, 1991) including soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of the country. There is a gap

in the series of actions directed towards the management of crisis and in the established or

correct method of handling it among soccer clubs in the states.

Lack of a clearly defined and efficient crisis management process and procedure in

form of a model to guide and direct soccer clubs in the management of crisis in the states, is a

problem. There is therefore the need for the development of a crisis management model for

soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

Statement of the Problem

Crisis management process is utilized by an individual, group or organisation to

handle crisis situation. It employs strategies to counter the negative effect of an event or

action that could damage the well-being and reputation of an individual or organisation like a

soccer club. Crisis management plays an important role in planning, preventing, reducing,

responding and recovering individuals, groups or organsations involved in a crisis such as

soccer clubs.

O’Beirne and Ries (2000) revealed that one management process that is frequently

overlooked by sports organizers, administrators and marketers is the process of crisis

management. According to them, many sports organisers and administrators such as

managers, coaches and other officials have not grasped the values of crisis management. They

have therefore shown unwillingness to prioritise the functions in sports operations. The soccer

managers, administrators and coaches in South-Eastern States of Nigeria may not be an

exception to this fault.

Wenn (1985) reported that the increasing incidence and consequences of crises among

athletes and teams have been of great concern to sport organisers and administrators around

the globe. According to him, the Sports and Recreation Ministers’ Council (SRMC) meeting

held in Australia, in 1985, declared excessive violent-behaviour and other forms of crises

generally unacceptable. The ministers therefore recommended that strategies and intervention

models should be developed to prevent or reduce crisis on and off the playing field. This study

is a response to that call.

Many crises have been recorded among soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of

Nigeria. They include soccer violence (No Violence, 2000 and Apu, 2007); boycott of

matches and match fixing (Main, 1985 and Solaja, 2007); scandals, bribery and corruption,

accidents and severe injuries to players and officials (Wenn, 1988 and Oyewusi, 1991);

disruptive propaganda, costly mistakes by officials and players, disinformation and

misinformation (Ogujiofor, 2000) as well as protests and demonstrations by players or

officials (Patti, 2008).

However, no remarkable attempt has been made to develop a crisis management

model to guide club managers, administrators and coaches in the management of crisis in

Nigeria, especially in South-Eastern States. Ukwayi (1998) reported that no remarkable plans

and preparations are made in advance to handle sports crises among sports teams in Nigeria.

Oyewusi (1991) observed that in Nigeria, the response strategies and management approach to

sports crises are reactive in nature rather than bein`g proactive. According to Apu (2007)

clubs wait until a crisis (such as soccer violence) occurs and the Nigerian Football League

Board (NFLB) would set up a panel to look into the root cause of the crisis which may have

left many dead and others seriously injured.

Oyewusi (1985) had also indicated that in Nigeria, there is inadequate recovery for

individual athletes and teams involved in crises. These situations could be applicable to

players, officials and soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

The above shortcomings might be attributed to the absence of a crisis management

model to guide and direct the NFLB, club managers, coaches and other officials to adapt crisis

management process in handling soccer crises. There is a gap due to lack of a clearly defined

and efficient crisis management process and procedure in form of a model to guide and direct

soccer clubs in the management of crisis in the states. It is against this background that the

researcher considers it necessary to develop a crisis management model for soccer clubs in

South-Eastern States of Nigeria, to fill the gap.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to develop a crisis management model for soccer

clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. Specifically, the study is intended to develop:

1. acceptable objectives to direct the development and use of Crisis Management

Model (CMM) for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria;

2. appropriate Soccer Crisis Management Plan (SCMP) for prevention of crisis

among clubs in the states;

3. suitable Soccer Crisis Response Strategies (SCRS) for clubs in the States;

4. appropriate Soccer Crisis Communication Activities (SCCA) for clubs in the

states;

5. suitable Soccer Crisis Mass Media Relations Strategies (SMMRS) for clubs in the

States;

6. appropriate Soccer Crisis Recovery Measures (SCRM) for players, officials and

clubs in the states.

Research Questions

The following Research Questions were posed to guide the study:

1. What acceptable objectives should direct the development and use of the crisis

management model for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria?

2. What soccer crisis management plan will help to prevent crisis among clubs in

South-Eastern States of Nigeria?

3. What soccer crisis response strategies are necessary for clubs in South-Eastern

states?

4. What appropriate soccer crisis communication activities are required by clubs in

South-Eastern states?

5. What suitable soccer crisis mass media relations strategies are needed by clubs in

South-Eastern states?

6. What soccer crisis recovery measures are essential for players, officials and clubs

involved in crisis in South-Eastern states?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were postulated for verification at (P<.05):

1. There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers regarding the objectives of the crisis management

model for soccer clubs.

2. There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis management plan for clubs.

3. There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and the Team Managers on the soccer crisis response strategies for clubs.

4. There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis communication

activities for clubs.

5. There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis mass media

relations strategies for clubs.

6. There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs.

Significance of the Study

A well-packaged crisis management model for soccer clubs would be beneficial to the

club managers, administrators, coaches, players, Researchers in crisis management, Sports

Councils, Nigerian Football Federation (NFF) Nigerian Football League Board(NFLB). It

would help the club managers, administrators and coaches to improve their skills and

competencies in crisis management. They achieve this by grasping and following a clear

procedural guideline for effective management of club soccer crisis, especially, in South-

Eastern States of Nigeria.

The development of soccer crisis management objectives may guide the club

administrators, coaches and players to identify the specific goals essential for crisis

management, based on facts rather than thoughts or opinions, among soccer clubs in the

states. This is achieved by identifying specific purpose for planning, preventing, responding or

recovering individuals and clubs involved in crisis as provided in the model.

The development of soccer crisis management plan will help club managers, coaches,

other officials and team captains as well as players to adopt a proactive rather than a reactive

approach in the management of crisis, especially, in the states under study. The plan will also

help them to prevent or reduce crisis among soccer clubs by identifying the causative factors,

resolving issues and problems that might lead to crisis as well as assist them to integrate the

plan into the club’s training programme.

The soccer crisis response strategies may help the club officials especially the club

managers, administrators and coaches to develop action stages of response for club soccer

crisis. This will enable them to manage or control the crisis well when it eventually occurs by

specifying the role each club member will play in order to safeguard themselves, take care of

casualties or compensate victims thereby reducing the impact of the crisis on individuals and

the clubs .

The establishment of soccer crisis communication activities for clubs may be helpful

to club managers, administrators and coaches to utilize effective crisis communication

approach in communicating the necessary information about the crisis to key publics. They

may achieve this by communicating to the club owners, fans, spectators, parents and relatives

of players and officials. They may also become prompt, clear, concise and consistent in

communication thereby avoiding misinformation, confusion and their attendant consequences

during soccer crisis and thereafter.

The study will equally help club managers, coaches, other officials, players and other

club employees to establish suitable soccer crisis mass media relations with media men during

soccer crisis. This enhances individual and clubs’ public image and support during and after

the soccer crisis. They will achieve this by having media policy for club soccer crisis, making

media statements clear and concise as well as correcting inaccurate media facts and

assumptions on the crisis.

Soccer crisis recovery measures may assist the club managers, administrators and

coaches to develop skills and ability to resolve issues and problems after every soccer crisis.

They may also be capable of properly returning the players, officials and clubs involved in the

crisis to their normal operating condition after the crisis. They would achieve this by

adequately investigating the case, and treating, compensating and counseling victims of the

crisis as well as carry on with the clubs business as usual.

When the crisis management model for soccer clubs is adopted or adapted by the clubs

in South-Eastern States, it may be helpful to the clubs, club managers, administrators, coaches

and players to prevent or reduce the rate of occurrence of crisis during club soccer programme

or competition. The model may also help the club managers, administrators and coaches to

reduce the psychological and mental stress, anxiety, fear and uncertainty associated with

reactive approach to management of soccer crisis by preparing them both administratively,

psychologically and mentally in advance to be able to face the crisis.

The result of this study will contribute new data to researchers who may be interested

in crisis management in sports. They may use the data as a guide to discovering more

information and facts about crisis management in other areas of sports.

The study may also be beneficial to the State Sports Councils in South-Eastern States

of Nigeria as well as the Nigerian Football Federation and the Nigerian Football League

Board by guiding them to assist clubs in handling soccer crisis. It may also help them to

resolve crisis cases by identifying the root causes of the crisis in order to give appropriate

recommendation for disciplinary measures to prevent future occurrence.

On the theoretical significance, three philosophical foundations upon which the

present study is built are on the Crisis Intervention Approach, Scientific Management Theory,

and Management By Objectives (MBO). The study was anchored on these three theories.

Scope of the Study

The crisis management model for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria

covered six important areas, namely: Objectives to guide and direct the development and use

of the crisis management model for soccer clubs; soccer crisis management plan; soccer crisis

response strategies; soccer crisis communication activities; soccer crisis mass media relations

strategies; and soccer crisis recovery measures.

All registered national professional and amateur soccer clubs involved in the National

Premier League (Globacom league, Pro. 1 and Amateur 1) in South-Eastern States of Nigeria

were utilized in the study (See Appendix B). This is because they are expected to play a role

model for other unregistered soccer teams in the country including South-Eastern States

especially about crisis management. Soccer Club Officials and Team Captains in South-

Eastern States participated in the study.

The study covered the South-Eastern States of Nigeria. South-Eastern States of

Nigeria include five states in the Igbo speaking region of the old Eastern region of Nigeria.

The states include: Enugu State, Anambra State, Imo State, Abia State and Ebonyi State.

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

This chapter presents the report of the review of literature to this study. It appears

there is a dearth of literature on crisis management in sports generally and specifically among

soccer clubs especially in Nigeria. Available literature is mostly concentrated in organizations

outside sports in the developed countries. The literature was therefore adapted into the present

study. Reviewed literature relevant to the present study is presented under the following

subheadings:

1. Conceptual Framework

(a) Crisis

(b) Causes of crisis

(c) Type of crisis

(d) Public relations

(e) Precipitating factors to crisis among soccer club

(f) Management

(g) Crisis management

(h) Crisis management in sports

(i) Crisis management in soccer clubs

(j) Crisis management objectives

(k) Crisis management plan

(l) Crisis response strategies

(m) Crisis communication activities

(n) Crisis mass media relations strategies

(o) Crisis recovery measures

2. Theoretical Framework

(a) Crisis intervention approach

(b) Scientific management approach

(c) Management By Objectives (MBO)

3 Empirical Review of Literature

4 Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Crisis

The meaning of crisis varies from one field to another. Historians, sociologists,

political scientists, psychologists, medical and public relations practitioners view it

differently. This might be the reason why Sills (1972) described it as a lay term in search of

scholarly meaning. Consequently, it is synonymously treated with stress, panic, catastrophe,

disaster, or potential crisis. In the medical connotation Sills described crisis as an unfortunate

change in the state of an organism.

Some scholars like Weiner and Kahn (1982) looked at crisis from its procedural

definitions and identified elements that occur in any crisis. According to them, a crisis is often

a turning point in an unfolding sequence of events and actions. It threatens the goal and

objectives of those involved as well as heightens urgency, which often produces stress and

anxiety among participants. Miller and Iscoe (1983) reviewed the traits of crises used in

psychological and sociological studies. They believed that a crisis situation is acute rather

than chronic although its length is usually unspecified. They viewed crisis as a threat to goals

set by persons involved. Both studies by Weiner and Kahn (1982) and Miller and Iscoe (1983)

identified the same traits of crisis. The studies listed threat to set goal and pathological effects,

such as frustration and anxiety as some of the traits of crisis. Both studies adhere to a bias that

appears in scholarly writing that crisis is something to be avoided.

North (1983) defined crisis as a turning point that distinguishes the outcome of an

event favourable or unfavourable, between life or death, crisis or non-crisis and resolution or

protracted conflict. Sills (1972) revealed that in crisis, the stakes may be violent or non-

violent, economic stability or instability, varying degree of organizational growth or demise,

personal well-being or illness inter alia.

Crisis according to Lesly (2000) is a stage at which all future events affecting a person

or an organization will be determined. He believed that crisis is a major turning point

resulting in permanent drastic change and it is more crucial than most issues or emergencies.

He agreed with North (1983) that crisis has both positive and negative valences or scores as a

change agent or factor in organizational management. Lesly (2000) indicated also that crisis is

one of the most effective agents of change imaginable. This is because according to him, crisis

helps to improve a situation or destroy it, depending on the measures taken to address it.

Nwosu (1996) is of the opinion that a crisis for any individual, group or organization is

a serious threat to its existence with which it has to deal quickly in order to minimize its

consequences. He further observed that managers making decisions within an organization in

crisis are subjected to high level of stress as they are forced to take decisions under pressure,

often with insufficient information. He therefore defined crisis as a dangerous and difficult

situation that could lead to a turning point for better or for worse. He emphasized that crisis is

a breach in the natural order of things; an aberration in the system or a disruptive force that

could destroy the system or organization.

14

Hessert (2000) defined crisis as a turning point for better or for worse, a decisive

moment or a crucial time. He is of the opinion that crisis is brought on by an issue or event

that has potential for wide spread, long impact and requires the attention of senior level

executives and administrators within an organization. Bernstein (2002a) on his part defined

crisis as an unstable or crucial time or state of affairs whose outcome will make a decision

different for better or worse. Encarta (2008) defined crisis as a situation or period in which

things are very uncertain, difficult or painful, especially a time when action must be taken to

avoid complete disaster or breakdown. In the present study, crisis is defined as a moment of

great danger, difficulty or a turning point for better or for worse. Riegel (1995) looked at one

side of life events as a process in which sudden unexpected crises are perceived as

unpredictable disruptions that do not play significant role in development. He also looked at

another angle as progressing through discrete, qualitatively different stages with crisis and

catastrophes as necessary steps in the process. In other words, when a crisis results to a

positive change, in an organization, it is acceptable as a necessary step in the process.

However, when it results to a negative change or disruptions, it is not accepted as playing a

significant role in development. Nwosu (1996) identified two major types of crisis as violent

and non-violent crises. According to him, violent crisis is usually cataclysmic, immediate and

involving loss of life. It can be exemplified with earthquakes, fire disasters, chemical leaks,

large-scale industrial accident, sports crisis and explosions (like bombs). The non-violent

crisis in Nwosu (1996) opinion, tends to be less potentially dangerous or destructive. It can be

exemplified by epidemic, scandals, destructive propaganda or disinformation.

Caplan (1984) observed that crisis occurs when a person faces an obstacle to important

life goal that is for a time insurmountable through customary methods of problem solving. In

other words, crisis could arise from inability to identify and resolve issues and problems in

club soccer programmes or competitions. From the above discussions, crisis is seen as a

moment of great danger, difficulty or a turning point for (better or) worse. It threatens the

goals and objectives set by individuals and organizations (Golan, 1980), such as soccer clubs.

It also has the capability of destroying such individuals and organisations.

The issue of crisis in club soccer is increasingly becoming a global concern. Anyanwu

(1981), Onyewusi (1991), Mohammed (1998) and Agbanusi (2001) agreed that most soccer

crises emanate from players, team officials, match officials, fans and the media. Oyewusi

(1985) stated that everyday the report of one form of crisis or the other keeps on hitting the

soccer-sporting sphere. Even the developed nations of the world are not out of these

unfortunate acts. Aminu (1993) revealed that a typical instance was that of July, 1985, where

thirty-nine (39) lives were lost in the European cup final in Belgium between Britain and an

Italian club-side. No Violence (2003), reported on the incidents of soccer crisis in Europe,

America, Asia and Africa (especially in Nigeria and even in the South-Eastern States of

Nigeria under study). This report attracts the concern of sports administrators, club soccer

organisers, club owners and the general public over the number of lives and property lost

through violent-crisis during club soccer competition.

Types of crisis

The types of crisis experienced by soccer clubs are numerous including violent and

non-violent crises. Wenn (1989) identified the violent crises to include soccer violence,

accidents and severe injuries to players and officials as well as terrorism in soccer arena. .

Main (1985) enumerated non-violent crises to include boycott of matches, strikes by players

and officials for non-payment of salaries, allowances and match bonuses, scandals such as

sexual harassment of players and officials. Oyewusi (1991) added other forms of non-violent

crises among soccer clubs to include bribery and corruption, racism, match fixing,

disinformation whereby false information is given intentionally in order to hide the truth and

confuse people, and misinformation in which incorrect information is given to distort the fact.

Ogujiofor (2000) also identified disruptive propaganda, costly mistakes by officials and

players as well as protests and demonstrations by players and or officials (Patti, 2008).

Many incidents of crises have been recorded among soccer clubs in South-Eastern

states under study. No Violence (2000a) reported on the violent incident resulting to accidents

and severe injuries to participants in a match been Jasper United and Enugu Rangers in

Onitsha on 11 December, 2000 and Enymiba Football Cub (F. C.) and Jasper United fans also

in Onitsha on 8 May, 2001 (No Violence, 2001). Even in the 2007 Globacom Premier Soccer

League, Apu (2007) reported on many incidents of crises such as boycott of matches, match

fixing, demonstrations and crowd violence that left two fans dead and many others injured in

the match between Akwa United and Enyimba International F.C.of Aba on 27 March, 2007.

Solaja (2007) reported on match fixing in which the Vice Chairman of Rangers International

F.C. of Enugu, Mr. Ray Nnaji alleged a gang-up against his club which led to match fixing

and protest in the 2007 Nigerian Premier League.

Crisis during club soccer matches exposes both organisers and other participants to

various kinds of risks. Ukwayi (1998) observed that club soccer crisis exposes participants to

the risk of accidents, injuries, discomfort, disabilities and damage to property and sometimes

death. Oyewusi (1991) indicated that apart from the destruction of human lives and property,

cherished names of players, officials and soccer clubs are damaged by crisis as well as the

standard of the game. Main (1985) expressed that some soccer crisis such as violence and

terrorism can frighten soccer officials to the point of not being fair, firm and friendly.

According to Wenn (1989), soccer administrators and sports organisers may become afraid of

arranging soccer matches and spectators can be frightened to the state of boycotting live-

games.

It might be because of the above consequences that Wenn (1989) reported that in

1985, the Sports and Recreation Ministers’ Council (SRMC) meeting held in Australia

declared excessive violent-behaviour in club soccer and other forms of sports crises generally

unacceptable. The ministers therefore recommended that strategies and intervention models

should be developed to prevent or reduce both violent and non-violent crises on and off the

playing field.

Public relations

Public relations management concept such as crisis management is currently being adapted

into sports to handle the problem of crisis. The Canadian Public Relations Society (1990)

defined Public Relations as the management function which evaluates public attitudes,

identifies the policies and procedures of an individual or organization with the public

understanding and acceptance. White (1991) defined it as the planned and sustained effort to

establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization and its

publics. The aims of Public Relations Management in White’s view are to establish and

sustain important relationship in order to influence the behaviour of groups of people

involved. The aims also include anticipation of trends, issues or events which may be

disruptive to those relations as well as take steps to minimise their impact. This is because an

issue or event such as crisis, emergency or disaster is usually a very public event, and

performance of any organisation caught in crisis is subject to immediate public scrutiny as it,

tries to deal with the many consequences of a crisis situation (White, 1991). The

organisation’s performance at such a time, in his opinion, will be remembered and in some

cases memories of how poorly it responded may sooner or later contribute to driving it out of

existence.

Causes of crisis

The causes of crisis in an organization or other establishments are numerous. Fink

(1986) enumerated various causes of crisis as individual or co-operate ego, natural mistakes

by managers or other workers, ignorance, non-preparedness, wrong or faulty decision-making

and conflict of interest. Robinson and Snyder (1983) had stated other causes of crisis to

include, inability to diagnose co-operate problems, non-existence of a crisis plan, poor

understanding and handling of the key stages in a crisis as well as poor crisis recovery. Lesly

(2000) is of the view that employee’s dissatisfaction, sexual harassment in work place, poor

personnel management and motivation; poor communication and inability to notice early

warning signs can lead to crisis. Crisis is therefore associated with life events such as club

soccer.

A study conducted by Leonard (1988) on both frequency and seriousness of club

soccer crisis revealed that most occurrences of club soccer crises emanate from players,

officials, coaches, fans, and spectators. The parents, soccer administrators and mass media

also contribute to what he describes as an epidemic of crises in club soccer. Literature

evidence points out several causes of crisis in club soccer. They include the nature of the

game of soccer which is a team contact sport, the hard core people that always fight during

soccer, broad social divisions, carry-over of international enmity, home team syndrome,

professional nature of soccer and low scoring level in soccer (Vanplew, 1987; Leonard, 1988

and Wenn 1989). The other factors are incompetent and biased officiating, the quest to win at

all cost (Anyanwu, 1981), poorly designed facilities, excessive consumption of alcohol during

competition, measuring performance with only winning, use of unregistered or non-bonafide

players, fans interception and climatic factors, (Mohammed 1998;Ukwayi 1998 and Agbanusi

2001). Oyewusi (1991) identified other causes of violent-crisis as bribery and corruption,

intentional infliction of injury on an opponent, and use of derogatory language among players

and official. Apu (2007) believed that match fixing, strikes by players and officials for non-

payment of salaries, allowances, and match bonuses to players and officials might also lead to

violent-crisis.

Leonard (1988) reported that violent-crisis is most prevalent in team contact sports

such as ice hockey, rugby and football. There are sports which are violent by nature such as

boxing, wrestling and martial arts, where physical attack is the point of the exercise. However,

their form of crisis is within the rules of the sport and the possibility of injury is well known to

participants. Wenn (1989) expressed that there is the scope for body contacts in soccer which

may be allowed within the rules resulting to unintentional violence such as a late tackles, high

tackles and tackles on player without the ball. He emphasized that these tactics can be, and are

used intentionally too, thereby attracting some consequences. He further indicated that in

fierce body contact sport, tempers are more likely to fray and this can affect spectators as well

as the participants.

Riches (1986) identified a hard core people in England, who see fighting as an internal

part of going to a match, who are led by proven fighters, frequently with local gang

connections and a record of crisis especially violence, outside the sporting context. He

stressed that these people are sometimes associated with extreme racist and right wing group.

Broad social divisions based on religion, culture and race also influence club soccer

worldwide (Wenn, 1989). According to him, there has been a number of race/culture related

incidents in club soccer competitions. On his part, Layman (1980) had observed that the

tendency to favour a particular team on the basis of tribe, tongue, race, colour or geographical

location is always there in club soccer. He explained that because of partisanship and vested

interest, some officials throw the rules of the game to the wind and openly display their partial

interest to the disregard of the opponent team, fans and spectators thereby exposing the game

to crisis.

Vamplew (1987) reported that there is a carry-over of local, national and international

enmity into club soccer. He expressed that this development not only leads to crisis, but also

holds back the sport of soccer. In Nigeria, teams like Rangers of Enugu, IICC shooting stars

of Ibadan and many others enjoyed fanatical support in their home bases (Mohammed, 1998).

This type of support in Mohammed’s view can result in hostile outburst because the fans see

success and failure of their team as personal success or failure.

The professional nature of club soccer contributes to crisis during competition. In a

highly professional sport like club soccer, Riches, (1986) indicated that victory can mean

significant monetary gains. A loss for the player could lead to being dropped to second grade

or division with commensurate reduction in match payments (Copeland, 1993). He expressed

that a string of a match loss could mean a sack for the coach, so there is often more at stake in

professional soccer than a mere match result.

The low-scoring level in soccer can result to crisis. Wenn (1989) stated that the

scoring level of the game of soccer could affect the level of the crisis displayed on or off the

field. He explained that in high-scoring sports such as basketball, American or Australian

football, an individual referee’s decision to award or disallow a score is not seen to be as

crucial as in low-scoring game like soccer. Such a decision in Wenn’s opinion is therefore

more likely to provoke an outburst from players and the crowd (fans and spectators).

The likelihood of crisis is exacerbated when officials are perceived to be incompetent

or biased. Fuller (1996) pointed out that the poor knowledge of the rules of the game by

officials can lead to faulty officiating which often times might result in crisis such as violence

and the officials beaten up by irate players and fans. He emphasized that official who

therefore has an individual group or team interest to protect in a particular competition would

tend to favour the team in his officiating.

Ukwayi (1998) reported that in soccer matches, some players or teams are so desperate

to win and more so at all cost that they offer inducements to the officials to buy them over for

favour or to allow them cheat. When this happens, Jones and Pooley, (1982) had indicated

that officiating becomes partial in favour of the team that offered bribe or inducement and this

may result to crisis.

Commer (1988) observed that poorly designed facilities with inadequate seating

capacities, leads to crowding, frustration and crisis during club soccer matches. The technical

crew is responsible to ensure that facilities, equipment and materials used for competition

meet standards (Napravnik, 1993). According to Napravnik, allowing players to wear

dangerous boots or other materials as well as the use of torn goal nets during competition can

result to misunderstanding and crisis.

When young male spectators engage in excessive consumption of alcohol during

soccer competition it might lead to soccer crisis. Main (1985) stated that young spectators’

misbehaviour during sports competition is widely recognized as highly related to alcohol

consumption and drug use. Again, club soccer crisis can occur from emotional

disorganisation, which may be caused by immediate or remote factors. Anyanwu (1981)

perceived that the anger from memory of hostile treatment meted on her citizens or team in a

foreign and or away match can be vented on a visiting team in a home match. He cited an

example with the case of a violent incident in the Nigeria – Ghana soccer match of February

1973 in Lagos.

Use of performance enhancing drugs is currently associated with club soccer crisis.

Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) according to Napravnik (1993) has

embarked on measures whereby players are randomly picked and tested for drugs after

matches to discourage the use of drugs. Commer (1988) indicated that the use of drugs by

players and athletes endanger aggressiveness and crisis. This is because under the influence,

the users deliberately engage in rough and foul play on opponents, thereby inflicting injuries

on them. This might infuriate supporters or fans and they may invade the pitch to carry out

revenge themselves causing confusion and this may result to crisis (Greraghty, 1994).

Today, winning is the yard-stick for measuring how well a club performs.

Performance is measured in terms of wins and losses and not necessarily whether a team

played well or not. When winning alone is over-emphasized, Anyanwu (1981) stressed that

the zeal to attain it precipitates some undesirable practices which negates some of the

cherished values and attributes of competitive sports. Again, many clubs in an attempt to win

at all cost in a match, go beyond the rules to field unregistered or non-bonifide players

(Mohammed, 1998). When the opposing team, fans or spectators dictate this, it might result to

misunderstanding and clashes leading to crisis.

Instances abound when soccer matches are abandoned uncompleted because of violent

interruptions from fans. Fans are involved in club soccer competition as a way of identifying

with a team and they lay an allegiance to the team (Fuller, 1996). When the odds are against

them, some over-zealous fans resort to violence as a way of venting their reactive aggression

on others thereby resulting to crisis.

Climatic factors such as lightening, stormy weather etc can interfere with the normal

play in club soccer. Agbanusi (2001) explained that these factors could give undue advantage

to a team against its opponent. This might trigger off complaints, protests or aggression

leading to crisis.

Despite the increased incidents, causes, and consequences of soccer crisis as well the

need for crisis management, remarkable attempt has not been made to prioritise crisis

management in sports or club soccer operations, (Obeirne and Ries, 2000), even in Nigeria.

Ukwayi (1998) reported that in Nigeria, no remarkable plans and preparations are made in

advance for soccer crisis among sports team. He cited an example to indicate an absence of a

crisis management plan or preparation for sports teams in Nigeria with the Green Eagle’s

strong defender Mr Godwin Odiye. He reported that Mr Odiye lost his football career through

a mistake he made by scoring against his country, Nigeria. According to him, this turned into

a serious crisis. Mr Odiye also received serious battering by both the media and the general

public thereby destroying his reputation, credibility and confidence, leading to the loss of his

football career. Ukwayi, believed that with a good plan and response strategies, the crisis

could have been prevented. However, if it had eventually occurred, the player and his team

would have responded adequately to the crisis thereby preventing the consequences. Crisis

management is therefore needed to address these dangerous and difficult situations and

possibly prevent soccer crisis before it occurs among soccer clubs in South Eastern States of

Nigeria.

Management

Beaver and Parker (1995) revealed that it is the responsibility of management to

address the issues and problems in an organization. In other words, club officials (both

management, technical and support crews) such as Team Managers, Coaches, Public

Relations Officers etc who play management and administrative roles in soccer clubs are

responsible for the management of soccer crisis.

Management according to Kreltner (1995) is a process of working with and through

others to achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment. Most accomplishments

of the society happen because group of people get involved in joint efforts (Donnelley (Jr.),

Gibson and Ivancevich, 1998). According to them, each time one participates in an organized

effort or receives the benefits of an organized effort, a manager of some sort is responsible for

achieving such results. They further indicated that managers are ultimately responsible for the

achievement of results and proffering solutions to problems through the specialized efforts of

other people. Grouws (1997) elaborated that the programme director of a campus club is a

manager, as is the chief executive of a bank, a governor, a college dean or a football coach.

What these individuals have in common is that they all manage or are involved in

management. Donnelley (Jr), Gibson and Ivancevich (1998) defined management as the

process undertaken by one or more individuals to co-ordinate the activities of others to

achieve results not achievable by one individual acting alone. According to Weihrich and

Koontz (1994), management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in

which individuals, work together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims. Bucher and

Krotee,(1998) explained that sports managers carry out the management functions of

planning, organizing, staffing, controlling, directing and co-ordinating men, materials,

machines and money so as to secure the optimum achievement of objectives. Management, in

their view, applies to all kinds of organization and to managers at all organizational level,

including sports. This may include club soccer managers in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

In the present study, management is viewed as the process of working with and

through the players, officials and other club staff to achieve club soccer objectives. On this

note, management is defined as a process adopted by club managers, coaches and other

officials to co-ordinate the activities of other club members to handle soccer crisis. This

process also involves the ability of the manager to foresee the future, plan and manage any

issue, eventuality, emergency, conflicts or crisis such as soccer crisis, during club soccer

programme or competition. When the management of an organization, such as a soccer club

in South Eastern States of Nigeria, works through the staff members and is deeply involved in

preventing, responding and recovering from a crisis, it could be referred to as crisis

management.

Crisis management

Crisis management is one of the areas of management in which Public Relations has

staked out a special interest and developed real expertise in sports. Fink (2000) described

crisis management as a new discipline in Public Relations management and likened it to risk

or emergency management. White (1991) stated that a crisis, emergency or disaster is usually

a very public event, and the performance of an organization caught in crisis is subject to

immediate scrutiny as it tries to deal with the many consequences of the crisis situation. He

stressed that the organizations performance at such a time would be remembered. In some

cases, memories of how poorly it managed or responded might sooner or later, contribute to

driving the organization out of existence. Crisis management is therefore defined by Nwosu

(1996) as an act of taking appropriate measures to prevent a crisis before it occurs as well as

control it will when it eventually occurs. O’beirne and Ries (2000) defined it as a process of

implementing strategies to counter the negative effects of an event or action that could

damage the well-being or reputation of an individual or an organization. The individual or

organization referred to above could be a player, official or a soccer club in South-Eastern

States of Nigeria. Crisis management is necessitated by the threat of crisis to the interest and

existence of an organization. This necessitates the organization to deal quickly with it in order

to minimize its consequences.

In time of crisis in sports, Ried (2002) stated that Public Relation contributes to

helping to maintain the athlete or team’s reputation throughout the period of the crisis. In his

view, this is partly achieved by the way the sports organization responds, and is seen to

respond to public and special group interests. By implication, Public Relation therefore plays

a central role in crisis management in sports generally and specifically in a soccer club.

Crisis management in sports

Crisis management role in dealing with sports crises, according to Ried (2002), can be

viewed from three perspectives. Firstly, it is an anticipatory practice and can assist sports

organization in crisis planning. In this case, effort is made by the team to predict and prepare

for possible crisis. Secondly, it is an important part of the overall sports management task at

time of crisis. Finally, it has a contribution to make in dealing with the aftermath of the crisis.

Successful sports managers, administrators and coaches according to Kreltner (1995),

are those ones who anticipate and adjust to changing circumstances rather than being

passively swept along or caught unprepared. Hessert (1999) indicated that sports managers,

administrators, coaches and therapists may be held personally liable if sports crisis is handled

improperly and if there is failure to act when action is clearly called for in order to ensure

safety.

O’beirne and Ries (2002) described crisis management in sports as a process in which

strategies are implemented to counter the negative effects of an event or action that can

damage the well-being or reputation of an individual athlete, team or sports organization.

They stressed that the need for crisis management arises in sports because of the great danger,

difficulty or negative situations in sports. These include severe injuries on the athletes or

officials, scandal of sexual harassment by officials, racism and violence (Hessert, 1998b;

Reid, 2002 and O’beirne and Ries, 2002). Club soccer is an aspect of sports that could be

affected by crisis or the great danger, difficult or negative situations, during club soccer

programmes or competitions.

Crisis management in club soccer

From the foregoing, it could be noted that in this study, crisis management in club

soccer in the practice of taking appropriate managerial action in order to prevent or counteract

the occurrence of crisis among soccer clubs. It could also involve efforts to control crisis well

when it occurs in club soccer. The crisis if not managed and properly too, could damage the

well-being and reputation of players, officials and other participants as well as the club itself.

This might be the reason why Hessert (1998b) maintained that for sports organizations to

effectively handle or beat a crisis, the organization needs to create a crisis management plan,

crisis response strategies, crisis communication, media relations, and crisis recovery for

individual, group or organization involved in the crisis. These major stages of crisis

management in sports are described by O’beirne and Ries (2000), as the three core functions

of crisis management, namely, prevention, response and recovery.

Crisis prevention as described by Nwosu (1996) means an act in anticipation of crisis

designed to make impossible, hinder or stop a crisis before it occurs. On the other hand, Reid

(2002) observed that taking appropriate measures to control crisis well when it occurs means

crisis response, in which case a reaction is made to counter the crisis event. He also noted that

the act or power of regaining balance of the former position or condition after the crisis is

regarded as crisis recovery.

Wright (1993) stated that management must learn to make management decisions and

accept uncertainty as part of their job. He suggested that management should be able to

foresee the future and plan for any eventuality, emergency, disaster, accident, conflict and

crisis. Fasan (1994) also suggested that managers should set objectives in areas that affect the

survival and prosperity of an organization and in measuring result. The Chief Coaches and the

Team Managers perform administrative roles and belong to the management group which

according to Hessert (2000) ought to understand the objectives of crisis management.

Objectives of crisis management S

The objectives of crisis management in sports according to Hessert (1998a) are to

identify the crises that could affect an organization early, apply the major processes of crisis

management, identify the preventive measures and adopt proactive approach. According to

Oberine and Ries 2000, and Reid 2002 , the objectives also include to reduce the incidence

and impact on individuals and organizations such as soccer clubs in South Eastern States of

Nigeria.

Crisis management plan

Planning for a crisis according to Nwosu (1991) is the key to corporate survival. Reid

(2002) agreed with him when he stated that thoughtful planning for a crisis is one of the

crucial aspects of crisis management very essential for the survival of any sports organization.

He also stated that the crisis management skills of the team managers or coaches are tested to

the utmost when they have to manage serious crises, which have the potential to disrupt the

ongoing operation of the organization.

White (1991) explained that planning for crisis involves thinking the unthinkable. This

means asking what would be the worst that could befall an organization. This is by identifying

various crises that could befall an organization. It also involves devoting sufficient time and

managerial attention to a list of things that can go wrong in the organization. He described

crisis planning as an anticipatory practice, which helps an organization and its senior

managers to foresee trends and predict events and issues, which may arise to disrupt important

relations. The Sports Media Challenge (1997) lamented that many sports organizations do not

see the need for crisis planning until a crisis occurs. Typical example is the sporting crisis of

the steroid charge against Richmond football player, Justin Charles in the Australian football

league (Cummins, 1998). In this case, the football club had no crisis management plan to

handle the crisis. This resulted to many negative consequences on the player and the club.

Parad (1997) described a crisis plan as a tool that equips employees of an organization

to respond quicker, better and with confidence. He emphasized that a crisis plan (easy-to-use

document) is placed prior to a negative situation. According to Jacobson (1980) the plan

contains well-defined organizational strategies, specific procedures to speed and improve

response measures. He believed that this helps to enhance a positive image, serve as a time

and money saving approach to a variety of problems as well as reduce liability. An effective

way to prevent potential crisis in a sports organization according to O’beirne and Ries (2000),

is to identify various scenarios that could affect the organization. Anticipating what to expect

and how to prepare, they are convinced that sports managers and coaches could develop a

plan of action that could be implemented quickly and effectively.

Hessert (2000) advised that sport organization and teams should not wait to experience

a crisis before they plan for it. The implication of the above advice is that soccer clubs need to

have a thoroughly developed set of crisis management plan for soccer crises, which occur

frequently during soccer programmes and competitions. Hessert further stressed that crisis

management plan involves the team and its senior managers and coaches developing a list of

things that could go wrong, which may lead to crisis. Bucher and Krotee (1998) explained

that sports managers carry out the management functions of planning, organizing, controlling

etc so as to secure the optimum achievement of objectives.

Successful managers according to Kreltner (1995) are those who are conversant with

the strategies and techniques of crisis management and ensure that other employees utilize

them in crisis. He explained that a crisis management plan is a brief detail of all the activities

for crisis prevention, response and recovery. He added that honestly assessing and adequately

preparing for the worst that is capable of happening help an organization determine when and

where to assign resources. In this wise, the organization will also more quickly and effectively

react to these events that might appear to be beyond her control. Stravros (1998) expressed

that sports teams that have invested the time and energy in crisis management plan process are

less likely to suffer from its consequences in case such a crisis occurs. However, White (1991)

observed that simply creating a plan and putting it on an office shelf is not enough. This is

because many people will not refer to the plan or remembers who to call for assistance during

the throes of a crisis. He suggested that team members should be trained to follow the crisis

management plan. This training may be applicable to soccer club members as well as other

club employees.

Identifying the keys to effective training in crisis management, (Berstein, 2002a)

indicated that it is necessary to train many team members on various aspects of crisis

management but effectively utilizing the core crisis management team. He insisted on making

the training interactive, informative, interesting and brief, ensuring that all participants

complete the training. This is because, according to him, participatory training increases

attention and retention especially for those with short attention span.

Register (1989) disclosed that an actual crisis management plan contains policy

statement which must be very strong, clear and reflect the position of the organization on the

crisis. Hessert (1998a) preferred a written plan than a brilliant one hatched in ones head. He

suggested putting the crisis management plan up-to-date once made and the actions rehearsed

from time to time. This is because failure to keep the plans up-to-date can slow the

organisation’s response in time of crisis (Grunig and Hunt, 1994) and wrong staff can be

assigned to key roles in case of staff changes. Hendric (1995) noted that senior management

may not have time to develop crisis plan but they will need to delegate this task to staff that

can return to them with workable schemes.

Team management must establish and staff the function of crisis management in

advance so that it can make the required contribution. Salu (1992) stated that an organisation

must set-up an effective crisis management decision-making unit generally regarded as the

crisis management team. According to him, the team is directed by the organizations public

relations group or spokesperson to provide advice and contribute to planning for the crisis.

This unit might also be necessary for club soccer crisis. The crisis management team,

according to Kreltner (1995), must include other staff members who make decisions on the

plan and their practicality. However, Kenndy (2003) maintained that it is the responsibility of

the Public Relations Officer or spokesperson in an organization to develop the plan. The

spokesperson therefore works with other members to establish and implement the plan.

Stravros (1998) suggested including the media personnel, security, medical team, technical

team and representative of the sports organising body in a sports crisis management team.

White (1991) admitted that the practical obstacle to crisis planning are that it is time-

consuming and its relevance to the immediate day-to-day requirements of running an

organisation will probably not be recognized until crisis occurs. However, Reid (2002) stated

that sports teams that have invested the time and energy in crisis management plan process are

less likely to see their problems on the front page of the local newspaper. In case they do, he

expressed that they are more likely to survive the crisis with their image and reputation intact.

The sports teams indicated here might be soccer clubs in South-Eastern of Nigeria.

Hessert (1998a) summarized the crisis management plan for sports organisation as

follows: identify the sports crisis; determine the plan, response and recovery to be applied as

well as procedure and strategies; determine the causes of the sports crisis and how it can be

prevented. The other plans according to him are to re-assess the previous similar sport crisis

or events; determine the things done right or wrong; select a crisis response team; train the

team also on crisis communication and media relations and determine how individual athletes

or players, officials and teams can recover from the crisis as well as other damage control.

Soccer clubs in South-Eastern States could adopt or adapt this plan for soccer crisis.

A good crisis management plan also involves having a crisis counseling plan that

counselors can follow (Swain, 2001), mostly immediately after a traumatic event, such as a

club soccer crisis. Paine and Sprague (2000) pointed out that a good crisis management plan

must contain all that is required in the management of a crisis. According to them, the plan is

followed by crisis response strategies that could help to reduce the impact of the crisis on the

organisation.

Crisis management response strategies

In the response stage of crisis management, Helitzer (1992) revealed that the crisis

management team must be conversant with the crisis response strategies designed to address

the crises that might arise in an organisation. Tymson and Sherman (1996) stated that after the

initial planning, the managers and administrators should prepare to face the most challenging

crises. sAccording to them, the response stage of crisis management calls for implementation

of all planned crisis response strategies. This stage in their opinion includes the crisis

communication and keeping a supply of information kit available for media reporters. The

above submission agrees with that of Hessert (1998b) that the crisis response strategies

involve developing and implementing action stages of response during a crisis. In his opinion,

it also involves good crisis communication and media relations. Tymson and Sherman (1996)

also elaborated that this stage involves immediate, medium and long-term responses. This

could imply that soccer clubs should develop and implement all planned crisis response

strategies during soccer crisis especially in South-Eastern States under study.

The immediate response strategies to soccer crisis according to Mohammed (1998) are

for the team leaders to assemble their members quickly to safety; urgently rescue and

evacuate all casualties and inform specific groups of the danger and consequences of the

situation. Bernstein (2002a) outlined the crisis response activities proposed by the

Professional Public Relations Practitioners as determine the fact of the crisis; prepare an initial

statement that cover all that is definite; co-ordinate forces to implement specific job and

provide the media with all the fact that are available. The other response activities according

to Margulies (2002) include, notifying key stakeholders; handling media inquires; controlling

media coverage and selecting and briefing employees for media interview. Adesanya (1997)

reported that employees of sports teams are often sought after by the media for comments

during crisis. For this reason, he suggested that these employees need to be fully briefed and

available to the media. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria need to note these

crisis response strategies in order to effectively handle soccer crisis.

In the event of a crisis, O’beirne and Ries (2002) stated that team managers should

quickly call team members into crisis talk to reveal the details of the incident. This talk, in

their opinion, ensures that the members are protected from the waiting media. They also

expressed that team owner and sponsors and other key publics are informed of the key details

of the crisis and a statement issued to the media confirming the crisis. According to them, the

statement promises more information when full investigation is undertaken. They summarised

the sports manager’s crisis response strategies as, investigate, restrict athletes’ access, confirm

details, issue public statement and consider further options. These strategies could be adapted

for soccer crisis among clubs in South- Eastern States of Nigeria..

The Sports Media Challenge (1997) disclosed that an important crisis response

strategy is keeping a supply of information kit available for the media reporters. This is

because the media might use other unreliable sources to get their information. Bernstein

(2001) discouraged the hoarding of information from the media and the internal audiences

during crisis. He indicated that these groups might get their facts from wrong sources or even

from the local newspaper first.

A crisis distorts the routine process of decision-making in an organization (White,

1991), thereby making management under this situation to be under stress during response.

The management, in this situation, consequently makes decisions in a haste, with incomplete

information; resulting to poor decision and error that can return to haunt the group making the

decision. He therefore suggested pre-planning for actions to be taken in the response stage as

it helps to reduce the stress associated with decision-making under such situation. It is also

good for every member of a sports team to be aware of his response to a crisis (Sports Media

Challenge, 1997). This awareness might be vital to club soccer members in crisis. According

to the Sports Media, these members should learn to use reassuring statements to support their

team during crisis. The Sports Media also insisted on personally briefing all the employees in

word or writing about what is happening, keeping them also informed about future

development about the situation. Pre-planning for response actions could also be necessary for

soccer crisis in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

Salu (1992) observed that an important response activity is to identify and utilize the

best spokesperson during crisis. He suggested creating a rumour-control system. This entails

providing means by which the members of an organization can ask questions and get rapid

responses during crisis especially from the officials of the crisis response team. Soccer clubs

might also identify and utilize the best spokesperson during soccer crisis.

What the management is judged on during crisis according to Lesly (2000) is the

timeliness of his response. He believes that the most strategic response should be as quickly as

possible rather than letting it dragged out for days, weeks or months. Strategic response to

club soccer crisis could also be as quickly as possible. Dwyer, Osher and Warger (1998) gave

the IRA strategy for crisis response as I for influence, R for responsibility and A for

accountability. On influence, they indicated that the management of an organization must

exact influence over any crisis situation. For responsibility, the management must consider it

her responsibility to proactively represent themselves, the employees and the organization

during crisis and portray them accurately. On accountability, the management team must

make themselves accountable for all they say or not say, do or do not do. In their view,

management should also be accountable for finding a solution to the crisis. The IRA could be

used in developing crisis response strategy for club soccer crisis in South-Eastern States of

Nigeria.

Being honest and sincere in all the statements made during crisis in the opinion of

Cummins (1998) is a good response strategy. He also stated that the spectators, fans and the

general public can tell if a coach or player is not honest or sincere from their responses. He

suggested it is better to join hands in solving the problem of crisis rather than pointing fingers

and blaming others. Honesty and sincerity could be necessary in all statements during soccer

crisis among the clubs.

Heil (1993) observed that trained personnel are better utilized in crisis response. Paine

and Sprague (2000) identified these personnel in sports as the team spokesperson,

psychologist and crisis counselor. These individuals according to them give attention, support

and intervention to victims of crisis. These personnel could be used for response in soccer

crisis. The other important crisis response strategies according to Gozalex-Herrero and Pratt

(1995) are investigation to determine the causes of the crisis, keeping up to date records of all

events and evaluation of the organizations responses. These strategies could be adapted for

club soccer crisis in the states.

Paine (1994) stated that during crisis, sports organization adopt calm, controlled and

studied reaction to the crisis. This according to him is necessary even when an organization’s

action or inaction leads to the crisis. He believed that taking a calm and studied approach

works best. This is because a studied action is carefully planned and it is not spontaneous but

natural and therefore it is preferred. Paine and Sprague (2000) maintained that it is good for

the sports managers and coaches to take their time, maintain their focus and control the pace

during crisis. They explained that if they lose their cool, they might lose control of the

situation. The Sports Media Challenge (1997) summarized this thus: the sports team must be

alert, positive, keep calm and controlled in crisis and when facing the media. Soccer clubs in

South-Eastern States of Nigeria could also adopt these approaches during crisis.

Crisis communication activities

Crisis communication is an important crisis response strategy (Newson and Carrell,

1991). They explained that important relations are managed at time of crisis by paying

attention to communication and the way information about the crisis is managed. They further

stated that an organization must identify and know her audiences. They gave the five tenets of

crisis communication as prompt, compassionate, honest, informative and interactive. Ried

(2002) identified the 4Rs that form the basics of crisis communication as Regret, Reform,

Responsibility, and Restitution. In explanation, Ried stated that team managers and coaches

should inform the stakeholders that they regret the terrible incident (such as soccer crisis) that

had happened. Although a team might not be responsible for the crisis but it takes

responsibility to ensure that the incident is handled properly and in the shortest possible time.

The team also engages in restitution to compensate for acts, which might have contributed to

the crisis. Newson and Carrell (1991) had opined that for a crisis to be properly handled, there

must be restitution in form of compensation for contributory acts that led to a loss, damage, or

injury during the crisis. This is to attempt to return the situation to the condition it was before

the change was caused by the crisis. In reform, the team engages in activities that will help to

amend the damages and ensure that there is no future occurrence. These basics of crisis

communication could also be adapted for club soccer crisis in the states.

Effective communication in crisis has been shown by research and experience to be at

the heart or center of effective crisis management (Nwosu, 1990). He therefore recommended

consistent and persistent communication, day in day out to encounter crisis to emerge with

success. Hessert (2000) outlined some of the steps in crisis communication to include,

identifying the crisis communication team, the team spokesperson and establishment of a team

communication protocols. He suggested preparing the crisis communication message in

advance rather than when under pressure of an actual crisis. This suggestion might be

necessary in club soccer crisis.

Crisis communication according to Kesler (1999) involves identifying the

organisation’s audiences and key messages, and getting adequate information about a crisis

(Nwosu, 1992) so that rapid communication is made to send information that each audience is

looking for. According to the Sports Media Challenge (1997), every team member should be

aware of how others perceive and feel about him and his team at all times. It is therefore

necessary to address their feelings first before the facts during crisis. The Sports Media

suggested making ones answer to the audience or publics colourful and giving them

something to remember. Newson and Carrell (1991) stated that one of the five tenets of crisis

communication is being compationate, in which case management considers the reality that

addressing feeling is often more important initially than addressing facts. Reid (2002)

suggested that team manager, coach or the spokesperson should inform their stakeholders

immediately during a crisis that they regret the terrible incident that had happened and they

are doing all within their powers to arrest the situation. This, according to him, is to take care

of their feelings before revealing the facts of the crisis case. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern

States could adopt these communication approaches during crisis.

Vestheim (1992) stated that it is also important to decide on the organization’s

communication methods. He identified two ways of communicating about a crisis situation as

internal and external communication. Beinstein (2002b) explained that the employees of an

organisation, business owners, share-holders, parents, sponsors etc can be briefed in person, or

sent letters, newsletters, phone calls or attend one-on-one briefings and press conferences. The

Sports Media Challenge (1997) indicated that people likely to be the principal participants in

the communication must be identified. The decision on what media to use in a sports crisis,

according to the Sports Media, is also necessary such as memos, closed circuit television,

computer terminals, telephones or whatever is likely to work in a given crisis situation.

Reid (2002) disclosed that it is good to have a communication procedure. This is to

avoid severe credibility problem that develops when messages fail to match the internal and

external audiences. In his view, a system should be created to check message statements in

crisis. Internal messages, in his opinion, are developed first for the sports employees and the

external composed from the first for the media and general public. Paine (1994) proposed that

the most strategic step to take in crisis communication is to have only one person

communicating with the news media and other external audiences. This approach could be

adapted for club soccer crisis. Even when a sports team sometimes used many spokespersons

in crisis communication, the Sports Media Challenge (1997) suggested that it is wise to

determine who the principal spokesperson is. This is to co-ordinate the message so that they

never conflict or contradict themselves.

There are long and short term projects, according to Paine and Sprague (2000), in

crisis communication and the key to successful communication in both cases is maintaining

credibility. The short-term project according to them involves immediate information

disseminated to control the crisis. As crisis stories live beyond the event, they opined that a

long-term project is necessary to cover the aftermath. These projects could be adapted for club

soccer crisis.

Mass media relations strategies

The mass media has always become the major player in a crisis. Cummins (1998)

observed that the media is a major player in crisis and the seriousness of a crisis is determined

by the media industry’s reaction to the crisis. He disclosed that effective use of the media

during crisis has numerous benefits. This includes good opportunity to correct wrong

information; misinformation and wrong assumptions. Failure to relate well with the media, in

his view, makes the organization look out of control of the situation. Helitzer (1992) revealed

that sports organization develops and implements a well written media policy outlining who

could speak to the media for the organization on key issues and during crisis. Dwyer, Osher

and Wager (1998) disclosed that it is necessary for a sports team to have a written media

policy and clear procedural guideline for players, officials, and other members during crisis.

They believe that a coach’s attitude and personal media rules strongly influence players.

Hessert (1999) explained that media policy includes instruction for everyone from the

managers to the technical advisers, coaches, others team officials and players on how to

politely direct media calls to designated spokesperson who are available 24 hours a day. He

suggested that a team should have a draft written pre-approved responses that could be

provided to the media in case they come up with similar or related questions about the crisis.

Coakley (1990) indicated that team members such as Coaches, Officials, and other

team employees of a sports organization are key links with the team’s publics. The

organization therefore has to brief the team members not only about what is happening to the

team but also what to say about the crisis before the organisation contacts the media. Wilcox,

Ault and Agee (1989) are of the opinion that an organization should inform the employees of

each new development about the crisis advising them that they can help the organization

overcome the crisis by staying focused and honestly serving the supporters and key publics.

Margulies (2002) is of the view that an organization should anticipate likely questions from

the media and prepare suitable answers. He advised that it is better to avoid speculation and

always comment on what an employee knows about the crisis.

Coakley (1990) is of the view that team managers, coaches and the spokesperson

need to build and sustain good cordial relationship with the media men and women (both

reporters and editors). He also observed that even though the media are too inquisitive and too

suspicious, he advised that the public relation officer or spokesperson in a team, needs to learn

how to live and work with this posture among news people. This is because these approaches

are the demands and the very nature of the profession of journalism. The team managers and

coaches therefore need the media more during crisis in order to keep the event under control.

When an organization works harmoniously with the media, Wilcox Ault and Agee (1989)

stated that the reporters and editors may likely and always publish their materials and write

good articles about the organization.

Embry and Flannery (1994) stressed that an organization in crisis should give accurate

information to the media about the crisis. This is because the honesty and sincerity of the

management make an impression that reflects in the coverage of the crisis story. Helitzer

(1992) had indicated that accurate information to the media helps to correct rumour and

wrong information before they contribute to heighten the crisis or cause much damage. Again

Cummins (1998) expressed that high level of sincerity is essential during crisis as the

spectators, fans, the general public and the media can tell if the coach or player is sincere or

not from the information he gives. He advised that it is better to answer only the questions

asked by the media rather than giving unnecessary information that may be detrimental.

Bernstein (2002) insisted that it is reasonable to be diplomatic in dealing with the media. He

explained that it is not the best approach to comment on the crisis events if one is not sure of

the facts of the case in question. According to him, it is rather better to respond only to media

questions in which there are enough facts about the crisis. Magulies (2002) suggested that

individuals anticipate likely questions from the media and prepare suitable answers as well as

comment only on what they know and avoid speculations. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern

States could adopt these strategies in dealing with the media during crisis.

Hessert (1998) stated that it is better to understand who the audience is during media

interview so that rather than address the journalist, address the viewers, readers or listeners on

the crisis. In doing this, he suggested that the spokesperson should use words and analogies

the interviewer and the audience can understand and relate to; avoiding jargons and

contradicting statements. Magulies (2002) also stated that in dealing with the news media the

interviewee should precisely explain his points on the crisis to an average viewer, reader or

listener.

The attention from the media during crisis can be a great public relations tool or a

thorn in the flesh (Sports Media Challenge, 1997). The Sports Media also reported that team

members are briefed on media reports on the crisis so that they will have vital and first hand

information from the organization before the members are confronted by the media or the

general public. This again helps the team members to keep their thoughts clear and words in a

concise manner to avoid being misquoted and misunderstood. The team also speaks in one

voice when they are briefed and they can confidently correct inaccurate facts and assumptions

portrayed by the media when the opportunity calls. Bernstein (2002) believed that employees

are critical audiences and are public relations representatives for the organization and

therefore should be well informed about the crisis especially on media reports.

Helitzer (1992) noted that it is better for sports organizations to deliver press releases

or articles personally to newsmen and see if they need more information or clarification on the

incident. This, in his opinion, will help the media interview the organization (or spokesperson)

on the releases to get additional or special angles that may interest their medium and audience.

Gonzalex-Herrero and Pratt (1995) revealed that media men detest any attempt to make them

publish materials that run contrary to their news policies and professional practice. It is

therefore necessary according to Wright (1993) to discover what indeed the news media like

or dislike even among soccer clubs.

The Sports Media Challenge (1997) indicated that there is need to maintain both the

image of the individual athletes, coaches, and other officials as well as the team during crisis.

It believed that a positive image breeds donations and sponsorships. The Sports Media

therefore expressed that a team’s spokesperson (even in soccer clubs) should be well-trained

in media relations, public speaking and networking skills. This is because he is held

accountable for maintaining the image of the individual members and the organization. The

Sports Media encouraged the team’s spokesperson to maximize his media exposure in a way

that will enhance the team during crisis. Lee (1985) is of the opinion that not only the

spokesperson should be trained but also all the team members should receive media training.

This training might also be necessary for soccer club members in South-Eastern States of

Nigeria..

The most stressful times for a sports manager or coach according to Onyewadume

(1993) are when his team is competing and when it is faced with a crisis. The way he looks

sounds and acts on the sideline gives the impression about the real person. He suggested that

the coach should possess and maintain a positive image, which in his opinion, serves as a

safety net when a team is the subject of negative media attention. He advised that the

spokesperson should choose his words carefully in crisis and keep his cool. This attitude could

be adopted by the club’s spokesperson during soccer crisis.

Attention from the media during crisis can be a great public relation tool or a thorn in

the flesh (Paine and Sprague, 2000). This makes it imperative that the administrator

understands every angle of the crisis story. Bernstein (2000) advised the administrator to take

his time, maintain his focus and control the pace whenever a reporter fires a question quickly

at him on the event. Debendotte (1998) suggested that the administrator keeps his thoughts or

statements clear and concise to avoid being misquoted. He also suggested briefing the

employees on the main statements or mission statements of the organization about the

incident. Clear, concise and consistent statements might be necessary in club soccer crisis.

As team members prepare the body and mind to win on the field, Nwabuikwu (1997)

observed that they should also be prepared to manage the media as they can help them

accomplish their goals or assist them when the focus is negative. Kesler (1999) noted that it is

good to admit when ones team is wrong even in the face of the media. This according to him

makes one human and more believable to the media and the general public. He advised team

leaders to use media interviews to correct inaccurate information and assumptions especially

about negative news or crisis. This advice could be adopted by club administration for club

soccer crisis.

Crisis recovery measures

Crisis recovery according to Reid (2002) is a public relations activity which attempts

to repair the damage that has been done to individuals and organization, involved in a crisis

and possibly bring them back to their normal operating condition. According to Black (1989),

public relations activities in the aftermath of a crisis attempt to repair the damage that has

been done to individuals and the organization or to capitalise on the opportunities the crisis

has thrown up. Bernstein (1984) opined that after a crisis, the crisis recovery activities are

directed towards rebuilding relationships and the organizations position. The organizations

indicated here could be soccer clubs. Bernstein also revealed that how an organization

manages public relations in time of crisis can also have long-term consequences as it deals

with the aftermath. He believed that the organizations responses would be remembered, and

may even be cited as evidence against it, if the crisis results in some form of public enquiry.

Riches (1986) had disclosed that organizations must accept responsibility for the

consequences of a crisis. The Sports Media Challenge (1997) added that a sports team that

tries to deny responsibility for the consequences of a crisis before evidence has been weighed,

may find it has little support or sympathy from the public when it comes to look for it again.

The Sports Media also indicated that victims suffering from injuries or loss should be properly

handled or treated and compensated as crisis recovery measures. This might include victims

of club soccer crisis. The Sports Media condemned a situation where victims are inadequately

treated or abandoned after sustaining severe injuries or disability.

On this note, Ojeme (1993) recommended for provision of insurance coverage for

players and officials especially during sports competitions. Godon, (1990) described insurance

as a risk management process or mechanism in which some measures of the uncertainty of

loss or damage is shifted from one person to another. Ojeme explained that insurance

functions to assist people in sharing the burden of the risk and hazards in our daily lives in the

event of an injury, damage or loss occurring. Jefkins (1988) expressed that insurance is a

crisis recovery measure adopted by many individuals and organizations to take care of victims

of accidents and other uncertainties, which result to injury, damage or loss. Hence, if club

members are insured, they stand the chance of benefiting from the policy in the event of a

debilitating injury or loss during club soccer crisis.

Restoring the organizations public confidence after a crisis in the opinion of Black

(1989) is an essential part of crisis recovery activities. He warned that an organization which

is so damaged by the events of a crisis or which behaved so poorly during a crisis, that public

confidence is lost, may not be able to regain public support and may be forced out of

existence. White (1991) added that where damage has been serious during a crisis, the task of

public relations would be to help in rebuilding relations and reputation. This task, in his view,

involves addressing defects in performance and then informing important groups at every

opportunity that the problem, which gave rise to the crisis, has been addressed. This task

could also be carried out during club soccer crisis. This might be why Cummins (1998) noted

that in rebuilding relations and reputations after a crisis, the sports teams address defect in

performance of players, match and team officials, teams or clubs, media, security agencies

and the overall organization of the game.

Paying continuous attention to the organizations multiple publics is one of the

essential tasks in crisis recovery (Gozalex-Herrero & Pratt, 1995). They believed that it is

necessary to continue to monitor the problem until the intensity is reduced. Wilcox, Adult and

Agee (1995) observed that another task is to inform the media of the action the organization is

taking to solve the problem or manage the crisis. These tasks might be necessary in club

soccer crisis.

Long-term communication strategy is identified by Jefkins (1988) as an important

crisis recovery measure. He explained that crisis communication does not end as a response

strategy, rather, it continues after the crisis, extending to the final decision and resolution of

the crisis. He further explained that long-term communication is necessary because

stakeholders and key publics would want to know the outcome of the crisis. They would also

want to know where blames were apportioned, the weight of punishment to offenders or fines

imposed. Abdal-Haqq (1989) expressed that spectators, fans, officials; families of players and

the general public are interested in the outcome of soccer crisis. Most times, he stressed that

they are worried and make enquiries when information about a brutal or violent incident is not

forthcoming. Long-term communication strategies could also be adopted for soccer crisis to

cover both final decision and resolution of a soccer crisis case.

Gozalex-Herrero and Pratt (1995) indicated that one of the tasks in crisis recovery is

to continue to pay attention to the organizations multi-publics, monitor and follow-up the

crisis events until its intensity is reduced on individual and the organization (such as a soccer

club). The follow-up activities according to them include long-term communication strategy.

According to O’beirne and Ries (2000) the follow-up activities also include implementing

effective damage control strategies.

Stravros (1998) noted that keeping an up to date records of events during a crisis and

thereafter is an important crisis recovery measure. These records could also be necessary

during club soccer crisis. He revealed that when memories of the past events fail, records

appear to be the only source for establishing the facts of the case and the missing link.

Victims of crisis receive counseling services. According to Swain (2001), counseling

professionals take actions in emergency situations and counsel for trauma suffered after a

traumatic event (like violent soccer crisis). Crisis counseling according to him takes place

immediately after a traumatic event and it is carried out by counseling professionals different

from other types of counseling. Ivan (2003) observed that for violent behaviour, it is

necessary to stay calm, notify law enforcement agencies as soon as possible, secure the area,

move to safety if need be and make arrangements for trauma counseling. These measures

might be necessary for management of soccer crisis. Fink (2000) also disclosed that part of

the aim of trauma counseling is to prevent post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Swain

(2001) expressed that counseling in crisis especially trauma victims involve reassuring victims

that what they are feeling and thinking are perfectly normal reaction to the traumatic event.

Another essential aspect of crisis recovery is the evaluation of the crisis management

plan, strategies and responses (Kennedy, 2003). According to him, a comprehensive crisis

recovery provides for evaluation of both the crisis plan, if one existed, and how the strategies

and responses worked. This evaluation is also an assessment of how management and

employees responded to the situation. Fink (2000) observed that an organisation can soon

recover from a crisis, if it is able to identify the importance of evaluation of its crisis

management plan and if it implements effective damage control strategies. Fink described

evaluation here as an investigation inform of research to assess the extent to which the crisis

management objectives have been achieved. This, in his view, will help to determine the areas

of strength and weaknesses in the plan, strategies and responses for improvement. This

assessment might be necessary in club soccer crisis.

Feedback from the crisis evaluation in the opinion of Dyson and Turco (1997) is

incorporated into the crisis management plan to improve present and predict future

occurrences and performance. They suggested crisis-response evaluation to be carried out

within two weeks of a crisis. They also emphasized that crisis response team should elicit

feedback on the strength and weaknesses of their responses as a recovery strategy to improve

future responses. Feedback from evaluation of occurrences and performance may be

necessary in club soccer crisis.

On this note, O’beirne and Ries (2000) expressed that while evaluating its crisis

management plan; response and recovery strategies, the athletes and teams should carry on

with business as usual so as not to lose focus of its business purpose. This measure might be

necessary in club soccer crisis. They warned about dwelling on past mistakes that only

intensify the damage the crisis has on individuals and teams (including soccer clubs). Fig.1

below shows the Conceptual Framework of Soccer Crisis Management Model for Soccer

Clubs.

Fig 1: Conceptual Framework of Soccer Crisis management Model for Soccer Clubs

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework upon which this study is based includes the crisis

intervention approach, scientific management theory, and theory of management by

objectives. Crisis intervention approach was developed by Parad, Kalpan and Rapoport at the

Harvard School of Public Health (Minaham, 1987). The basic tenets, on which the crisis

intervention approach to direct practice rests, are drawn from the initial work of Lindeman

and Caplan, and expanded and amplified by Parad, Kaplan, Rapoport and Jacobson.

Crisis intervention approach

Crisis intervention approach is a recognized, acceptable and valid form of first-time

intervention with individuals, family or group in crisis. It is on the basic tenets of the crisis

intervention approach that the present study is anchored. Minaham (1987) postulated that an

individual (group or organization) is subjected to internal or external pressure that disturbs his

customary state of equilibrium with the surrounding environment. This condition is initiated

by some hazardous events, which was built up over time. The impact of the hazardous events,

according to him, disturbs the individual’s (or group’s) state of equilibrium and puts him into

a vulnerable state with heightened tension and anxiety.

Soccer Programme or Competition

Causes of Soccer Crisis

Soccer Crisis

Soccer Crisis Management Process

Violent Crisis Non-Violent Crisis

Soccer Crisis Management Objectives

Soccer Crisis Management Plan

Soccer Crisis Management Response Strategies

Soccer Crisis Communication Activities

Soccer Crisis Mass Media Relations Strategies

Soccer Recovery Measures

Soccer Crisis Management Model

In order to regain equilibrium, he indicated that the individual (or group) attempts to use some

customary repertoire of problem solving mechanism to deal with the situation. If the problem

persists and can not be resolved, tension rises to the peak. At this point, he expressed that a

precipitating factor can act as a turning point to push the individual (or group) into a state of

active crisis marked by disequilibrium, disorganization and immobility. This is followed by a

period of gradual re-integration until a new equilibrium is reached. These five elements, in his

opinion, such as hazardous events, vulnerable state, precipitating factor, state of active crisis

and reintegration identify the crisis situation. However, it is pertinent to indicate that some of

the non-violent crises may not be able to develop through all the stages of crisis described

above.

The implication of the crisis intervention approach to the present study is that club

soccer crisis is a crisis situation. It is a hazardous event that affects a soccer club and disturbs

its state of equilibrium or normal operation. Soccer crisis may arise suddenly or may have

been built up over time. If the factors that might lead to soccer crisis are not checked or

managed properly through any customary repertoire of problem solving mechanism, the

participants might be put into a vulnerable state. Tension and anxiety will continue to rise to

the peak among the club members, fans and spectators. Any of the precipitating factors like

unfair play, poor officiating etc during the competition could act as a turning point to push the

club into a state of active crisis. This may be marked by disequilibrium, disorganization and

confrontation among the club members, spectators and fans. This could result to

misunderstanding, clashes, accidents, injuries, discomfort, deformity, disability or damage to

property and sometimes death.

The present model attempts to handle the various stages of club soccer crisis such as

before crisis, during crisis and after crisis. With good crisis management, soccer clubs can

proactively plan to prevent, reduce or control crisis during soccer programme or competition.

The clubs can also respond to it when it occurs and recovers or reintegrates until a new state

of equilibrium is reached or the clubs are returned to their normal operating condition after the

crisis.

Scientific management theory

On the management theory, Fredrick Winslow Taylor evolved the scientific

management theory, which is concerned with a rational approach to management, in which,

productivity and performance are calculated in concrete terms (Ikhioya, 2001). In this regard,

all job items; methods and even selection of employees were seen as work tools that should be

rationally manipulated by management.

By implication, there should be a rational approach to crisis management for soccer

clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria, rather than a reactive or haphazard approach. Crisis

management is therefore a work tool and also the responsibility of club management.

Management by objectives (MBO)

Peter Drucker proposed the theory of management by objectives in 1954 in his book,

“The Practice of Management” (Wikipedia, 2006). Drucker viewed Management By

Objectives (MBO) as a process of agreeing upon objectives within an organization so that

management and employees buy into the objectives and understand what they are. MBO is

therefore a systematic and organized approach that allows management to focus on achievable

goals and to attain the best possible results from available resources. It aims to increase

organizational performance by aligning goals and subordinate objectives throughout the

organization. Ideally, employees get strong input to identify their objectives and time lines for

completion.

By implication, club soccer management and employees need to understand and agree

upon the objectives of crisis management. This will encourage every member to work towards

achieving these objectives by making strong input or playing their expected roles.

The study is anchored on three theories. The theories include, Crisis Intervention

Approach, Theory of Management by Objectives (MOB) and Scientific Management Theory.

Fig. 2 below shows the Theoretical Framework of Crisis Management Model for Soccer

Clubs.

Five Elements, identify the Management and Crisis situation such as: employees buy into the A rational approach is 1. Hazardous events objectives and understand required in management 2. Vulnerable state what they are 3. Precipitating factor 4. State of active crisis 5. Reintegration

Soccer Crisis Soccer Crisis Management soccer crisis Objectives Management Processes

Soccer Crisis Management Model

Fig.2: Theoretical Framework of Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs

Key: Theory or Model

Dependent Variables

Explanatory Link

Soccer Crisis Management Plan

Soccer Crisis Response Strategies

Soccer Crisis Communication Activities

Soccer Crisis Mass Media Relations Strategies

Soccer Crisis Recovery Measures

Crisis Intervention Approach

Management by Objectives

Scientific Management Approach

Review of Empirical Studies

Cummins (1998) carried out a case study to determine the management of the steroid

charges against Richmond Football Club (RFC) player Justin Charles of the Australian

Football League (AFL) in August, 1997. The player tested positive to using boldenone, a

steroid that enhances recovery of chronic injury. The drug case placed the club in a big drug

scandal. The player’s action created a serious crisis for himself, the Richmond football club

and the Australian football league.

The result revealed that the club implemented crisis management to counter potential

negative publicity. However, the RFC did not have a crisis management plan drafted and

ready for use but the club did practice crucial aspects of crisis management. The club

responded to the case by establishing the fact of the case, informed sponsors, players and

officials of the situation. The club also implemented community education programme,

offered counseling and continued to provide damage control. The study also revealed that the

player, AFL and RFC survived the scandal.

Another study was carried out by Froster (1983) to determine the crisis management of

the Tylenol case in Chicago. Many deaths were linked to a popular pain reliever Tylenol,

manufactured by Johnson and Johnson pharmaceutical company. The Tylenol capsules had

been laced with cyanide by a terrorist gang of saboteurs (Synder, 1983).

The result of the study revealed that the company had a good crisis management plan

and immediately swung into action to protect its customers. It pulled off the shelves of

Tylenol capsules all over the United States, and provided the police every support needed to

track down the culprits. The study also revealed that the company also put its research group

to work, inventing a new temper-proof capsule. It also embarked on massive communication

effort to inform members of the public of what it was doing to control the situation. This

helped to reassure and calm the public. The result also showed that even though the company

lost a lot of money in the case, but retained its reputation and so remained in business.

Hessert (1998b) carried out a survey to determine the state of crisis experience and

preparedness of professional and amateur sports organizations in U. S. A. The study revealed

that sports organizations in the USA experienced both violent and non-violent crises. The

crises included, among others, sexual harassment, doping scandals, severe injuries, match

abandonment and disruptions. The result of the study also revealed that many sports

organizations did not take the issue of crisis management seriously and therefore did not

adequately prepare and prioritise the functions of crises management in their sports

operations. He therefore recommended that for a sports organization to effectively handle or

avert crisis, it must create a crisis management plan, develop crisis response strategies, crisis

communication, media relations and recovery measures for individuals and organizations

involved in the crisis. He identified plan-prevention, preparation, training, strategies,

financing, media relations, communication, education, counseling and evaluation as essential

aspects of crisis management.

Medwell (1998) carried out a case study to determine the management of the sporting

crisis of the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) abandonment of the 1997 Carlton and United

Series final. ACB was challenged with crisis that had the potential to seriously damage

consumer confidence and the reputation of the ACB. A match it fixed, in 1997, in Sydney,

could not be played because of torrential rain.

The result revealed that ACB responded slowly in deciding on whether to cancel the

match or reschedule it. ACB had no drafted crisis management plan. This resulted to different

view points of different decision makers which led to confusion and crisis. Two fundamental

rules of crisis management process were revealed to have been broken. Firstly, the employees

of ACB were not briefed before the media interviewed them. Secondly, there was

inconsistency in the messages communicated to the public. The result also revealed that the

ACB made ticket valid for the rescheduled match. It sent a letter of apology to some

consumers who felt cheated for their travel, food and hotel costs. A merchandise offer or

discount coupons were made for future fixtures to restore consumers’ confidence and ensure

they were not distanced from the game. Even though the ACB survived the case, it lost a lot

of money on compensatory damages and wasted a lot of time during the game as well as lost

its confidence and reputation.

Nwosu (1996) reported on the crisis management of the Union Carbide Case in

Bhopal, India. In this case, chemical fumes had escaped the production system and almost

annihilated a whole community, resulting to hundreds of deaths and thousands of cases of gas

poisoning. The result revealed that the company responded swiftly by shutting down their

plants. It opened lines of communication to the media in India and USA, where the company

had its Headquarters. It also made consultations with the Government officials in India. The

company equally drafted team of medical experts from USA to India to deal with the

situation. The result also showed that similar plants elsewhere were shut down to prevent

similar incident until the cause of the incident was ascertained. The company also informed

the public about the measures it took to handle the incident. It also paid compensation to the

affected victims. Even though the company spent a lot of money in the case, it survived,

maintained its reputation and credibility and remained in business.

Breaver and Parker (1995) carried out a study to find out the risk management

problems and situations in business operations in the USA. The study revealed that before

1980, many organisations did not see the need to prioritise crisis management, until many of

them were hit with a lot of cruel crises. The crises caused many problems including the

folding or closure of the organizations. The study showed that many organizations or

business operations in USA now implement strategies to counter the negative effect of any

event capable of damaging their reputation and existence. It also showed that crisis

management now covers all aspects of life including emergencies, even food poisoning and

consumer inconveniences as well as sports.

Gozarlex-Herrero and Pratt (1995) developed a four-phase model of crisis

management for Public Relations Personnel. The crucial and salient aspects of the model

include the following phases: phase one involves issue management, in which an organization

scans the environment to identify public trends (or issues) that may affect its operations. It

collects data and evaluates them as well as develops communication strategies. It also

concentrates its efforts on preventing the crisis or redirecting its course.

Phase two is the plan-prevention phase where the organization sets policy, identifies

how to handle the media, determines how to implement crisis communication and sets up the

crisis management team. Phase three deals with the actual crises and appropriate responses. It

also pre-empts negative publicity and directs the messages to appropriate audiences as well as

internal communication programme.

Phase four is the post-crisis in which the organization continues to pay attention to her

publics, monitors the case until its intensity is reduced. It also informs the media of actions

taken as well as evaluates the crisis plan. Phase four also involves incorporating feedback into

the crisis plan and developing long-term communication strategy as well as counseling

services.

In another study, Gerlin (1994) investigated the crisis management of the McDonald

Hot Coffee Spill, case in Mexico, in February 1992. In the case, a cup of McDonald’s Coffee

spilled on the groin of an 81 year old woman. The media took the matter up and battered the

company. The Mexican state jury awarded her 2.9 million dollars in punitive and

compensatory damages. Result showed that the company had no crisis management plan to

handle the crisis. A good plan, response strategies and media relations, according to Gerlin,

would have reduced the impact and consequences of the crisis on McDonald company. The

findings also revealed that the company survived the crisis but it spent huge sum of money on

the case, received serious media battering that affected its reputation and future business

transactions.

Chase and Jones (1979) developed one of the most popular models of crisis

management in Public Relations in the Chase and Jones issue management process model of

1979. The five step model involves issue identification, issue analysis, issue strategies

options, issue action programme and evaluation of the result.

O’berine and Ries (2000) developed a sports crisis management model for sports

marketing industry. They explained the procedures that had been effectively used in public

relations industry and suggested how they could be adapted to sports marketing. The study

revealed the fluctuating use of crisis management and highlighted the importance of crisis

management in sports marketing practice.

They identified prevention, response and recovery as the core functions of crisis

management. The detailed enabling processes of the model were planning, prediction,

preparedness, strategies, communication, financing, education, media relations, training and

evaluation.

Ogu (2000) developed a Social Network Model for Career Coaches in Eastern States

of Nigeria. He utilized the Research and Development (R and D) design for the study. He

adapted a modified six stages of the R and D, which also guided the present study. All the 430

coaches in the states were used for the study. The result revealed that the components of the

model covered five areas namely, objectives, skills network, social environment network,

public image network and information network.

Umeakuka (1997) developed a Recreation Model for Industrial Workers in Anambra

State of Nigeria. The Developmental Research Design was used in the study. The study

adapted six stages of the design. The instrument for data collection was a researcher made

questionnaire, which contained fifty-six items. The sample size consisted of 2006 workers

drawn from the three categories of workers in the industries. Grand mean was used to answer

the research questions 2 – 6 and percentages to answer research question 1. ANOVA statistic

was employed to test the five hypotheses (P<.05) and t-test statistic was used for items

analysis to identify sources of differences revealed in the ANOVA analysis. The findings

revealed that the model covered five areas namely: philosophies, objectives, sources of fund,

administrative and management responsibilities, and recreational activities.

Umeakuka (1997) reported that Umedum (1973) designed a Procedural Model for

Sports Development in Nigeria. The study revealed the new procedural plan used for

developing Canadian athletic Performance for the 1976 Olympic Games and how the plan

could be adapted to Nigeria conditions. The result showed that the model covered such areas

as increasing National Sports participation, training education, and employment of coaches,

sports development, preparation for international games, financing and development of

National Sports training centers.

Sacramento (1991) developed Physical Education Model Curriculum Standard for

Schools. The study revealed that a curriculum standard for physical education should ensure

that each student achieves physical activity, physical fitness, and wellness, movement skills

and movement knowledge, social development and interaction, self-image, self-realization

and individual excellence. The findings showed that the model helped to ensure that students

increased understanding of basic body system to develop and maintain the highest possible

level of physical fitness and wellness. It also ensured that they increased effective motor-skill

development, understood the fundamentals of movement by practicing and analyzing

purposeful movement and appreciated the athletics of expressive and creative movement. The

model equally ensured that students learnt appropriate social behaviours and leadership skills

by participating in planned physical activities in which they developed an appreciation of self

and others; experienced independent and group work, and learned how to co-operate and

compete with others in the achievement of common goals. The result also showed that

students developed and displayed self-control, self-direction and self-expression. They also

achieved high personal levels of performance.

Isaac and Schafer (1989) developed a Model about Women and Sports Leadership in

U. S. A. The model concerned itself with such aspects of sports leadership as coaching,

officiating, athletic director and board of control members. The model explained why there

should be concern about the lack of women in sports leadership positions. It also explained

how the programmes could be implemented to increase the number of women in these

positions. The model reviewed a brief history of athletics for girls and women in the United

States. It also showed step-by-step procedure for starting a sports equity programme in the

community and how the media could be used to expedite development of sports programmes.

It equally showed step-by-step procedure for hosting a community-wide conference on equity

issues in sports, evaluation process for sports programmes and providing on-going support to

women interested in coaching, officiating and athletic administration.

An In-service Training Model was developed by Melograno and Loovis (1990), to

provide appropriate motor development for handicapped students in an Urban School District.

The results from an assessment in the Urban School District confirmed that physical education

teachers did not possess needed competencies and are in need of extensive professional

development. The in-service training programme was carried out in five phases. Evaluative

information was collected and overall effect was determined. The result showed that

handicapped students changed in their motor proficiency and teachers changed in knowledge

and attitude after the training.

Virgilio (1990) developed a Model for Parental Involvement in Physical Education.

The study revealed that when parents are involved in their children’s school Physical

Education, increased learning takes place. The study also showed that for parents’

involvement programmes to be successful, physical educators must play the key role in the

link between home and school. He recommended that home activities should build the basic

physical skills without duplicating the teacher’s efforts.

Gallahue (1985) developed a Model to achieve Positive Disciple among Teachers in

the Gymnasium. The result showed that physical education teachers with good discipline

exhibited remarkable exemplary character. The result also showed that the teachers

communicated a positive role model, and were generally good communicators and good

planners. The teachers periodically assessed their teaching behaviour and the learning styles

of their students were consistent with their leadership.

Wandzalik (1985) developed a Model for Values Development in Sports Settings. The

study revealed the problems physical educators encounter in values development in sports.

The problems include inability to identify and harmonize religious, cultural and social values

of students in sports as well as problem of teaching by example. The study suggested that

sports educators must take a stronger commitment to values education by being better role

models and by teaching values.

Ocansey (1988) developed a Behavioural Model of Supervision in Physical Education.

The study revealed that co-operating teachers in physical education can improve their

supervisory function through training in a behaviroual model of supervision. The study had

three performance objectives, namely monitoring, conferencing and follow-up monitoring.

The study also emphasized on improved feedback and accountability of student teachers.

Vogel and Seefeldt (1987) presented a 12-step Procedural Model for Re-directing

Ineffective Physical Education Programmes. The procedure utilized in the study identified

expected outcomes, offered a rationale for each, provided in-service education necessary for

the programme improvement, incorporated guideline and emphasized documentation of

programme effectiveness.

Weiss and Bressan (1985) developed an Optimal Challenge Model, which used

observation, teacher behaviour, and personal reflection in an attempt to educate the whole

child. The study showed that effective objectives are both desirable and attainable through

physical education. They recommended that physical educators should understand the

psychosocial development of the child and influence the child in positive ways.

Baugarten (1984) developed a Model for Youth Sports Programme. The study focused

on playing for fun, non-sexist athletics and child-centered environment. The study showed

that fun, fitness, respect and responsibility are key words in planning and implementing a

soccer programme for children.

Crawford (1983) designed a Model to Guide Competitive Physical Education and

Recreational Therapy Programmes for Multi-handicapped Children. The study showed that

programme developers consider psychological factors such as conceptualization of

competition, anxiety management, students’ motivation and sense of locus of control in

competitive and recreational therapy programmes. He recommended that teachers and parents

should be trained to act consistently as social agents.

A Model for Athletic Equity was developed by Schafer (1984), which provided a

knowledge based data necessary for implementing a successful athletic equity project. The

study revealed how to gather statewide data to define equity problems, district actions and to

monitor progress. It also revealed procedures to locate, train and support talented women and

minorities with coaching, officiating, and athletic leadership potential.

The study showed how to promote, support and train coaches, officials, athletic

directors and governing board members regardless of race, ethnicity or sex. The study also

showed how to sensitize and encourage organisations and employers to seek women and

minorities for athletic leadership, training, placement and promotion as well as promote the

benefits of athletic leadership in students, educators, parents and community. The study

equally showed how to improve communication between school districts, the governing

boards, professional associations and higher education regarding the need for competent,

equitable, and balanced staffing of athletic programmes.

Summary of Literature Review

Foregoing literature shows that crisis management is seen as a public relations

management concept. It is currently adapted into sports to help sports organisers, club

managers and administrators as well as coaches handle or solve the problem of crises during

sports programmes and competitions. Crisis management for soccer club is seen as the

practice of taking appropriate measures in order to prevent the occurrence of an impending

club soccer crisis or manage/control it well when it occurs. The core functions of crisis

management are prevention, responses and recovery.

A model is perceived as a procedure,(MBO) plan or strategy for solving a given

problem. On the other hand, a model is found to have a pattern (structure), adopts certain

activities (process) to bring about desired outcome (product).

Literature shows that the causes of club soccer crisis are numerous. They include: the

nature of the game of soccer which is a team contact sports, broad social division among

participants, incompetent and biased officiating, the quest to win at all cost, use of non-

bonifide players, fans interruption, misinformation among other factors.

The various components of crisis management as they relate to sports, especially club

soccer crisis, might include, soccer crisis management plan, soccer crisis response strategies,

soccer crisis communication activities, soccer crisis mass media relations strategies and soccer

crisis recovery measures. Literature shows that empirical studies conducted on crisis

management are scarce generally. The available ones are mostly concentrated in organizations

outside sports in the developed countries. The studies and literature were therefore adapted for

the present study.

The theoretical framework upon which this study is based includes the crisis

intervention approach, scientific management theory, and theory of management by

objectives.

About fifteen models developed in physical education and sports were examined. The

exercise revealed the procedure, steps and components involved, or adopted in developing the

examined intervention programmes and models. This exercise was particularly important

because it laid the foundation upon which the present model was developed.

Crisis management is viewed as very important in the affairs of individuals or

organizations involved in crises, particularly among professionals in sports like club soccer

organisers, managers, administrators, coaches and public relations officers. However, it

appears that no such study has been conducted in Nigeria especially on the development of a

crisis management model for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of the country. Ukwayi

(1998) reported that in Nigeria, no remarkable plans and preparations are made in advance for

sports crisis among sports teams (including soccer clubs in South-Eastern States). Oyewusi

(19991) had revealed that in Nigeria, (including the South-Eastern States), the response

strategies and management approach to soccer crisis are reactive in nature rather than being

proactive. Oyewusi (1985) had also observed that in Nigeria, there is inadequate recovery

measures for athletes and teams involved in crises, (including those in South-Eastern States of

Nigeria). The absence of a crisis management model might have led to these short-comings or

problems. In other words, the crisis management process or procedure is not adequately

followed in the management of club soccer crisis in the states.

There is therefore a gap due to lack of a clearly defined and efficient crisis

management procedure in form of a model to guide clubs in the management of crisis in the

states. This study therefore to develop a crisis management model for soccer crisis among

clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria, is justified by the present study since it will bridge

the gap already highlighted.

CHAPTER THREE

Methods

This chapter presents the methods that were used to achieve the purpose of the study.

It covers the research design, population for the study, sample and sampling techniques,

instrument for data collection, validity of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method

of data collection and method of data analysis.

Research Design

The Research and Development design was used for this study. Borg and Gall (1989)

stated that the Research and Development (R and D) design consists of steps referred to as the

R and D cycle, in which a product is first developed, field tested, and revised on the basis of

field test data. According to Ali (1990), this design involves the introduction and use of

procedures or programmes, and systematic try out, in which feedback is gathered that can lead

to a perceptible improvement in the education of students.

However, Borg and Gall (1989) averred that undertaking this design as thesis or

dissertation requires the scaling down of the project to limit the development to just a few

steps of the R and D cycle. The successful application of this design by Ogu (2000) and Njoku

(2003) who modified and scaled down their projects to only six and seven steps respectively,

to develop a Social Network Model for Career Coaches in Eastern States of Nigeria and

Healthy Ageing Intervention Model (HAIM) for Secondary School Teachers in Imo State,

respectively, suggested a success in its use for developing a Crisis Management Model for

Soccer Clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. The present study involved six steps namely:

Step I: Determining the model objectives

This step involves the formulation of objectives that guided the development and use

of the proposed model. Girdano (1986) opined that goals or objectives should be formulated

on the basis of their potential for realistic achievement, modification of behaviour,

institutional benefits, participant benefits and measurability.

Through extensive literature review, five statements reflecting the objectives of the

model were made. The objectives were subjected to validation by experts in physical

education and sports, coaching, public relations, and measurement and evaluation. Decision,

for inclusion of any of the objectives in the proposed model was determined by a mean score

of 2.5 on a 4 – point Likert-type scale.

Step II: Determination of model components.

Based on information gathered from literature, especially on crucial aspects, phases,

strategies and conditions for crisis management especially as suggested by Okereke (1994),

Gozalex-Herrero and Pratt (1995); Nwosu (1996); Hessert (1999) and O’beirne and Ries

(2000), the components of the model were delineated. Here the major component parts of the

model were identified each with many contents. From the literature also, the contents of each

major part were identified, they include soccer crisis management plan for clubs; soccer crisis

response strategies for clubs; soccer crisis communication for clubs; soccer crisis media

relations strategies for clubs; and soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs.

Step III: Validation of the proposed model

The preliminary draft of the model achieved in step II was subjected to face and

content validation by multidisciplinary team of seven experts in the area of Physical

Education and Sports Administration, Coaching, Public Relations, and Measurement and

Evaluation. This exercise resulted in the modification of the proposed model based on the

recommendations of the experts.

Step IV: Empirical validation of the model

Preliminary field-testing was conducted with respondents, which include club officials

and team captains, involved in the professional and amateur football competition in Kogi

State of Nigeria. Twenty (20) respondents were used in the field-testing exercise. Data

collected were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis.

Step V: Main testing of the model

At this stage, the main field-testing of the model was conducted. The researcher tested

the instrument from the preliminary field-test on the club official and team captains in soccer

clubs involved in both the premier professional and amateur league in South-Eastern State of

Nigeria. The data collected from the club officials and team captains in South-Eastern States

of Nigeria, were analysed.

Step VI: Final draft of the proposed model

The final draft of the model was prepared based on the result of analysis of main field-

testing outcomes.

Area of the Study

This study was conducted in South-Eastern States of Nigeria The States are located in

Igbo speaking states of the country (called the Eastern Zone). The states are bounded on the

east by Cross-River State, on the west by Delta state, on the north by Kogi State and Benue

State, and on the south by River State and Akwa-Ibom State.

The choice of this area for the study was made because the Igbo people (or States) are

soccer loving people. The states are Enugu State, Anambra State, Imo State, Abia State and

Ebonyi State. The States are home to notable soccer clubs that participate in the Globacom

National Premier Soccer League in both Professional (Pro.1) and Amateur (Amateur 1)

soccer league in the country. The soccer clubs are Enyimba International Football Club (FC)

of Aba, Rangers International FC of Enugu, Heartland FC of Owerri, OUK (Abia Worriors)

FC of Umuahia, Gabros International of Nnewi, Ebonyi Angels FC of Abakiliki, Relaxers FC

of Enugu, UNTH FC of Enugu, Arugo FC of Owerri and Buzor FC of Owerri. Many of the

clubs have participated in the State, National, Regional, Continental and International soccer

competitions. These clubs have their respective fans that could be so fanatical to the point of

precipitating crisis.

Population for the Study.

The population for the study comprises all the club officials and team captains

involved in the National Premier Professional (Pro.1) and Amateur (Amateur 1) football

competition in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. According to Ogujiofor (2000) and Nwobodo

(2005), there are eleven officials in a soccer club (see appendix B). The soccer clubs in the

states have no Sports Psychologists, thereby leaving the clubs with ten officials each. There

are ten registered soccer clubs in the Premier Professional (Pro.1) and Amateur (Amateur 1)

football league from the states (see appendix C). This gives a total of 100 club officials. There

is also one team captain in each of the soccer clubs in the states. This gives a total of 10

captains thereby giving a total population of 110 subjects.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

The researcher made use of all the club officials and team captains of the soccer clubs

involved in the National Premier Professional and Amateur football league in South-Eastern

States of Nigeria, for the study. Consequently, there was no sampling in the study. All the 110

subjects were used in the study.

Instrument for Data Collection

The instrument for data collection was the questionnaire. The instrument was a

thirty-seven item Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs Questionnaire, CMMSCQ, (See

Appendix D).The questionnaire has seven sections. Section A, deals with the personal data of

the respondents. Sections B to G have four point scale of Very High Extent = 4, High Extent =

3, Low Extent = 2 and Very Low Extent = 1, which were used to elicit response from the

respondents. Based on literature already reviewed in the study, 37 items were generated out of

73 items (See Appendix E) and included in the questionnaire under the various components of

the model. Section B contains subscale on the objectives of the model with 5 items; Section C

contains the soccer crisis management plan for clubs = 6; Section D contains the soccer crisis

response strategies for clubs = 6; Section E is on soccer crisis communication activities for

clubs = 4. Section F contains the soccer crisis mass media relations strategies for clubs = 10

and Section G contains subscale on the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs = 6.

Validity of the instrument.

The face and content validity of the instrument (CMMSCQ) were established through

the judgment of seven experts in the area of Physical Education, Sports Administration,

Coaching, Public Relations and Measurement and Evaluation. The experts were required to

examine the specific sections and items of the instrument to justify the relevance of the

content in terms of their clarity, appropriateness of the language and their ability to elicit the

accurate information solicited. They were also required to modify and make suggestions that

improved the quality of the instrument. The modification was effected thus; items rejected by

any two or more experts stand rejected by the researcher. Statements that are pointed out as

ambiguous were modified.

Confirmatory factor analysis was also carried out on the instrument based on the data

collected from preliminary field-testing. Confirmatory factor analysis was adopted to identify

items that loaded significantly (item-total correlation r = ≥ .30) on the already identified items.

In selecting items for the final instrument based on the result of the confirmatory factor

analysis, what has been considered as significant loading vary from one author to another. For

example, Meredith (1978) and Leak (1982) suggested .30, .35, .4 and .5 as the minimum

factor loading. Consequently, items that significantly loaded up to .30 and above after item-

total correlation were selected while those below .30 were rejected and dropped. At the end,

37 items survived. The result was included in appendix F. At the end, the items that emerged

were utilised in the development of the model.

Reliability of the instrument.

The reliability of the instrument was also determined. The instrument was pre-tested

on twenty (20) respondents or Club officials and Team Captains involved in the National

Premier Professional and Amateur Soccer League in Kogi State. The scores were computed.

The data were used to compute the Cronbach alpha co-efficient using the Statistical Package

for Social Sciences (SPSS) for MS WINDOWS. The reliability of each section of the

component and the whole instrument were determined by the use of Cronbach alpha statistic,

which was considered appropriate because of its relevance in testing instrument with multiple

response formats. The result of the analysis showed a reliability co-efficient of .83 (see

Appendix F). The reliability co-efficient of the instrument became .86, after the confirmatory

factor analysis, (See appendix G). This coefficient indicated good internal consistency and

exceeded the prior criterion of .60 suggested by Ogbazi and Okpala (1994). The implication

of this was that the instrument was reliable for gathering information towards achieving the

purpose of the study.

Method of Data Collection

In order to gain access to the respondents, a letter of introduction (See Appendix H),

from the Head of Department of Health and Physical Education, University of Nigeria,

Nsukka, was presented to the club Chairmen or Team Managers in charge of the soccer clubs

in the five states. The researcher visited the soccer clubs involved in both the premier

professional and amateur league in South-Eastern State of Nigeria. The researcher also met

with the Chairmen and Team Managers of the clubs and handed over the copies of the

questionnaire to them to administer on the other club officials and team captains.

A total of 110 copies of the questionnaire were administered. The respondents that

were not able to fill the questionnaire immediately, were given the next day to complete them,

after which, the researcher went back to collect them. A total number of 94 copies of the

questionnaire were returned; sixteen copies suffered mortality for varying reasons. Eleven

questionnaire copies were not completed and returned, and five were improperly completed.

This method yielded a fairly high return rate of the instrument as 85 per cent return rate was

recorded and used for data analysis.

Method of Data Analysis

The returned copies of the instrument were cross-checked for completeness of

responses. The copy that had incomplete response was discarded. The responses to all items

of the instrument were transformed into scale values. The data were then analysed using the

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for MS WINDOWS. The mean score and

standard deviation of the items in the questionnaire were used to answer the six research

questions (See Appendix I). A criterion mean of 2.5 and above were used to consider the

opinion of the respondents on the items appropriate for inclusion into the model, whereas, any

response with a mean score below 2.5 was considered inappropriate and was not part of the

content of the model. The one-way MANOVA statistic (See appendix J) was used to test for

the significance difference in the mean responses of the variables.

CHAPTER FOUR

Results and Discussion

This chapter presents and discusses the results of the study in line with the seven research

questions and seven hypotheses that guided the study.

Results

Research Question 1

What acceptable objectives should direct the development and use of the crisis

management model for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria?

Table 1

Mean responses of Club Officials and Team Captains on the Objectives of Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs (N=94)

Item S/N Objectives SD Decision

12. Identify early the soccer crises among the clubs. 3.51 .66 AP

13. Apply the major processes of crisis management 2.95 .71 AP

14. Identify the preventive measures to the crisis. 3.24 .68 AP

15. Utilise a proactive approach in the

management of the crisis. 2.97 .74 AP

16. Reduce the incident of crisis in soccer clubs 3.12 .77 AP

Grand 3.16

AP = Appropriate

Data in Table 1 reveal that the mean scores to identify early the soccer crises among

the clubs ( =3.51, SD = .66); apply the major processes of crisis management ( = 295, SD

= .71); identify the preventive measures to the crisis ( =3.24, SD = .68); utilize a proactive

approach in the management of the crisis ( = 297, SD = .74) and reduce the incident of crisis

in soccer club ( 3.12, SD = .77) were greater than the criterion mean of 2.50. This implies

that the objectives were considered appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC in South-Eastern

State of Nigeria. Similarly, the Grand Mean Score ( =3.16) of items on objectives of the

CMMSC was above the criterion mean of 2.50 indicating overall appropriateness of the

objectives of the CMMSC. This means that the overall objectives are appropriate for inclusion

in the CMMSC. The standard deviation values which ranged from .66 to .77 show that the

opinion of the respondents were close to one another in relation to the mean.

Research Question 2

What soccer crisis management plan will help to prevent crisis among clubs in South-

Eastern States of Nigeria?

Table 2

Mean responses of Club Officials and Team Captains on the Soccer Crisis Management Plan (N=94)

Item S\N Soccer crisis management plan SD Decision

17. Identify the crisis among the soccer clubs 3.26 .67 AP

18. Team plans to implements all the soccer crisis

management strategies. 2 .90 .74 AP

19. Train the clubs spokesperson on

media interview for soccer crisis. 2.81 .82 AP

20. Establish crisis counseling services.

for victims of soccer crisis. 2 .76 .92 AP

21. Evaluate the soccer crisis management plan 2 .82 .81 AP

22. Update the soccer crisis management plan. 2. 86 .78 AP

Grand 2. 91

AP= Appropriate

Data in table 2 show that the mean scores to identify the crisis among the soccer clubs

( = 3.26, SD = .67); team plans to implement all the soccer crisis management strategies (

= 2.90, SD = .74); train the clubs spokesperson on media interview for soccer crisis ( 2.81,

SD = .82); establish crisis counseling services for victims of soccer crisis ( = 2.76, SD

= .92); evaluate the soccer crisis management plan ( = 2.82, SD = .81) and update the soccer

crisis management plan ( = 2.86, SD = .78) were greater than the criterion mean of 2.50.

This implies that the items in the soccer crisis management plan were considered appropriate

for inclusion in the CMMSC. In the same vain, the grand mean for all the items in the soccer

crisis management plan was 2.91 which was above the criterion mean, indicating an overall

appropriateness of the plan of the CMMSC. This means that the overall plan was appropriate

for inclusion in the CMMSC. The standard deviation values which ranged from .67 to .92

showed that the opinions of the respondents were close to one another in relation to the mean.

Research Question 3

What soccer crisis response strategies are appropriate for clubs in the States?

Table 3

Mean responses of Club Officials and Team Captains on the Soccer Crisis Response Strategies (N=94).

Item S/N Soccer Crisis Response Strategies SD Decision

23. In safety, call team members into crisis talk 3.24 .74 AP

24. Decide with the team members on the next immediate action to take about the crisis. 3.23 .67 AP

25. Inform club owners, fans, parents/relatives of playersand officials urgently about the crisis situation. 2.85 .85 AP

26. Keep records of what happened during the soccer crisis. 3.00 .89 AP

27. Adopt calm, controlled and studied reaction to

the soccer crisis. 2.87 .85 AP

28. Engage in restitution to compensate for contributoryact to the crisis. 2.40 .90 NA

Grand 2.93

AP = Appropriate

NA = Not appropriate

Data in table 3 indicate that the mean scores for in safety, call team members into

crisis talk ( = 3.24, SD = 74); decide with the team members on the next immediate action to

take about the crisis ( = 3.23, SD = .67), inform club owners, fans, parents/relatives of

players and officials urgently about the crisis situation ( = 2.85, SD = .85); keep records of

what happened during the soccer crises ( = 3.00, SD = .89); and adopt calm, controlled and

studied reaction to the soccer crisis ( = 2.87, SD = 85) were greater than the criterion mean

of 2.50. This implies that the items in the soccer crisis response strategies were considered

appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC. Only item 28 engage in restitution to compensate

for contributory act to the crisis ( = 2.40, SD = .90) did not qualify for inclusion and

therefore was not appropriate. However, the grand mean for all the items in the soccer crisis

response strategies was 2.93 which was above the criterion mean, indicating an overall

appropriateness of the response strategies of the CMMSC. This means that the overall

response strategies were appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC irrespective of the

inappropriateness of item 28. The standard deviation values which range from .67 to .90

showed that the opinions of the respondents were close to one another in relation to the mean.

Research Question 4

What appropriate soccer crisis communication activities are required by the clubs in

the states?

Table 4

Mean responses of Club Officials and Team Captains on the Soccer Crisis Communication Activities (N=94)

Item S/N Soccer Crisis Communication Activities SD Decision

29. Use the best club’s spokesperson in communication

during club soccer crisis. 3.22 .79 AP

30. Be prompt and avoid delay in communicating to the

internal and external audiences during club soccer crisis. 3 .17 .16 AP

31. Address feelings first before facts in soccer crisis 2.62 .92 AP

32. Address the needs of each of the club’s Audiences in the

crisis during communication. 2. 98 .87 AP

Grand 3.00

AP = Appropriate.

Data in table 4 show that the mean scores for use the best club’s spokesperson in

communication during club soccer crisis ( = 3.22, SD = .79); be prompt and avoid delay in

communicating to the internal and external audiences during club soccer crisis ( = 3.17, SD

= .16); address feelings first before facts in soccer crisis ( = 2.62, SD = .92); and address the

needs of each of the club’s audiences in the crisis during communication ( = 2.98, SD = .87)

were greater than the criterion’ mean of 2.50. This implies that the items in the soccer crisis

communication activities were considered appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC. In the

same vain, the grand mean for all the items in the soccer crisis communication activities was

3.00 which was above the criterion mean indicating an overall appropriateness of the

communication activities of the CMMSC. This implies that the overall communication

activities were appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC. The standard deviation of item 29,31

and 32 which ranged from .79-.92 showed that the opinions of the respondents were close to

one another. Only the standard deviation of item 30 varied and was not close to the other

items in relation to the mean.

Research Question 5

What appropriate soccer crisis mass media relations strategies are needed by clubs in

the States?

Table 5

Mean responses of the Club Officials and Team Captains on the Soccer Crisis Mass Media Relations Strategies (N=94)

Item S/N Soccer Media Relations Strategies SD Decision

33. Have a written media policy for club soccer crisis. 3.14 .76 AP

34. Brief team members on what to say

about the crisis before contacting the media. 2.82 .88 AP

35. Give accurate information to the media

about the club soccer crisis. 3.18 .78 AP

36. Build and sustain good cordial relation

with the media during soccer crisis 3. 12 .77 AP

37. Discover what the newsmen like and

keep to it during soccer crisis. 2.13 .96 NA

38. Make media statements clear and concise

during club soccer crisis. 3. 25 .73 AP

39. Be diplomatic and respond only to media

questions in which there are enough facts about

the soccer crisis. 3.06 .92 AP

40. During media interview rather than address the

Journalist, address the viewers, readers or

listeners on the soccer crisis. 2.51 .96 AP

41. Brief team members on media reports on the

soccer crisis. 3.00 .82 AP

42. Clarify the media reporters on inaccurate

Information on the soccer crisis. 3.09 .84 AP

Grand 2.94

AP =Appropriate.

NA = Not Appropriate

Data in table 5 reveal that the mean scores for have a written media policy for club

soccer crisis ( = 3.14, SD = .76); brief team members on what to say about the crisis before

contacting the media ( =2.82, SD = 88), give accurate information to the media about the

club soccer crisis ( = 3.18, SD = .78); build and sustain good cordial relation with the media

during soccer crisis ( = 3.12, SD = .77); make media statements clear and concise during

club soccer crisis ( = 3.25, SD = .73); be diplomatic and respond only to media questions in

which there are enough facts about the soccer crisis ( = 3.06, SD = .92); during media

interview rather address the journalists address the viewers, readers or listeners on the soccer

crisis ( = 2.51, SD = .96); brief team members on media reports on the soccer crisis (

=3.00, SD = .82) and clarify the media reporters on inaccurate information on the soccer crisis

( = 3.00, SD = .82) and clarify the media reporters on inaccurate information on the soccer

crisis ( = 3.09, SD = 84) were greater than the criterion mean of 2.50. This implies that the

items in the soccer crisis mass media relations strategies were considered appropriate for

inclusion in the CMMS except item 37, discover what the news men like and keep to it during

soccer crisis ( = 2.13, SD .96). The grand mean for all the items in the soccer crisis mass

media relations strategies was 2.94 which was above the criterion mean, indicating an overall

appropriateness of the mass media relations strategies of the CMMSC. This means that the

overall mass media relations strategies were appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC. The

standard deviation values that ranged from .73 to .96 showed that the opinions of the

respondents were close to one another in relation to the mean.

Research Question 6

What soccer crisis recovery measures are appropriate for players, officials and clubs

involved in crisis in the States?

Table 6

Mean Responses of Club Officials and Team Captains on the Soccer Crisis Recovery Measures (N=94)

Item S/N Soccer Crisis Recovery Measures SD Decision

43. Adequately compensate victims of soccer crisis. 3.00 .85 AP

44. Utilise insurance coverage for victims of the

soccer crisis. 3.08 .78 AP

45. Utilise long-term communication strategies to cover

final decision and resolution of the soccer crisis case. 2.90 .97 AP

46. Undertake public relation in form of enlightenment to

regain public confidence or credibility after the soccer crisis. 3.13 .83 AP

47. Follow-up soccer crisis events, until its intensity and

impact are reduced on individual and club. 3.14 .68 AP

48. Assess the plan, strategies and responses to the crisis

and in- cooperate feedback into the soccer crisis management

plan for future use. 3.36 .71 AP

Grand 3.11

AP = Appropriate.

Data in table 6 show that the mean scores for adequately compensate victims of soccer

crisis ( = 3.00, SD = .85); utilize insurance coverage for victims of the soccer crisis ( =

3.08, SD = .78); utilize long-term communication strategies to cover final decision and

resolution of the soccer crisis case ( = 2.90, SD = .97); undertake public relation in form of

enlightenment to regain public confidence or credibility, after the soccer crisis ( = 3.13, SD =

.83); follow-up soccer crisis events until its intensity and impact are reduced on individual and

club ( = 3.14, SD = .68); and assess the plan, strategies and responses to the crisis and in-

cooperate feedback into the soccer crisis management plan for future use ( = 3.36, SD = .71)

were greater than the criterion mean of 2.50. This implies that the soccer crisis recovery

measures were considered appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC in South-Eastern States of

Nigeria. Similarly the grand mean score ( = 3.11) of items on the recovery measures of the

CMMSC was also above the criterion mean of 2.50 indicating an overall appropriateness of

the recovery measures of the CMMSC. This means that the overall recovery measures are

appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC. The standard deviation values which ranged

from .68 -.97 showed that the opinions of the respondents were close to one another in

relation to the mean.

Hypothesis 1

There was no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers regarding the objectives of the crisis management model for

soccer clubs.

Table 7

Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches and Team Management regarding the objectives of the crisis management model for soccer clubs.

Sources of Sum of Mean F.critical

Variation Squares df Square F. cal. at 0.05 Decision

Chief Coaches Between group .889 1 .889 .187 4.49 NS

and

Team Managers Within group 76.222 16 4.764

NS = Not significant.

Data in Table 7 show that the calculated F-ratio was .187 at 1 and 16 degrees of

freedom which was less than the critical F-Value of 4.49 at .05 level of significance. The

hypothesis of no statistically significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies that

there is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches and

Team managers regarding the objectives of the crisis management model for soccer clubs.

Hypothesis 2

There was statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis management plan for clubs.

Table 8Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis management plan for clubs.

Sources of Sum of Mean F.critical

Variation Squares df square F.cal. ( 0.05 ) Decision

Chief Coaches Between group 4.500 1 4.500 .375 4.49 NS

and

Team Managers Within group 191.778 16 11.986

NS = Not Significant

Table 8 shows that the calculated F-ratio was .375 at 1 and 16 degrees of freedom

which was less than the critical F-value of 4.49 at .05 level of significance. The hypothesis of

no statistically significant difference was therefore accepted. This means that there is no

statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches and Team

Managers regarding the soccer crisis management plan for clubs.

Hypothesis 3

There was statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis response strategies for clubs.

Table 9

Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches and Team managers regarding the soccer crisis response strategies for clubs.

Sources of Sum of Mean F- critical Variation Squares df Square F- cal. (0.05) Decision

Chief Coaches Between Group 1.389 1 1.389 .234 4.49 NS

and

Team Managers Within group 95.111 16 5.944

NS = Not significant.

Data in table 9 show that the calculated F- ratio was .234 at 1 and 16 degrees of

freedom which was less than the critical F- value of 4.49 at .05 level of significance. The

hypothesis of no statistically significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies that

there is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches and

Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis response strategies for clubs.

Hypothesis 4

There was statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis communication activities for

clubs.

Table 10

Result of one–way MANOVA statistic of the responses of the Chief Coaches and the Public Relation Officers regarding the soccer crisis communication activities for clubs

Sources of Sum of Mean F. critical Variation Squares df Square F- cal. (0.05) Decision

Chief Coaches Between group .500 1 .500 .222 4.49 NS

and

Public Relation Officers Within group 36.000 16 2.250

NS = Not Significant

Table 10 shows that the calculated F- ratio was .222 at 1 and 16 degrees of freedom which

was less than the critical F- value of 4.49 at .05 level of significance. The hypothesis of no

statistically significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies that there is no

statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches and the Public

Relations Officers on the soccer crisis communication activities for clubs.

Hypothesis 5

There was no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis mass media relations

strategies for clubs.

Table 11

Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of the Chief Coaches and the Public Relations Officer on the soccer crisis mass media relations strategies for clubs

Sources of Sum of Mean F- critical Variation Squares df Square F- cal (0.05) Decision

Chief Coaches Between group 16.056 1 16.056 2.206 4.49 NS

and

Public Rel. Officers Within group 116.444 16 7.278

NS= Not Significant

Data in Table 11 show that the calculated F-ratio was 2.206 at 1 and 16 degrees

of freedom which was less than the critical F-value of 4.49 at .05 level of significance. The

hypothesis of no statistically significant difference was therefore accepted. This means that

there is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches and the

Public Relations Officers regarding the soccer crisis mass media relations strategies for clubs.

Hypothesis 6

There was no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs.

Table 12

Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs

Sources of Sum of Mean F.Critical Variation Squares df Square F.cal (0.05) Decision

Chief Coaches Between group 8.000 1 8.000 1.218 4.49 NS

and

Team and Managers Within group 105.111 16 6.569

NS = Not Significant.

Table 12 shows that the calculated F- ratio was 1.218 at 1 and 16 degrees of freedom

which was less than the critical F- value of 4.49 at .05 level of significance. The hypothesis of

no statistically significant difference was therefore accepted. This implies that there is no

statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief Coaches and Team

Managers on the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs.

Summary of Major findings

Based on the analysis of data, the major findings of this study are summarised as

follows:

1. A total of five objectives (x > 2.50) and (GM = 3.16 > 2.50) were accepted as being

appropriate objectives for managing soccer crises (Table 1).

2. Six soccer crisis management plans (x > 2.50) and (GM = 2.91 > 2.50) were found

to be appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC (Table 2).

3. Five soccer crisis response strategies (x > 2.50) and (GM = 2.93 > 2.50)

were found to be suitable for inclusion in the CMMSC (Table 3).

4. Four soccer crisis communication activities were found (x > 2.50) and (GM =

3.00 > 2.50) to be appropriate for handling crisis among the clubs (Table 4).

5. Nine soccer crisis mass media relations strategies were identified (x > 2.50) and

(GM = 2.94 > 2.50) to be appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC (Table 5).

6. Six soccer crisis recovery measures were found (x > 2.50) and (GM = 3.11) to be

suitable for managing crisis and therefore qualified for inclusion in the CMMSC

(Table. 6).

7. A null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of

Chief Coaches and Team Managers on the objectives of the crisis management

model for soccer clubs [F(.187) < 4.49] at .05 level of significance was accepted

(Table 7).

8. A null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of

Chief Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis management plan for clubs

[F(.375) < 4.49] at .05 level of significance was accepted (Table 8 ).

9. A null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference was also accepted on the

responses of Chief Coaches and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis

response strategies for clubs [F(.234) <. 4.49] at .05 level of significance (Table 9).

10. The null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses

of Chief Coaches and the Pubic Relations Officers on the soccer crisis

communication activities for clubs was accepted [F(.222 ) < 4.49] at .05 level of

significance (Table 10).

11. A null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of

Chief Coaches and the Public Relations Officers regarding the soccer crisis mass

media relations strategies for clubs was accepted [F(2.206) < 4.49] at .05 level of

significance (Table 11).

12. The null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference was also accepted on

the responses of Chief Coaches and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis

recovery measures for clubs [F(1.218) < 4.49] at .05 level of significances (Table

12).

Discussion

The findings of the study were discussed under the following sub-headings:

1. Objectives of CMMSC.

2. Soccer crisis management plan.

3. Soccer crisis response strategies.

4. Soccer crisis communication activities.

5. Soccer crisis mass media relations strategies.

6. Soccer crisis recovery measures.

Objectives of CMMSC

Table 1 addressed research question 1 and revealed the objectives of CMMSC. It also

showed that five items of the components of the model comprising the objectives were

considered appropriate for inclusion in the CMMSC by the Club Officials and Team Captains

in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. The objectives which were adjudged appropriate for the

model were expected and so not surprising. This is because the objectives are comprehensive

and pertinent to the model and provided good direction for the model content. The model

objectives were also considered pertinent and very important because they met the

requirement spelt out by experts. Girdano (1980) stated that goals and objectives of

programmes should be formulated on the basis of their potential for realistic achievements,

modification of behavior, institutional benefits, and measurability. Fasan (1994) stated that

club managers and administrators ought to develop some objectives to guide the direction of

their programme especially in the areas that affect the survival and prosperity of the

organisation and in measuring result. All the objectives identified in the study were

formulated on the basis of their potential for realistic achievements, soccer club benefits and

measurability as recommended by Girdano. Again, these objectives would help the Club

Managers, Coaches and Players to move in a guided direction based on facts rather than

thoughts or opinions in an effort to effectively manage club soccer crisis. The objectives

accepted for the model include, identify easily the soccer crises among the clubs, apply the

major processes of crisis management, identify the preventive measures to the crisis, utilise a

proactive approach in the management of the crisis, and reduce the incident of crisis in soccer

clubs.

The finding concerning objective one of the model, “identify easily the soccer crises

among the clubs” was quite striking because one of the major tasks in crisis management was

the identification of the various crises experienced in an organization, such as a soccer club,

which pose great obstacle to effective club soccer management. Wenn (1989) observed that

crisis experienced in club soccer are numerous, and need to be identified. This is because they

pose obstacles to effective club soccer management around the globe (O’beirne and Ries,

2000). Identification of the crises in Wenn’s view is the first step on the process of handling

them. Wright (1993) also observed that management must learn to identify the crises that can

affect the survival of the organization as well as make decisions and accept the uncertainties

associated with them as part of their responsibilities. He suggested that management should be

able to foresee the future and plan for any eventuality, emergency or crisis.

The finding concerning objective two, which is “apply the major processes of crisis

management” was expected. The three major processes of crisis management are prevention,

response, and recovery which O’beirne and Ries, (2000) described as the core functions of

crisis management. The other essential processes or procedures of crisis management revolve

around these major processes. The procedure of crisis management is in line with these major

aspects and when sports organisers and administrators overlook any of these processes; it

might lead to great consequences. This is because crisis management is a process that adopts

certain activities for implementing strategies to counter the negative effects of an event or

action capable of damaging the well-being or reputation of an individual or an organization

such as a soccer club. When these activities are neglected, ignored or inadequately handled by

soccer clubs including those in South-Eastern States, Nwosu (1996) indicated that they might

mature and lead to crisis.

The finding regarding objective three of the model, “identify the preventive measures

to the crisis” is interesting and expected. This implies that soccer clubs in South-Eastern

States need to act in anticipation of crisis with the intention of making impossible, hindering

or stopping the crisis before it occurs. Hessert (2000) advised that sports organization like a

soccer club and teams should not wait to experience a crisis before they plan to prevent it.

Kreltner (1995) had explained that a good crisis management plan should contain a brief of

activities for crisis prevention. According to Hessert (1998a), when the sports crises are

identified, the causes of the crisis should also be determined as well as how they will be

prevented. He also observed that preventing a crisis among sports teams is better and cheaper

than managing it when it occurs.

The finding concerning objective four of the model, “utilise a proactive approach in

the management of the crisis” was expected. Research has emerged over the past ten years

supporting a proactive approach to a crisis, as opposed to one that is reactive in nature (The

American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress, 2003). A proactive approach to a crisis

according to the Academy is one that is organised, planned and practiced and more likely

result to response that can have a dramatic effect on reducing the short and long-term

consequences of the crisis on individual and organization. It could be in realization of this that

the club officials and the team captains in South-Eastern States identified this objective as one

of the objectives for inclusion in the CMMSC.

The finding regarding objective five of the model, “reduce the incident of crisis in

soccer clubs” was also expected. This is because crisis management helps Club Managers,

Coaches and other officials as well as players to reduce the impact and consequences of crisis

on individual and the clubs. Hessert (1998) stated that with good crisis management, sports

teams can proactively plan to prevent, or reduce the incidence of crisis or control it during

sports programme or competition. Reid (2002) further indicated that crisis is a threat to the

interest and existence of an organization. This necessitates the organization to deal quickly

with it in order to reduce its future incidence and consequences on individual and the

organization. The acceptance of the objective of utilising crisis management to reduce the

incidence of crisis in soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria is therefore most

imperative.

The finding of no statistically significant difference in the mean response of Chief

Coaches and Team Managers regarding the objectives of the CMMSC is interesting and

expected. This is because both the Chief Coaches and the Team Managers perform

administrative roles and belong to the management group which according to Hessert (2000)

ought to understand the objectives of crisis management. They may have been taught about

crisis management during their training or have acquired the knowledge through exposure or

experience. However, Beaver and Parker (1995) revealed that it is the responsibility of

management to address the issues and problems in an organization (including soccer clubs).

One of such responsibilities may be to set objectives of crisis management and making sure

that such objectives are achieved through their employees. This is in line with the theory of

Management by Objectives (MBO), as proposed by Peter Druker in 1954 (Wikipedia, 2006).

MBO is described as a system, an organized approach that allows management to focus on

achievable goals and to attain the best possible results with their employees. It is therefore

very vital and the responsibility of soccer club management in South-Eastern States to set

objectives of crisis management and ensure that such objectives are achieved through the club

employees.

Soccer crisis management plan.

Table 2 addressed research question 2 and showed the soccer crisis management plan

for clubs. The table revealed that the six items were identified by the club officials and the

team captains as appropriate plan for crisis management and therefore qualified for inclusion

in the CMMSC. The crisis management plans had means greater than the criterion mean. The

six items include identify the crises among the soccer clubs; team plans to implement all the

soccer crisis management strategies; train the club’s spokesperson on media interview for

soccer crisis; establish a crisis counseling services for victims of soccer crisis; evaluate the

soccer crisis management plan; and update the soccer crisis management plan.. Since each of

the six items had a mean greater than the criterion mean, they were each included in the

CMMSC. The acceptance of the six items in the crisis management plan is not surprising

because experts endorsed the items during validation. Again, the importance of a crisis

management plan like the one identified in this study have been reported by Nwosu (1996) as

the key to corporate survival. White (1991) described crisis planning as an anticipatory

practice which helps an organization and its senior managers to foresee trends and predict

events and issues which may arise to disrupt important relation and the affairs of individuals

and organizations. Nwosu (1996) also believed that planning for a crisis involves thinking the

unthinkable which means asking what would be the worst that could befall an individual or

organization and preparing for it. Parad (1997) indicated that a crisis plan is a tool that equips

employees of an organization to respond quicker, better and with confidence. Stravros (1998)

expressed that sports teams that invested the time and energy in crisis management plan

process are less likely to suffer from its consequences in case such a crisis occurs. The effort

made in this study to develop a crisis management plan for the clubs in South-Eastern States

of Nigeria is therefore timely.

Identify the crises among the soccer clubs, provides justification for the assertion of

Nwosu (1996) who indicated that crisis management plan involves identification, well in

advance, of the various crises that could possibly befall an organization (such as a soccer

club). O’beirne and Ries (2000) observed that an effective way to handle potential crisis in a

sports organization is to identify various scenarios that could affect an organization and

prepare for them. Efforts made towards identifying the crises in the plan among the clubs

therefore is very essential.

Team plans to implement all the soccer crisis management strategies, is not surprising,

as it was expected. Kreltner (1995) stated that successful managers are those who are current

with the strategies and techniques of crisis management and prepare other employees to utilize

them during crisis. According to Tympson and Sherman (1996) managers and administrators

should be prepared to face the most challenging crisis with the aid of a good plan.

Anticipating what to expect, O’beirne and Ries (2000) disclosed that sport managers and

coaches could develop a plan that could be implemented quickly and effectively. Soccer

teams therefore plan in advance all the soccer crisis management strategies that can be

implemented quickly and effectively especially in the states under study.

Train the club’s spokesperson on media interview for soccer crisis is a finding that is

not surprising but expected. This is because the Sports Media Challenge (1997) expressed that

a team’s spokesperson is well-trained in media relations, media interview, public speaking

and networking skills. Kesler (1999) added that team leaders ought to use the media interview

to correct inaccurate facts and assumptions especially about negative news or crisis. Soccer

clubs need therefore to plan and train the club’s spokesperson on media interview and public

speaking to properly equip them to face the media during soccer crisis. All the clubs in the

states therefore need to train all the club employees on media interview for soccer crisis.

Establish a crisis counseling services for victims of soccer crisis, provides justification

for the view of Swain (2001), when he expressed that a good crisis management plan includes

having a crisis counseling plan that counselors can follow after a traumatic event (such as a

violent-soccer crisis). He also expressed that victims of crisis receive counseling services

which must be planned. Soccer clubs in the states under study may achieve this through the

assistance of counseling professionals.

Evaluate the soccer crisis management plan as a finding is interesting and expected.

Kennedy (2003) pointed out that evaluation of the crisis management plan is an essential

aspect of crisis management. This is because evaluation involves the assessment of the plan

and strategies to determine its weaknesses for improvement. It also reveals the areas of

strength in the plan. Evaluation of the crisis management plan is therefore necessary for

soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

To update the soccer crisis management plan, was not surprising as it was expected.

When an evaluation takes place and the areas that need improvement are identified, there is

need for an update of the crisis management plan. This is in line with the view of Dyson and

Turco (1997) when they stated that feedback from the crisis evaluation is incorporated into the

crisis management plan to improve present and predict future occurrences and performance.

This update in the soccer crisis management plan is therefore acceptable to clubs. The effort

therefore to update the crisis Smanagement plan for the clubs is in the right direction.

The finding of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis management plan for clubs is not

surprising because one of the major tasks of a manager or administrator in any organization is

planning. This statement agrees with the observation of Bucher and Krotee (1998) when they

explained that sports managers carry out the management functions of planning, organizing,

controlling etc so as to secure the optimum achievement of objectives. The planning here

includes soccer crisis management plan in which Coaches and Team Managers are involved.

They are more likely not to differ in their opinion on the soccer crisis management plan.

Soccer crisis response strategies.

Table 3 addressed research question 3 which was on soccer crisis response strategies.

It revealed that five of the six items were considered appropriate for implementing all planned

crisis response strategies and therefore qualified for inclusion in the CMMSC. The data

identified the following soccer crisis response strategies: in safety call team members into

crisis talk; decide with the team members on the next immediate action to take about the

crisis; inform club owners, fans, parents / relatives of players and officials urgently about the

crisis situation; keep records of what happened during the soccer crisis; and adopt calm,

controlled and studied reaction to the soccer crisis. Only one item, engage in restitution to

compensate for contributory act to the crisis, did not qualify for inclusion in the CMMSC.

The acceptance of five out of six items in the soccer crisis response strategies is not

surprising. However the rejection of item 28 is not also surprising because many officials may

not like to engage in restitution to compensate for contributory act to a crisis since it might be

mistaken to mean that the club is responsible for the crisis. However, Dwyer, Osher and

Warger (1998) reported that management should be accountable for finding a solution to a

crisis that affects its organization. Management should also in their view engage in restitution

to compensate for contributory act to the crisis even when the organization is not solely

responsible for the crisis. Restitution to contributory act to a crisis could be reconsidered by

the soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria to assist them in managing a crisis case.

Club managements’ recognition of the importance of soccer crisis response strategies

agrees with the observation of Hessert (1998b) that sports teams develop and implement

action stages of response during a crisis. Reid (2002) also stated that crisis management

involves managing or controlling crisis well when it occurs. This also involves developing

crisis response strategies that can be implemented immediately and effectively. The response

stage of crisis management calls for implementation of all planned crisis response strategies

(Tymson and Sherman, 1998).

In safety, call team members into crisis talk, has since been recognized as a strategy in

crisis response. This finding supports the work of Mohammed (1998) when he stated that the

immediate response strategy to soccer crisis is for the team leaders to assemble their members

to safety urgently, rescue and evacuate all casualties and inform specific groups of the danger

and consequences of the situation. According to O’beirne and Ries (2002) team managers

should quickly call team members into crisis talk to reveal the detail of the incident. This

crisis talk in their view ensures that the club members are protected from the waiting media. It

is also under this safe condition that the management decides with the team members on the

next immediate action to take about the crisis. The Sports Media Challenge (1997) stressed

that it is vital for every member of a sports team to be aware of his response to a crisis.

Management decisions at this point in its view will guide each club member on the best

response option to the crisis.

To inform club owners, fans, parent / relatives of players and officials urgently about

the situation, is striking and interesting. The finding agrees with the opinion of O’Beirne and

Ries (2002) that team owners, fans, sponsors and other key publics are informed of the key

details of the crisis and a statement issued to the media confirming the crisis. The statement

also promises more information when full investigation on the crisis is undertaken. This

information is necessary to soccer clubs’ publics in the states under study because they are

more likely to be worried or disturbed by the event of the crisis. They will therefore get

accurate information from the club instead of hearing it from other sources which may have

been distorted.

The importance of record keeping as regards the result on keep records of what

happened during the soccer crisis, is not surprising. Stravros (1998) noted that keeping an up

to date record of events during a crisis and thereafter is an import aspect of crisis

management. This is because when memories of the past events fail, records appear to be the

only source for establishing the facts of the case and the missing link. Gozalex-Herrero and

Pratt (1995) had earlier indicated that an important crisis response strategy is keeping up to

date record of all event of the organization’s responses during crisis. This no doubt will help

the soccer clubs to have a reference point for present and future occurrences. Thus the need to

develop soccer crisis response strategies that will encourage all the clubs to keep records of all

events during crisis.

To adopt calm, controlled and studied reaction to the soccer crisis, is striking and

interesting. This agrees with the views of Paine (1994) that during crisis, sports organization

adopt calm, controlled and studied reaction to the crisis. According to him, this is necessary

even when an organization’s action or inaction leads to the crisis. He believed that taking

calm and studied approach works best. This is because a studied action is carefully planned

and it is not spontaneous but natural and therefore it is preferred. Paine and Sprague (2000)

maintained that it is good for the sports managers and coaches to take their time, maintain

their focus and control the pace during crisis. They explained that if they lose their cool, they

might lose control of the situation. The Sports Media Challenge (1997) summarized this thus:

the sports team must be alert, positive, keep calm and controlled in crisis and when facing the

media. Soccer clubs in the states need to adopt this approach during crisis.

Engage in restitution to compensate for contributory act to the crisis, is one of the

soccer crisis response strategies that did not qualify for inclusion in the CMMSC. Although a

soccer club may not be responsible for the crisis but it takes responsibility to ensure that the

incident is handled properly and in the shortest possible time. Reid (2002) on this note stated

that a sports team engages in restitution to compensate for acts, which might have contributed

to the crisis. Newson and Carrell (1991) had opined that for a crisis to be properly handled

there must be restitution in form of compensation for contributory acts that led to a loss,

damage, or injury during the crisis. This is to attempt to return the situation to the condition it

was before the change was caused by the crisis. This fact need to be understood by the soccer

clubs in the states.

The finding of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis response strategies for clubs is interesting

and expected. Helitzer (1992) revealed that the crisis management team must be conversant

with the crisis response strategies designed to address the crises that might arise in an

oganisation. Fink (2000) is of the view that management members should be abreast of the

best response strategies for handling various crises in an establishment. The Chief Coaches

and Team Managers in South-Eastern States ought to be in the crisis management team and

should also be abreast of the response strategies for club soccer crises. Again, these

administrators may have been experiencing different crises in their clubs and may also have

been adopting various measures in managing them. The soccer crisis response strategies

considered appropriate may have satisfied their interests and they felt the items should be

included in the CMMSC. The finding of no statistically significant difference among them is

therefore

Soccer crisis communication activities.

Table 4 addressed research question 4 which was on the soccer crisis communication

activities. It revealed that four items were considered appropriate for the management of crisis

among soccer clubs and therefore qualified for inclusion in the CMMSC. The data showed the

following: use the best club’s spokesperson in communication during club soccer crisis; be

prompt and avoid delay in communication to internal and external audiences during club

soccer crisis; address the feeling before facts in soccer crisis; and address the needs of each of

the club’s audiences in the crisis during communication.

The acceptance of the four items under soccer crisis communication activities is not

surprising since experts in Physical Education and Sports had already endorsed them. The

inclusion of the soccer crisis communication activities in the CMMSC is in realization of the

importance of crisis communication is the management of crisis. This finding is in agreement

with the views of Newson and Carrell (1991) that crisis communication is an important crisis

response strategy for crisis management. They explained that important relations are managed

at time of crisis by paying attention to communication and the way information about the

crisis is managed. They gave the five tenets of crisis communication as prompt, passionate,

honest, informative and interactive.

To use the best clubs spokesperson in communication during soccer crisis, is not

surprising but expected because Paine (1994) proposed that the most strategic step to take in

crisis communication is to have only one person (or spokesperson) communicating with the

news media and other external audiences. Even where the clubs sometimes use many

spokespersons such as other management staff in crisis communication, the Sports Media

Challenge (1997) suggested that it is wise to determine who the principal spokesperson is.

This according to the Sports Media is to co-ordinate the message so that they never conflict or

contradict themselves. The use of only one spokesperson in communication during crisis is

therefore essential for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

The indication that soccer clubs should be prompt and avoid delay in communication

to internal and external audiences during club soccer crisis, is revealing and expected. This is

because Newson and Carrell, (1991) identified being prompt and avoiding delay in

communication as one of the tenets of crisis communication. Ried (2002) disclosed that team

managers and coaches should inform the stakeholders immediately after a crisis that they

regret the terrible incident that had happened while they engage in the activities that would

help to amend the damages and prevent future occurrence. Identifying the organization’s

audiences and key messages as well as getting adequate information about the crisis according

to Kesler (1999) are so essential for rapid communication to send the information each

audience is looking for. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern States would be assisted through the

model to be prompt and avoid delay in communication to internal and external audiences

during club soccer crisis.

To address feelings first before facts during soccer crisis, is necessary and striking.

According to the Sports Media Challenge (1997), every team member should be aware of how

others perceive and feel about him and his team at all times. It is therefore necessary to

address their feelings first before the facts during crisis. The Sports Media suggested making

ones answer to the audience or publics colourful and giving them something to remember.

Newson and Carrell (1991) stated that one of the five tenets of crisis communication is being

compationate, in which case management considers the reality that addressing feeling is often

more important initially than addressing facts. Reid (2002) suggested that team manager,

coach or the spokesperson should inform their stakeholders immediately during a crisis that

they regret the terrible incident that had happened and they are doing all within their powers

to arrest the situation. This, according to him, is to take care of their feelings before revealing

the facts of the crisis case. Soccer clubs in the states need to address feeling first before facts

during crisis.

The importance of addressing the needs of each of the clubs’ audiences in the crisis

during communication is revealing and expecred. Bernstein (2002b) stated that the employees

of an organization, business owners, share-holders, parents, and sponsors are some of the

audiences that need to be briefed and their needs addressed during crisis communication.

Soccer club audiences such as the government, security, the media, club employees, parents

and relations of players and officials, and club owners are some of the audiences that should

be addressed during crisis communication (Hessert, 1998). The audiences need to get the

information about a soccer crisis directly from the club instead of getting it from a secondary

source which may be altered, misquoted or misinterpreted. The attempt therefore to develop a

soccer crisis communication activities that will guide all the clubs to address the needs of the

club’s audiences during crisis is justified.

To investigate whether there is any statistically significant difference in the mean

responses of Chief Coaches and Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis communication

activities for clubs; the one-way MANOVA statistic was employed. The analysis revealed no

statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the club officials. This result is

interesting and expected. This is because Bernstein (2001) stated that the Public Relation

Officer is the image maker of an organization and must have had training in crisis

communication along with other management staff. According to him, this is to equip them

with the necessary information to handle internal and external communication during the trios

of crisis. The Chief Coaches and the Public Relations Officers of the clubs may have been

trained in crisis management especially on crisis communication activities or acquired the

knowledge through experiences. They may also have good idea of the essential role of crisis

communication activities during crisis.

Soccer crisis mass media relations activities.

Table 5 which addressed research question 5 presented data on the soccer crisis mass

media relations strategies for crisis management in clubs. It clearly revealed that all the items

except item 37 qualified for inclusion in the CMMSC. The soccer crisis mass media relations

strategies include: have a written media policy for club soccer crisis; brief team members on

what to say about the crisis before contacting the media; give accurate information to the

media about the soccer crisis; build and sustain good cordial relationship with the media

during soccer crisis; make media statements clear and concise during club soccer crisis; be

diplomatic and respond only to media questions in which there are enough facts about the

soccer crisis; during media interview, rather than address the journalist, address the viewers,

readers or listeners on the soccer crisis; brief team members on media reports on the soccer

crisis; and clarify the media reporters on inaccurate information on the soccer crisis. Discover

what the newsmen like and keep to it during the soccer crisis, is the only item that did not

qualify for inclusion in the CMMSC. The soccer clubs recognition of the importance of

adopting soccer crisis mass media relations strategies, agrees with Cummins (1998)’s

assertion that the mass media is a major player in crisis and the seriousness of a crisis is

determined by the media industry’s reaction to the crisis. According to him, effective use of

the media during crisis has numerous benefits. This includes good opportunity to correct

wrong information, misinformation and wrong assumptions. Helitzer (1992) noted that it also

gives opportunity for an organization to give more information or clarification if needed by

the media on the incident. Soccer clubs therefore need to use the mass media effectively

during soccer crisis in order to achieve the above mentioned benefits.

Having a written media policy for club soccer crisis, has since been recognized as a

vital factor in crisis management. The result is expected because Helitzer (1992) revealed that

sports organization develops and implements a well written media policy outlining who could

speak to the media for the organization on key issues and during crisis. Dwyer, Osher and

Wager (1998) disclosed that it is necessary for a sports team to have a written media policy

and clear procedural guideline for players, officials, and other members during crisis. They

believe that a coach’s attitude and personal media rules strongly influence players. Hessert

(1999) explained that media policy includes instruction for everyone from the managers to the

technical advisers, coaches, others team officials and players on how to politely direct media

calls to designated spokesperson who are available 24 hours a day. He suggested that a team

should have a draft written pre-approved responses that can be provided to the media in case

they come up with similar or related questions about the crisis. The effort to develop soccer

crisis mass media relations strategies for clubs administrators that will guide them to have a

written media policy for crisis is a welcome development.

To brief team members on what to say about the crisis before contacting the media is

interesting and expected. This is because Coakley (1990) indicated that team members such as

Coaches, Officials, and other team employees of a sports organization are key links with the

team publics. The organization therefore has to brief the team members not only about what is

happening to the team but also what to say about the crisis before the organisation contacts the

media. Wilcox, Ault and Agee (1995) are of the opinion that an organization should inform

the employees of each new development about the crisis advising them that they can help the

organization overcome the crisis by staying focused and honestly serving the supporters and

key publics. Margulies (2002) is of the view that an organization should anticipate likely

questions from the media and prepare suitable answers. He advised that it is better to avoid

speculation and always comment on what an employee knows about the crisis.

The need for soccer clubs to give accurate information to the media about the club

soccer crisis is interesting and expected. This finding is in line with the views of Embry and

Flannery (1994) when they stressed that an organization in crisis should give accurate

information to the media about the crisis. This is because the honesty and sincerity of the

management make an impression that reflects in the coverage of the crisis story. Helitzer

(1992) had indicated that accurate information to the media helps to correct rumour and

wrong information before they contribute to heighten the crisis or cause much damage. Again

Cummins (1999) expressed that high level of sincerity is essential during crisis as the

spectators, fans, the general public and the media can tell if the coach or player is sincere or

not from the information he gives. The present study that tends to encourage all the clubs to

always give accurate information to the media during crisis is timely.

To build and sustain good cordial relationship with the media during soccer crisis is

striking and interesting and supports the work of Coakley (1990) that Team Managers,

Coaches and Spokesperson build and sustain good cordial relationship with the media men

and women (both reporters and editors). They also indicated that to keep crisis event under

control, the Public Relations Officer or Spokesperson in a team should relate well with the

media, otherwise, the team may look as if it is out of control of the situation. Wilcox, Ault and

Agee (1989) are of the view that when an organization works harmoniously with the media,

the reporters or editors may likely and or always publish their materials as well as write good

articles about the organization. The soccer clubs should therefore establish good working

relationship with the media both reporters and editors.

The rejection of item 37, discover what the newsmen like and keep to it during soccer

crisis, is not surprising. This is because the news media has a posture of being inquisitive and

suspicious (Cumming,1998) and not all the Managers, Coaches and other Club Officials

would be ready to give them all they like even though these approaches are the demands and

the very nature of the profession of journalism.

To make media statements clear and concise during club soccer crisis is interesting

and expected. This is because attention from the media during crisis can be a great public

relation tool or a turn in the flesh (Paine and Sprague, 2000). Debendotte (1998) had

suggested therefore that the administrators keep their thoughts or statements clear and concise

to avoid being misquoted or misinterpreted by the media men during crisis. Soccer clubs

therefore need to make their statements brief and clear during soccer crisis.

Be diplomatic and respond only to media questions in which there are enough facts

about the crisis are striking and expected. Bernstein (2002) insisted that it is reasonable to be

diplomatic in dealing with the media. He explained that it is not the best approach to comment

on the crisis events if one is not sure of the facts of the case in question. According to him, it

is rather better to respond only to media questions in which there are enough facts about the

crisis. Magulies (2002) suggested that individuals anticipate likely questions from the media

and prepare suitable answers as well as comment only on what one knows and avoid

speculations.

During media interview rather than address the journalist, address the viewers, readers

or listeners on the soccer crisis is also striking and expected. Hessert (1998) stated that it is

better to understand who the audience is during media interview so that rather than address the

journalist, address the viewers, readers or listeners on the crisis. In doing this, he suggested

that they should use words and analogies the interviewer and the audience can understand and

relate to; avoiding jargons and contradicting statements. The finding is also in agreement with

the opinion of Magulies (2002) that in dealing with the news media the interviewee should

precisely explain his points on the crisis to an average viewer, reader or listener.

To brief team members on media reports on the soccer crisis is equally expected. This

is because the attention from the media during crisis can be a great public relations tool or a

thorn in the flesh (Sports Media Challenge, 1997). The Sports Media also reported that team

members are briefed on media reports on the crisis so that they will have vital and first hand

information from the organization before the members are confronted by the media or the

general public. This again helps the team members to keep their thoughts clear and words in a

concise manner to avoid being misquoted and misunderstood. The team also speaks in one

voice when they are briefed and they can confidently correct inaccurate facts and assumptions

portrayed by the media when the opportunity calls. Bernstein (2002) believed that employees

are critical audiences and are public relations representatives for the organization and

therefore should be well informed about the crisis especially on media reports.

To clarify the media reporters on inaccurate information on the soccer crisis provides

justification for the assertion of Kesler (1999), that team leaders should use media interviews

to correct and clarify inaccurate information and assumptions especially about negative news

or crisis. This statement agrees with Helitzer (1992), when he noted that it is better for sports

organization to deliver press releases or articles personally to newsmen and see if they need

more information or clarification on the incident. The attempt to guide soccer clubs in South-

Eastern States of Nigeria to adopt this strategy during crisis is encouraging.

The finding of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis mass media relations strategies

for clubs is interesting and expected. Bernstein (2002) believed that employees are critical

audiences and are public relations representatives for the organization and therefore should be

well informed about the crisis especially on media reports and mass media relations strategies.

The two groups of club official are in the management crew and ought to have had training on

soccer crisis management especially on mass media relations strategies. The fact that they do

not differ in their opinion is therefore expected.

Soccer Crisis Recovery Measures

Table 6 addressed research question 6 and presented data on the soccer crisis recovery

measures essential for crisis management in clubs. The table clearly revealed that all the items

qualified for inclusion in the CMMSC. The items are: appropriately compensate victims of

soccer crisis; utilize insurance coverage for victims of the soccer crisis; utilize long-term

communication strategies to cover final decision and resolution of the soccer crisis case;

undertake Public Relations in form of enlightenment to regain public confidence or credibility

after the soccer crisis; follow-up soccer crisis events until its intensity and impact are reduced

on individual or club; and assess the plan, strategies and responses to the crisis and in-

cooperate feedback into the soccer crisis management plan for future use.

Evidence abound to support the fact that crisis recovery attempts to repair the damage

that has been done to individuals and organizations such as players and soccer clubs involved

in a crisis and possibly bring them back to their normal operating condition. Black (1989)

disclosed that crisis recovery measures in the aftermath of a crisis attempt to repair the

damage that has been done to individuals and the organization or to capitalize on the

opportunity the crisis has thrown up. Bernstein (1984) had opined that crisis recovery

activities are directed towards rebuilding relationship and the organizations position. The

acceptance of the six items in soccer crisis recovery measures is therefore not surprising but

expected.

Appropriately compensate victims of soccer crisis, has been identified as suitable

soccer crisis recovery measures. This is not surprising because the Sports Media Challenge

(1997) expressed that victims of crisis suffering from injuries or loss should be properly

handled or treated and compensated as crisis recovery measures. The Sports Media also

condemned a situation where these victims are inadequate treated or abandoned after

sustaining severe injuries or disability resulting from a crisis. This means that soccer clubs

especially in South-Eastern States must compensate their victims of crisis appropriately

without ignoring their conditions. The present study to develop measures to encourage clubs

to compensate all the victims of soccer crisis is therefore timely.

Utilize insurance coverage for victims of soccer crisis, is striking and interesting. This

is because Ojeme (1990) described insurance as a risk management process or mechanism in

which some measures of the uncertainty of loss or damage is shifted from one person to

another. He recommended the provision of insurance coverage for players and officials to

cover loss or damage resulting from sports competition. Insurance according to Jefkins (1988)

is a crisis recovery measure adopted by many individuals and organizations to take care of

victims of accidents and other uncertainties which result to injury, damage or loss. Soccer

clubs must take up insurance policies to cover all victims for damage or loss during soccer

crisis, mostly in South-Eastern States under study.

Utilize long-term communication strategies to cover final decision and resolution of

the soccer crisis case, identified by the subjects, is not surprising. This is because Gozalex-

Herrero and Pratt (1995) revealed that paying continuous attention to the organizations

multiple publics is one of the essential tasks in crisis recovery and this is achieved through

long-term communication strategy. Jefkins (1988) had reported that long-term crisis

communication is an important crisis recovery measure that continues after the crisis and

extents to the final decision and resolution of the crisis. Long-term communication may be

adopted by soccer clubs in the states under study to take care of their multiple publics during

and after a soccer crisis.

To undertake Public Relations in form of enlightenment to regain public confidence or

credibility after the soccer crisis, is interesting and expected. Bernstain (1984) indicated that

one of the crisis recovery activities directed towards rebuilding relations, public confidence

and organization’s position is to undertake public relations in form of enlightenment on the

crisis event. In his opinion, this is to enable the organization retain public confidence and

credibility after the crisis. According Reid (2002), after a crisis, public enlightenment helps

the organisation to clarify issues related to the crisis, repair the damage that has been done as

a result of misinformation and disinformation as well as bring back public confidence. Soccer

clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria therefore may need to undertake public relations in

form of enlightenment to regain public confidence or credibility after soccer crisis.

The need for club officials to follow-up soccer crisis events until its intensity and

impact is reduced on individual and club. The result agrees with the views of Gozalez-Herrero

and Pratt (1995) when they indicated that one of the tasks in crisis recovery is to continue to

pay attention to the organizations multi-publics, monitor and follow-up the crisis events until

its intensity is reduced on individual and the organization (such as a soccer club). The follow-

up activities according to them include long-term communication strategy. According to

O’beirne and Ries (2000), the follow-up activities involve implementing effective damage

control strategies. This justifies the effort in this study to develop measures to encourage clubs

to follow-up crisis event until its intensity and impact is reduced.

Another interesting aspects of the study that is striking and expected is assess the plan,

strategies and responses to the crisis and in-cooperate feedback into the soccer crisis

management plan for future use. Kennedy (2003) observed that another essential aspect of

crisis recovery is the evaluation of the crisis management plan, strategies and responses. In

other words, he meant that a comprehensive crisis recovery measure provides for evaluation

of both the crisis plan, if one existed and how the strategies and responses worked. Evaluation

of the crisis management process in the opinion of Fink (2000) is an investigation inform of

research to assess the extent to which the crisis management objectives have been achieved.

This will help to determine the areas of strength and weaknesses in the plan, strategies and

responses for improvement. The feedback from crisis evaluation according to Dyson and

Turco (1997) is in-cooperated into the crisis management plan to improve present and future

occurrences and performance. This finding shows the need for club officials in the area under

study to assess the crisis management process and in-corporate the feedback into the plan for

improvement.

The finding of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief

Coaches and Public Relations Officer on the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs is

striking and expected. Gozalex-Herrero and Pratt (1995) expressed that management members

in an organization must accept and familiarize themselves with the comprehensive crisis

recovery measures for handling crisis that may arise in the organization. When members of

management of an organization understand and apply the best crisis recovery measures to

crisis situation, Fink (2000) is of the view that they can easily bring back the organization to

their previous condition before the crisis. The two groups of club officials may have acquired

their knowledge of crisis recovery through training or experience on the job. Similarity in

their opinion is therefore expected

The agreement in the opinion of the soccer officials and team captains on the findings

indicates that they understand the processes of crisis management. This is in line with the

crisis intervention approach (Minaham, 1987), which emphasises three major approaches to

crisis namely: before crisis, during crisis and after crisis. This means that soccer clubs must

proactively plan to prevent, reduce or control crisis during soccer programme or competition.

They must also respond to it whenever it occurs and recover and return individuals and clubs

involved in the crisis to their normal operating conditions after the crisis. These approaches

are not done haphazardly. They follow a rational approach to management which is in line

with the scientific management theory as evolved by Fredrick Winslow Taylor (Ikhioya,

2001). For soccer clubs in South-Eastern State of Nigeria to succeed in the management of

crisis, they must not be reactive but proactive and adopting the crisis management processes.

Implications of the study

This section presents the implications of the study based on findings. One of the

findings of this study is that the components of the CMMSC should include objectives, soccer

crisis management plan, soccer crisis response strategies, soccer crisis communication

activities, soccer crisis mass media relations strategies and soccer crisis recovery measures.

The implication of this is that any crisis management programme or model for soccer clubs

should concentrate on these components because they constitute strategies, activities and

measures that promote or determine the management of soccer crisis and can be manipulated

to bring changes or modifications in terms of crisis prevention, response and recovery among

soccer clubs.

The objectives of the CMMSC can act as a guide to crisis management in soccer

programmes and competitions for individual players, officials and clubs. This implies that

such a programme should aim at crisis prevention or reduction, crisis response and crisis

recovery for the individuals and clubs.

The findings in soccer crisis management plan of the CMMSC have implication for

proactive rather than reactive approach to crisis management, among the soccer clubs. There

is no doubt that if club management could employ soccer crisis management plan in their

soccer training programmes, they will avoid spontaneous and not-fully thought-out plan and

practice of crisis management. They will be more effective in meeting the immediate and

long-term needs of players, officials and clubs involved in crisis, thereby avoiding its

consequences.

The research findings also indicated that soccer crisis response strategies should

involve action stages of response for club soccer crisis. This has implication for clubs and

club management that there is need to handle and control the crisis well in case it occurs. The

action stages include good soccer crisis communication and soccer crisis mass media

relations. This finding calls for club managers, coaches, other officials and team captains to

utilize effective soccer crisis communication approach in sending vital information about the

crisis to their key publics. It also calls for them to establish and utilize suitable mass media

relations strategies to work with media men during soccer crisis.

The finding on soccer crisis recovery measures have implication for club managers,

administrators, coaches and other officials to develop skills and abilities to resolve all issues

and problems after every soccer crisis. The officials need to develop the capability for

properly returning the players, officials and clubs involved in the soccer crisis to their normal

operating conditions after the crisis and carry on with the clubs business as usual.

The findings have implication for prioritizing crisis management in club soccer

operations such as in soccer programmes and competitions. The also has implication that there

is a gap between the knowledge of crisis management possessed by club officials and team

captains, and the practice in soccer clubs especially in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. A

guide inform of a kit is needed in order to assist them put their knowledge into practice in the

most efficient manner. The package of CMMSC will serve this purpose for the club officials,

team captains and clubs.

CHAPTER FIVE

Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations

Summary

The purpose of the study was to develop a crisis management model for soccer clubs

in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. To achieve this purpose of the study, seven research

questions were posed and seven hypotheses formulated.

The study was conducted to develop a crisis management model for soccer clubs in

South-Eastern States of Nigeria, using the Research and Development (R and D) Design. A

thirty-seven item questionnaire comprising the model objectives and content was developed.

The items were presented to a population of 110 subjects (Club Officials and Team Captains),

to ascertain the appropriateness or otherwise of the items. Mean was employed in answering

the research questions, while one-way MANOVA statistic was utilised to verify the null

hypotheses at .05 level of significance. Finally, the soccer crisis management model was

developed.

After extensive reviews of related literature, the development of the model passed

through six distinct stages through which the study identified six possible components of the

model. They include: objectives, soccer crisis management plan, soccer crisis response

strategies, soccer crisis communication activities, soccer crisis mass media relations strategies

and soccer crisis recovery measures. These components were delineated after seven experts

from multidiscipline validated the proposed model. Confirmatory factor analysis was

employed to identify items that loaded significantly (item-total correlation r = ≥ .30) on the

already identified items. This enabled the researcher eliminate items that failed to load

significantly on the already identified items. The contents of each component were also

identified.

The Research and Development (R and D) Design was used in the study. A modified

six steps of R and D was adapted for the conduct of the study. The six steps adapted in the

study included the following:

Step I = determining programme objective

Step II = determining model component

Step III = face validation of the proposed model

Step IV = empirical validation of the model component

Step V = main testing of the model, and

Step VI = final draft of proposed model.

The population for the study was made up of 110 club officials and team

captains in soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. The club officials and team

captains in the soccer clubs were used for the purpose of determining components of the

model. The researcher made use of 94 clubs officials and team captains in soccer clubs in the

States after 16 subjects dropped as their questionnaire copies suffered mortality.

Consequently, there was no sampling in the study.

A self-developed and validated questionnaire was the instrument for data collection.

Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient was used for test of reliability. The mean scores of

each item in the questionnaire were used for answering all the research questions. A criterion

mean of 2.50 and above was used to consider the items appropriate or suitable for inclusion in

CMMSC. One-way MANOVA was used to test for differences in mean responses of Club

Officials on the components of CMMSC. The schematic representation of CMMSC and the

description of the model are attached and were included in Appendices K and L respectively..

The following major findings were made:

1. A total of five objectives were identified (x = 3.16 > 2.50) to direct the development

and use of CMMSC in South-Eastern States of Nigeria (Table 1.

2. Six soccer crisis management plan items were identified (x = 2.91 > 2.50) to guide the

club officials and team captains to prevent / reduce crisis in clubs in South-Eastern

States of Nigeria (Table 2).

3. Six soccer crisis response strategies were identified (x = 2.93 > 2.50) as action stages

of response for managing or controlling club soccer crisis among clubs in the States

(Table 3).

4. Four soccer crisis communication activities (x = 3.00 > 2.50) were found appropriate

to help the clubs effectively communicate to key publics during and after the crisis in

the States (Table 4).

5. Ten soccer crisis mass media relations strategies were identified (x = 2.94 > 2.50) to

be essential to enhance individual and clubs’ public image and support during and

after the crisis in the States (Table 5).

6. Six soccer crisis recovery measures were identified (x = 3.11 > 2.50) to develop skills

and abilities of club members to solve issues and problems as well as return the clubs

to their normal operating conditions after soccer crisis in the States (Table 6).

7. A hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and Team Managers regarding the objectives of the CMMSC was accepted

[F(1,16 < 4.49) ] (Table 7).

8. The hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis management plan for clubs was

accepted [F (1,16 < 4.49)] (Table 8).

9. The hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis response strategies for clubs was

accepted [F(1,16 < 4.49)] (Table 9).

10. The hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis communication

activities for clubs was also accepted [ F(1,16 < 4.49)] (Table 10).

11. The hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis mass media relations

strategies for clubs was accepted [F(1,16 < 4.49)] (Table 11).

12. The hypothesis of no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the

Chief Coaches and Team Managers on the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs

was accepted [F ((1,16 < 4.49) ] (Table 12).

Conclusions

Based on the findings of the study and the discussions thereof, it was concluded that

the soccer crisis management objectives, soccer crisis management plan, soccer crisis

response strategies, soccer crisis communication activities, soccer crisis mass media

relations strategies, and soccer crisis recovery measures should be the areas covered by the

CMMSC in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

The five soccer crisis management objectives identified in table 1 should guide and

direct the use of the CMMSC.

Six soccer crisis management plan identified in table 2 should be adopted and utilised

by the soccer clubs to prevent / reduce crisis among the clubs.

The six soccer crisis response strategies in table 3 should be regarded as the suitable

action stages of responses for managing / controlling crisis in the clubs.

Four soccer crisis communication activities identified in table 4 should be regarded as

the appropriate activities to help the clubs to effectively communicate to key publics

during and after the crisis.

The ten soccer crisis mass media relations strategies identified in table 5 are strategies

essential to enhance individual and clubs’ pubic image and support during soccer crisis.

The six soccer crisis recovery measures identified in table 6 are measures to develop

skills and abilities of the club members to solve issues and problems after soccer crisis and

return the clubs to their former operating condition.

There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers on the objectives of crisis management model for the soccer clubs.

There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers on the soccer crisis management plan for the clubs.

There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers on the soccer crisis response strategies for the clubs.

There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches

and the Public Relations Officers regarding the soccer crisis communication activities for

the clubs.

There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches

and Public Relations Officers regarding the soccer crisis mass media relations strategies

for the clubs.

There is no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers on the soccer crisis recovery measures for the clubs.

The researcher is therefore of the opinion that the components of the model identified

in the study are adequate for the management of soccer crises among clubs in South-

Eastern States of Nigeria.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, discussions and conclusions, the following recommendations

were made:

1. Soccer clubs should prioritise the crisis management process in soccer programmes

and competitions especially in South-Eastern States under study.

2. The knowledge of crisis management possessed by the Club Officials and Team

Captains should be put into practice through the adoption or adaptation of the

CMMSC developed in the course of this study and integrated into their programme for

wide use among soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.

3. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern States should not overlook the process of crisis

management rather utilise the model to develop the skills and willingness to

implement it in their programmes and competitions.

4. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern States should utilise the CMMSC to assist them adopt a

proactive rather than reactive approach (or a fire brigade approach) in the management

of crisis in their programmes and during competitions.

5. Soccer clubs in South-Eastern States should adequately compensate individual players,

officials and clubs involved in crisis by utilizing insurance coverage, crisis counseling

and adequately compensating victims of club soccer crisis.

Limitations of the Study

The major limitation of this study was that out of the 110 club officials and team

captains that constituted the population, only 94 were returned and used in the study. Sixteen

of them suffered mortality for various reasons, either that their instruments were not properly

filled or the respondents did not return them. This number may have affected the result of the

study.

The result of the study which is based on the national premier soccer clubs in South-

Eastern States as compared to the population of soccer clubs in Nigeria, should not be freely

generalized on all the soccer clubs in the country.

Recommendations for Further Study

From the findings of the study, the following further studies are recommended:

1. Similar study should be carried out on a larger scale among soccer clubs in the country

and Sponsored by the National Sports Commission (NSC) in collaboration with the

Nigerian Football Federation (NFF) and the Nigerian Football League (NFL).

2. Knowledge and Practice of Crisis Management among Soccer Clubs in South-

Eastern States of Nigeria should be carried out.

3. Crisis Management Strategies adopted by Sports Teams in Nigeria, should also be

carried out.

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CRISIS MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR SOCCER CLUBS IN

SOUTH- EASTERN STATES OF NIGERIA.

BY

UGWUEZE, FABIAN CHIBUNINE

PG/PhD/98/ 25483

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION,

UNVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

OCTOBER, 2010.

i

Title Page

Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs (CMMSC) in South-Eastern States

of Nigeria

A Thesis Presented to the Department of Health and Physical Education, University of Nigeria,

Nsukka, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award

of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Degree in Administration

of Physical Education

By

Ugwueze, Fabian Chibunine

PG/Ph.D/98/25483

October, 2010.

ii

Approval Page

This thesis by UGWUEZE, Fabian Chibunine has been approved by the Department of

Health and Physical Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

By

--------------------------------- ------------------------------- Prof. S. U. Anyanwu Internal Examiner Supervisor

--------------------------------- ------------------------------- External Examiner Prof. O. A. Umeakuka

Head of Department

------------------------------------------

Prof. S. A. EzeuduDean

Faculty of Education

iii

Certification

UGWUEZE, Fabian Chibunine, a postgraduate student in the Department of

Health and Physical Education, with registration number PG/PhD/98/25483, has

satisfactorily completed the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in

Administration of Physical Education. The work embodied in this thesis is original and

has not been submitted in part or in full for any other Diploma or Degree of this or any

other University.

--------------------------------- ------------------------------- Prof. S. U. Anyanwu Ugwueze, Fabian Chibunine Supervisor (Student)

--------------------------------- ------------------------------- Date Date

iv

Dedication

This work is dedicated to my parents Late. Mr. Crescent Ugwuja Ugwueze and

Mrs. Maria Ugwueze for their love and sacrifice for the foundation of my education as

well as to all managers of crisis in soccer clubs.

v

Acknowledgements

May the Almighty God take the glory for the successful completion of this work. This is

especially for His journey mercies when I was shuttling from Obudu in Cross River State to

Nsukka.

My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor Prof. S. U. Anyanwu for providing useful

academic leadership, guidance and advice throughout the period of this study. May God bless

him most abundantly.

I acknowledge with gratitude the special academic assistance rendered to me by

Jonathan Bernstein of the Bernstein Communication USA, for allowing me to assess his

newsletters through his Communication outfit. I am also grateful for his e-mail letters of

encouragement that really motivated me to continue in this new area of sports management

and administration. I will not forget the support of Hessert K., through his work with the

Sports Media Challenge: A division of the Communication Concepts, USA. His work gave

me a clearer view and direction on what crisis management means in sports. I am also grateful

to O’beirne, P. Ries, S.; Reid, J. and Nwosu, I. E. for supporting this study with their works

on crisis management.

I also acknowledge in a special way Prof. F.A.Amuchie, Prof, O. A Umeakuka, Dr E.

Nwagu, Dr F. A. Okwo, Barr. S. Ezeugwu (PRO, UNN), Okwuluora, G. Arazu and Mr G. N.

Ogbobe (Director of Sports, UNN), who were part of my instrument validation team. Their

advice helped to improve the quality of the work.

The study also derived a lot from the suggestions of Tr. Prof. R. U. Okafor, Prof. C. E.

Ezedum, Dr. E. S. Samuel, Dr I. O. Nwimo, Dr B. A. Ogwo, and Dr O. C. Ogu. They all

encouraged and or supported me in one way or the other in this study. May God Almighty

reward them accordingly.

I recognise with immense gratitude the sacrifice made by club managers and

administrators such as the soccer club chairmen, club secretaries and coaches in Kogi State

especially Yakubu Musa and Augustine Okpanachi who played key roles in the preliminary

field-testing of the instrument. I also recognise the club chairmen, secretaries and coaches in

South-Eastern States, who took it upon themselves to ensure that the

vi

instrument was distributed and returned at the main field-testing stage. Their support at this

point was immeasurable as they assisted in the course of data collection and processing which

made the task easier. Some of them are :Mr F. Ugwu (Secretary, Sports Council, Enugu) Mr,

E. Eze (PRO, Enugu Rangers), Mr G. Ndudi and Mr E. Iwuagwu (Heartland FC, Owerri),

Chief Sam Ejimofor (Arugo,FC, Owerri), Mr D. Ome (Secretary, Ebonyi Angels, Abakiliki),

Mr I. Obodike (Gabros Int., Nnewi) Mr A Uwakwe and Mr S. Onwuchekwa (OUK,

Umuahia), Mr C. Kalu (Enyimba Int. FC, Aba), Mr T. A. Ndukauba and Mr N. Ekwujune

(Relaxers FC, Enugu), to mention but a few.

Finally, Dr (Mrs) M. N. Agu and Mr J. Eze deserve my special thanks for their

assistance in data analysis. I also thank Miss Chika Nnamani and Miss Joy Asogwa for

processing the work.

Ugwueze, Fabian Chibunine

vii

Table of Contents

Title Page……………………………………………………………………………..i

Approval Page………………………………………………………………………..ii

Certification…………………………………………………………………………..iii

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….iv

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………….v

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………..vii

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………..ix

List of Figures………………………………………………………………………….x

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….…...xi

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction ……………………………………….…………..1

Background to the Study……………………………………………………..………….1

Statement of the Problem …………………………………………………......................8

Purpose of the Study ……………………………………………………….....................9

Research Questions ……………………………………………………………………...9

Hypotheses …………………………………………………………………………...10

Significance of the Study ……………………………………………………………10

Scope of the Study ……………………………………………………………………12

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review ……………………...........................................13

Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………………………13

Crisis………………………………………………………………………………13

Type of crisis………………………………………………………………………16

Public relations…………………………………………………………………….17

Causes of crisis…………………………………………………………………….17

Management………………………………………………………………………..21

Crisis management………………………………………………………………….22

Crisis management in sports………………………………………………………..23

Crisis management in soccer clubs………………………………………………….23

Objectives of crisis management ………………………………………………......24

Crisis management plan……………………………………………………………..24

Crisis management response strategies……………...………………………………27

Crisis communication activities……………………………………………………..30

Crisis mass media relations strategies……………………………………………….31

Crisis recovery measures…………………………………………………………….35

viii

Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………………………38

Crisis intervention approach…………………………………………………………..38

Scientific management theory………………………………………………………...39

Management By Objectives (MBO)

…………………………………………………..40

Empirical Studies on Crisis Management ……………………………………………………42

Summary of Literature Review ………………………………………………………………48

CHAPTER THREE: Methods……………………………………..………………..50

Research Design ……………………………………………………………...........................50

Area of the Study…………………………………………………….………………………..52

Population for the Study …………………………………………………………………......52

Sample and Sampling Techniques …………………………………………………………...52

Instrument for Data Collection ……………………………………………………………….53

Validity of the instrument

…………………………………………………………….53

Reliability of the instrument ………………………………………………………….54

Method of Data Collection …………………………………………………………………...54

Method of Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………….54

CHAPTER FOUR: Results and Discussion ………………………………………………56

Results………………………………………………………………………..........................56

Summary of Major Findings ……………………………………………..…........................66

Discussion ………………………………………………………...........................................67

Implications to the Study…………………………………………………….........................83

CHAPTER FIVE: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations …………………….85

Summary…………………………………………………………………….........................85

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..........................87

Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………...88

Limitations to the Study……………………………………………………………………..89

Recommendations for Further Studies………………………………………........................89

References …………………………………………………………………………………..90

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………………………..99

Appendix A Grouping of Soccer Club Officials…………………………………………….99

ix

Appendix B Registered Soccer Clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria……………...100

Appendix C Composition of Officials in a Soccer Club…………………………………...101

Appendix D Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs Questionnaire (73 items)……….102

Appendix E Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs Questionnaire (37 items)………106

Appendix F Reliability Using Cronbach alpha Statistic b/f Confirmatory Factor Analysis.110

Appendix G Reliability after Confirmatory Factor Analysis………………………………115

Appendix H Letter of Introduction…………………………………………………………116

Appendix I Mean Scores using the SPSS for MS WINDOWS…………………………….117

Appendix J One-way MANOVA Statistic………………………………………………...120

Appendix K Schematic Representation of the CMMSC in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.127

Appendix L Description of the Model……………………………………………………...128

List of Tables

Table Page

1.Objectives of CMMSC……………………………………………………………..56

2.Soccer crisis management plan……………………………………………………..57

3.Soccer crisis response strategies……………………………………………………58

4.Soccer crisis communication activities……………………………………………59

5.Soccer crisis mass media relations strategies………………………………………60

6.Soccer crisis recovery measures……………………………………………………62

7.Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers regarding the objectives of the CMMSC………………………63

8.Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis management plan for clubs……….63

9.Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of Chief Coaches

and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis responses strategies for clubs…….64

10.Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of the Chief

Coaches and the Public Relations Officers regarding the soccer crisis

communication activities for clubs………………………………………………….64

11.Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of the Chief Coaches

and the Public Relations Officers on the soccer crisis mass media relations

strategies for clubs…………………………………………………………………….65

12.Result of one-way MANOVA statistic of the responses of the Chief Coaches

and Team Managers regarding the soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs………65

x

List of Figures1. Conceptual Framework of Soccer Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs..38

2. Theoretical Framework of Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs……….41

113Appendix F (ctd)

Confirmatory Factor Analysis and their Item-Total Correlation

Variable Factor 1 Item – Total Correlation

Items 1 .5382

Items 2 .3159

Items 4 .3026

Items 11 .3709

Items 13 .3869

Items 15 Factor 2 .4712

Items 18 .4647

Items 23 .4466

Items 27 .5106

Items 28 .5712

Items 29 .3897

Items 34 Factor 3 .3417

Items 35 .5736

Items 37 .4096

Items 41 .3256

Items 42 .4907

Items 43 .6217

Items 46 Factor 4 .3898

Items 47 .5994

Items 48 .3097

Items 49 .3767

Items 53 Factor 5 .3933

Items 54 .4529

Items 55 .7900

Items 56 .5544

Items 57 .5933

Items 58 .5613

Items 60 .3081

114

Items 61 .4120

Items 62 .3030

Items 63 .5933

Items 65 Factor 6 .3154

Items 66 .4191

Items 68 .5313

Items 69 .3138

Items 70 .3120

Items 71 .5908

xi

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to develop a Crisis Management Model for Soccer Clubs (CMMSC) in South-Eastern States of Nigeria. To achieve this purpose, six research questions were posed and six null hypotheses postulated for their verification at .05 alpha level. The Research and Development (R and D) design was used for the study. The instrument for data collection was questionnaire. Thirty seven items reflecting the components such as the soccer crisis management objectives, soccer crisis management plan, soccer crisis response strategies, soccer crisis communication activities, soccer crisis mass media relations strategies and soccer crisis recovery measures of the CMMSC were generated and included in the questionnaire. Seven experts validated the instrument. Confirmatory factorial analysis was also carried out on the instrument. The final daft of the instrument had a 4-point scale of Very High Extent = 4, High Extent = 3, Low Extent = 2 and No Extents = 1. Cronbach’s alpha reliability test was used to establish the reliability of the instrument. The respondents consisted of 100 Club Officials and 10 Team Captains in soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria, giving a study population of 110. Ninety four (94) subjects responded to the instrument. There was no sampling. The mean score was used to answer all the research questions. One-way MANOVA statistic was used to test the hypotheses. The following were the major results of the study: Five objectives were accepted as appropriate for soccer crisis management, six soccer crisis management plans, six soccer crisis response strategies, four soccer crisis communication activities, ten soccer crisis mass media relations strategies and six soccer crisis recovery measures were identified and included in the CMMSC. There was no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of the Chief Coaches and Team Managers regarding the objectives of the CMMSC, soccer crisis management plan, soccer crisis response strategies, and soccer crisis recovery measures for clubs. There was equally no statistically significant difference in the mean responses of Chief Coaches and Public Relations Officers regarding the soccer crisis communication activities and soccer crisis mass media relations strategies. Finally, a crisis management model was developed for soccer clubs in South-Eastern States of Nigeria.