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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

A child is a member of the society and as well a citizen of a nation who

has every right for survival, growth and development. A child as described by

Bernard (2001) is every human being below 18 years of age. According to United

Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2007), childhood

stage covers the crèche, the nursery or early childhood (0-5) years, primary

school (6-12) years and secondary school (12 -18) years. The childhood period is

a sensitive stage in the life of every individual requiring special care and

attention. For instance, Anyakoha and Eluwa (2008) noted that, a child is a young

person who depends on others for the provision of daily food, clothing and

shelter. In the concept of this study, a child is a young person at early childhood

stage of 0-5 years in pre-primary schools under the careful and consistent

attention of the care-givers.

Evans, Myers and Ilford (2000) affirmed that a child with consistent

caring attention is generally better nourished, less likely to be sick and learn

better than a child who does not receive such care. The care, attention and respect

to be given to the child are specified by the rights of the child. Evans, et al (2000)

reported further that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the child

specified among others that:

all children without distinction of gender, race, language, religion or of

any other kind should have the opportunity to develop to full potential.

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children, by reason of their physical and mental vulnerability, need special

safeguards and care.

children living in difficult circumstances need special consideration.

Parent, families, men as well as women, have the primary responsibility

for the upbringing, development and education of their children.

government should establish a policy environment that ensures families

and communities fulfil their responsibilities of child caring and protection.

The report of NERDC/UNICEF (2013) showed that rights of Nigerian

child are clustered into four main domains which include: survival rights,

protection rights, participation rights and development rights. For the child to

survive and steadily develop, someone has to care for him to reach his full

potential and development. This is because, the child’s physical and

psychological needs must be met by one or more people who understand what

children, in general need, and what the particular child under his/her care needs.

Thus, the child’s growth and development in all aspects (health, cognition,

perception, personhood, response to the environment among others) depends on

the capacity of adults in whose care the child rests for assistance and support.

Anuna (2005) reported that the child as the hope of further human existence

needs love, attention and care for meaningful growth and development.

Development of every human person is a continuous process which starts

from conception. Development is a product of interaction of inherited

potentialities and the environment, maturation and learning. Izuwa (2002) viewed

development as the systematic, qualitative and quantitative changes which are

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progressive, orderly and coherent. According to the author, the development of a

child is always more rapid and dramatic than at any other stage in the

development process of the human person. At early childhood stage, nature and

nurture have major roles to play in child development. Nature according to

Berger (2005) refers to the influence of the genes that each person inherits from

his or her parents at the moment of conception while nurture refers to all the

environmental influences that come into play after conception, beginning with

the mother’s health during pregnancy and including all the individual’s

experiences in the outside environment. Speaking on the effect of nurture on

child development, Olaitan and Akpan (2003) stated that the experience gained

may make or mar the child permanently due to rapid brain development and

character formation of the child. This implies that the child learns a lot, and what

he/she learns at the childhood stage of development in addition to other

environmental factors affect all other stages of the child’s life as an adult. This

makes the roles of care-givers of the child more important at early childhood

stage.

The care-givers are those who take care of the child. Evans, et al (2000)

described a care-giver as someone who cares for a child whether on a long term

or short-term basis. According to Bernard (2001) care-giver is called legal or

periodic guardian that has the primary responsibility for upbringing and

development of the child. Parents, foster parents, family members, baby sitters

and child-care workers are considered care-givers who provide the necessary care

services to the child (Brisbane, 2000). Child-care services are provisions made to

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improve optimal growth and development in childhood through disease

prevention, good health, food and nutrition. Child-care service is therefore the

right of every child and must not be denied for any reason (Turman, 2003). Child

care services at home are offered by the parents, siblings of the child, other

relatives and non-relative care-givers employed to offer such services. Child

care-givers in the context of this study are trained individuals employed by

administrators of pre-primary schools and charged with the sole responsibilities

of providing the necessary care giving services towards supporting the normal

physical, social, psychological and educational growth and development of the

child in a formal school setting.

Child-care services in day care centers, nursery and pre-primary schools

are more formalized than those at home. Pre-primary education is the type of

formal education given to children of school age outside the home prior to their

entering primary school. According to Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) the

National Policy on Education stipulated that the purposes of pre-primary

education are to:

effect a smooth transition from the home to the school;

prepare the child for the primary level of education;

provide adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents

are at work;

inculcate social norms;

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inculcate in the child the spirit of inquiry and creativity through the

exploration of nature, the environment, art, music and playing with toys,

etc;

develop a sense of co-operation and team spirit;

learn good habits, especially good health habits, and

teach the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes, forms, etc,

through play.

There are five types of pre-primary school arrangements. These according

to Burchinal and Cryer (2003) include: (1) child-care center; (2) child-care home

(care in someone else’s home by a non-relative or relative other than the child’s

grandparents); (3) care at home by someone other than parents or grandparents;

(4) grandparent care, or (5) father care”. For the care-giver irrespective of the

type of pre-school arrangement to be successful in carrying out her expected

child-caring services for the actualization of the pre-primary education, certain

child-care skills must be possessed by the care-givers.

Skill according to Okorie (2000) is a habit of acting, thinking and

behaving in a specific activity in such a way that the process becomes natural to

the individual through practice. In the view of Osinem and Nwoji (2005), skill is

the ability to perform an activity expertly. The authors further added that skill is a

well established habit of doing things and involves the acquisition of

performance capability through repetitive performance of an operation. Skill as

described by Hull (1991) is the habit of doing something well; especially skill

gained through training or experience. Okorie and Ezeji (1988) classified skills

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into technical and human skills. Technical skills are those skills that call for

proficiency in specific activities, particularly those involving methods, processes,

procedures or techniques for their effective performance. Human skill on the

other hand deals with skills acquire through years of experience or training for

proficiency on the job (Sedaei, 2003). In this study, both the technical and human

skills are basic skills that are required by the care-givers for child upbringing in

pre-primary schools.

There are basic skills inherent in the performance of the tasks of care-

giving in pre-primary schools. According to Clayton (2000), these skills are:

feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet-training skills, interacting skills, safety skills,

and hygiene skills. Feeding skills of care-givers and parents are careful

meal/menu planning for combining the required food items to ensure that the

desired expectation in the nutritional, physical growth and development of the

child are met (Kaiser, 2000). The Federal Ministry of Health (2004) reported that

poor nutrition among the children results not only from a lack of food but also

from inappropriate feeding practices by care-givers. Appropriate clothing skills

need to be possessed by care-givers to safeguard the child against harsh

environmental condition and diseases. Toileting and interacting skills are

psychosocial development skills that are concerned with areas such as cognition,

temperament/personality, motivation, self-perception and interpersonal

development of the child (Kimbon and Roskett, 2003). Interacting skills of the

care-givers for instance can be exhibited through educative child playing,

storytelling and songs among others. Safety and hygiene skills are very sensitive

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and need the efforts of the care-giver to safeguard the child against injury and

any form of danger. Bupa (2008) maintained that high levels of personal hygiene

are important and effective ways to stop diseases from spreading among children.

In his own view, Clayton (2000) noted that child care-giving skills, like

other skills, are learned and not inborn traits. Generally, child care-caring skills

are learnt through early life experience with other care-givers and acquiring the

skills is a lifelong learning process. In addition, the skills a care-giver needs can

change as children grow up. For this reason, Brisbane (1994) stated that effective

care-givers need to continue to develop child-care skills all their lives. In support

of this submission, Growth and McCall (2003) stated that in order to provide

more warmth to the child, sensitive and responsive care-givers require constant

and timely training.

Nursery and pre-primary schools are located in various places across the

length and breadth of Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Some of the pre-primary

schools are owned by the government, while some others are owned and

managed by private individuals for the purpose of providing physical,

psychological, social and educational needs of the child. It is imperative to state

that most of the care-givers in pre-primary schools in Nigeria and Abuja in

particular are not careful in handling children in the schools. This may be

because majority of the pre-primary school care-givers in FCT Abuja are not

very skilled in the art of childcare practices. In order to verify the above claim,

the skills needed by care-givers for quality care-giving of the pre-primary school

child need to be identified. Hence, this study was conducted to identify childcare

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skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary schools in Federal Capital Territory

(FCT), Abuja.

Statement of the Problem

The future of any country depends on how well the present generation of

her children are looked after. The fact is that, children easily get bonded and

affectionately attached to significant adults around them in their early years. This

has continued to make care-givers and their care important in the child’s survival,

growth, and development. The whole process of child-caring also implies that

characteristic values and behaviours of care-givers can also be learnt by the child

through modelling and imitation.

At early childhood stage of foundation and basic skill learning, the child

needs good care. For the pre-school child, the care-givers have a lot of influence

on his/her growth and development. However, it is not clear whether the child

care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Nigeria have adequate skills

that are needed for them to be able to provide the type of care, attention and good

foundation needed by the children they are caring for. If they do not posses these

skills, then, the pre-primary school child under their care will not be properly fed,

toilet-trained, clothed, interacted with, safe guarded and hygienically cared for.

Thus, lack of the skills needed to do all the above may result in the child having

poor social and emotional development. This, of course will have a great

negative effect on the child’s all-round maturation, development and well being.

Based on the above ideas, it is understandable why Action for Child

Protection Inc (2008) emphasized that all people who care for children need

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specific child-care skills to be able to do their job very efficiently. These are

skills that unfortunately, no one is born with, but that fortunately, everyone can

learn. Data and information available to the researcher consistently point to the

fact that majority of the child care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT)

(and in so many other parts of Nigeria) are not really aware of the specific skills

they need to be able to assist the children to develop well. Besides, available

information show that very little, to almost no work, has been carried out to

determine the specific skills needed by child care-givers in the Federal Capital

Territory (FCT). Thus, the problem that warranted this study is that it is

important to identify the child-care skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary

schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria.

Purpose of the Study

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the child-care skills

needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory

(FCT), Abuja. Specifically, the study determined:

1. child feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja;

2. child clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;

3. child toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;

4. child interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;

5. child safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools;

6. child hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.

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Significance of the Study

Through quality child-care, the child’s basic needs are met through

appropriate feeding, clothing, love, protection, and socialization into an

acceptable adulthood. Therefore, the findings of this study will be of immense

benefit to parents, care-givers, curriculum planners, education policy making

bodies such as Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC), State Universal

Basic Education Board (SUBEB), United Nations Children’s Education Fund

(UNICEF), Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC),

National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), Colleges of Education

(COE), Ministry of Education (MOE), proprietors/individuals who are employers

of care-givers in pre-primary schools and researcher with special research interest

in quality assurance in pre-primary education in Nigeria and other countries.

Through the research findings that will be provided by this study,

education policy making stakeholders will be furnished with information for pre-

primary school programme review and update to meet societal needs for

improved early childhood education system in the country. It is expected that the

findings of this study if brought to the awareness of all stakeholders who are

involved in care about the future of Nigerian child, it will enable them to carry

out their tasks efficiently for the good of the Nigerian child. In this way, the

findings of this study, by producing more knowledge about child care-giving

skills will lead to more effective child-care services and enable parents have full

value of the fees they pay for their children’s care.

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The findings of this study will benefit care-givers because the study will

provide useful information that will assist care-givers in pre-primary schools to

make desirable changes for the growth and development of the children under

their care. In this way, children will be properly fed, clothed, protected and

socialized. It will also be useful to care-givers by furnishing them with the skills

they will adopt to improve their child-care practices. A care-giver with adequate

skills will be able to execute his/her responsibility expertly and this will reduce

adverse practices.

The findings of the study will also bring to the knowledge of proprietors

of child-care centers the skills they should look out for in their present and future

staff for effective care-giving in pre-primary schools.

Curriculum planners of pre-primary school programmes will also benefit

from the findings of this study. This is because the findings of this study will

help the planners of programmes such as Early Childhood Care and Education

(ECCE) in developing course contents useful for instructors on care-giving skills.

The findings will also be relevant to ECCD, UBEC/SUBEB, NERDC/UNICEF,

NCCE/COEs, MOE, and other educational institutions that offer courses in child-

care education. This is because these findings will guide those in charge of these

institutions in choosing which skills they need to emphasize while training care-

givers.

The findings will also provide insights for educationists to formulate

theories that can enrich the pre-primary school care-giving, teaching, and

training. This is because the findings of this study will validate the relevance of

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socio-cognitive theories of child development and John Bowlby’s attachment

theory which are the theoretical frameworks for this study. Thus, it is also hoped

that this study will serve as a basis for further research work in related areas of

child care.

All these areas of significance of this study would be achieved if the

findings are further discussed in seminars, workshops and other sensitization

workshops. Fellow researchers and academics with research interest on issues

bothering on pre-primary education and early child care education will be

provided with information that will help to sharpen the focus of their studies.

The theoretical significance of this study is based on the premise that care-

givers need to possess care-giving skills to be able to support/care for the pre-

primary school children under their care. Thus, the study sees care-givers as a set

of people that contribute in structuring/determining the future of the Nigerian

child. In addition, this provides more understanding for the expectation that the

skills possessed by care-givers have impacts on the development of the child and

the future of the society.

Research Questions

This study provided answers to the following research questions:

1. What child feeding skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

in FCT, Abuja?

2. What child clothing skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools?

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3. What child toilet training skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools?

4. What child interacting skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools?

5. What child safety skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools?

6. What child hygiene skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on the feeding skills needed by the care-givers

in Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

2. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on the clothing skills needed by the care-

givers.

3. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on the toileting skills needed by the care-

givers.

4. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early

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child care experts and nurses on the interacting skills needed by the care-

givers.

5. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on the safety skills needed by the care-givers.

6. There is no significant difference among the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, secondary school Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on the hygiene skills needed by the care-

givers.

Scope of the Study

This study focused on the care-giving skills needed by care-givers in pre-

primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory, FCT, Abuja, Nigeria. The study

was limited to the following: feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet-training skills,

interacting skills, safety skills, and hygiene skills.

The geographical scope of this study is the Federal Capital Territory,

Abuja. Data for the study were collected from care-givers in pre-primary schools,

Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and Nurses in the study area.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discussed the related literature for the study and are presented

under the following sub-headings:

1. Conceptual Framework

Concept of child and child right

Concept of child care-givers

Concept of skill

Child care skill needs of pre-primary school care-givers

2. Theoretical Framework

Social-cognitive development theory,

Evolution and ethology theories,

3. Review of Related Empirical Studies

4. Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework for research purposes is a schematic description

and illustration of the causative mechanisms and relationship deducible from the

research problems (Eboh, 2009). Conceptual framework depicts a schema

providing structural meaning and linkages among major concepts or variables in

a phenomena being investigated, their interdependence and relationship with

each other. The conceptual framework of this study addressed such concepts as

the child, need of the child, concept of child care, concept of child care-givers,

concept of skill and child-care skill needs of pre-primary school care-givers

which include: feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet training skills, interacting

skills, safety skills and hygiene skills.

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Concept of child and child right

A child is a human being within the vulnerable ages of 0-18. He/she is in

dare need of others for his/her feeding, clothing, support, security, protection,

guide, and so on. According to the United Nations Convention on the rights of

the child, a child is any human being under the age of eighteen (UNICEF, 1989).

In the view of Anyakoha and Eluwa (2008), a child is a young person who

depends on others for the provision of daily food, clothing and shelter. For this

reason, the child is helpless, hence the use of the term ‘vulnerable’ in the first

definition above. Kimbell (2003) stated that the child’s helplessness is significant

because he cannot provide his own basic needs. For the child to survive and

develop, someone has to nurture him. He depends on others for development.

Yet, being a human being, he has rights to be assisted in the process of

development.

According to Evans, Myers and Ilfeld (2000) children have a right to love

and to develop to their full potential. Besides the above, UNICEF (2000)

identifies four broadly recognized rights of every child as follows: survival,

development, protection, and participation. Still, it is the adults around the child

whose duties/responsibilities it is to help the child survive and develop. They can

do these by protecting the child and making him/her participate in his/her

environment.

Needs of the Child

Need in the view of Chutta (1992) is what one requires in order to meet a

target standard. Olaitan, Nwachukwu, Igbo, Onyemachi and Ekong (1999)

explained that need is a requirement deemed necessary for effectiveness. In the

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context of this study, need is the basic educational, nutritional, social and health

requirement of a child for adequate growth and development of pre-primary

school children.

Children, just like any human being, have physical, emotional, social, and

mental needs that must be met. While one is caring for, playing with, and

teaching children, it is up to the person to fulfill these needs. According to

Clayton (1994), all children have basic, physical needs. They need healthy food,

appropriate clothing and safe and stimulating environment. Children need to be

reassured that someone cares. They are very sensitive to feelings about them.

Care-givers should be warm and friendly with them. Children need to be spoken

kindly to because they can tell by the way one touches, holds, or talks to them

that they are loved. An outline of some of the ways care-givers can respond to the

needs of children include: guiding children, communicating positively to children

and encouraging children (Clayton, 1994).

Guiding Children: It is important to give children guidance or direction.

Children need to learn basic rules for behavior. These rules will help them to stay

safe, learn self-control, and learn to get along with others. According to Clayton

(1994), these rules are usually set by the children’s parents. Care-givers and

several others can help reinforce the limits and set good examples.

In guiding children, there is the need to be consistent. Being consistent

means doing what one says he/she will do and avoiding saying things he/she

doesn’t mean. When the care-giver is consistent, he/she reacts the same way to

the same situation each time it occurs. For example, if he/she explains to children

that they shouldn’t hit their brother or other children, but he/she laughs when

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they do it, the care-giver in such a situation is not consistent (UNICEF, 2000).

Children become confused when their care-giver is not consistent. This is

because consistency in guiding children helps them know what to expect.

Communicating Positively: Children need positive forms of

communication. They listen better when positive statements are used in

addressing them. To be able to respond to this particular need, care-givers should

use simple and positive sentences that are easy to understand. Children need to be

told what they should do rather than what they should not do (Draper and Draper,

1975). Another aspect of positive communication as a response to children’s

need is praising them for what they do well. This is why care-givers should be

encouraging in their comments (Clayton, 1994).

Encouraging Independence: Children need to gradually develop into

being independent. They want to be able to do things for themselves. As they try

to do new things on their own, they will probably make mistakes at first. It takes

practices to learn skills like using a fork, brushing teeth, or tying their shoes. Just

like adults, children learn from their mistakes. If one always helps children with

something they could do themselves, they won’t think they can do it alone, or

they may feel like crying, if they make mistakes. This is again where care-givers

can respond to children’s needs. If children make mistakes, the proper response is

to encourage them to keep trying, praise their efforts, even when the results are

not exactly right (Ashiabi, 2000).

From the above outline of needs and examples of the proper response to

them, it is clear how care-givers can respond to children’s needs and help them

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feel secure. Their encouragement and consistent guidance are meant to help

children grow to be healthy, secure individuals. Care-givers are so important that

in guiding and communicating with children, they model, coach, and respond to

or do not respond to their distress signals and needs (Clayton, 1994).

The roles of modeling, coaching, and responding to the needs of children,

influence the emotional development of the children. With regard to modeling,

children’s expressiveness reflects their care-givers’ total emotional

expressiveness. For instance, Ashiabi (2000) noted that care-givers who often

exhibit anger are, more likely to have children who show anger, because through

modeling, care-givers give children information about the nature of emotions,

their expressions, and how to cope with their own emotions and those of others.

This means that by modeling various emotions, care-givers implicitly teach

children those emotions that are acceptable for specific types of situations, and

the common behaviours associated with their expression. In all, “modeling by

care-givers provides an overall environment to which the child is exposed”, and

why care-givers “respond in a consistent manner, they help children develop

alternative views of the world and relationships.

The knowledge, skills, and practices of early childhood educators and

care-givers are important factors in responding to the needs of children. In the

case of pre-primary school children, Sheridan, Edwards, Marvin and Knoche

(2009) stated that the proper responses to their needs help in determining how

much a young child learns and how prepared that child is for entry into school.

The report of UNICEF (2000) established that early childhood educators are

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being asked to have deeper understandings of child development and early

education issues; provide richer educational experiences for all children,

including those who are vulnerable and disadvantaged; engage children of

varying abilities and backgrounds; connect with a diverse array of families; and

do so with greater demands for accountability and in some cases, fewer

resources, than ever before.

It is important also to note that to be able to respond to children’s needs,

there has to be good care-giver-child relationship. When the relationship is good,

children’s needs are better met and on time. However, when the care-giver-child

relationship is not cordial, the child’s needs for development are not likely to be

suitably provided. Hence, Cohen, Onunaku, Clothier, and Poppe (2005) noted

that relationships with the primary care-giver are especially important for

development in the first years of life because the child’s primary care-givers

structure the experiences and shape the environments within which early

development unfolds. Babies and young children need to have the opportunity to

develop a close, trusting relationship or secure attachment with at least one

special person. Those who develop a secure attachment with a primary care-giver

during the early years of life are more likely to later have positive relationships

with peers, be liked by their teachers, perform better in school, and respond with

resilience in the face of adversity as they grow and become preschoolers and

older students (Hildebrand, 1997). Those who do not have an opportunity to form

a secure attachment with a trusted adult are at risk of experiencing distrust or

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uncertainty with their care-givers, negative self-image, and difficulties in coping

adaptively with stress.

To make sure the best care-givers are gotten who can respond to

children’s needs, presented what he called parents checklist. Figure 1 below

shows different age brackets of the child and their specific needs according to the

age range.

Age range What children need1 to 2 years Support to acquiring new motor, language, thinking skills; a chance to

develop some independence; help in learning how to control their own behavior; opportunities to begin to learn to care for themselves; opportunities for play and exploration; play with other children; read to/tell stories daily; health care must also include deworming if required.

2 to 3 1/2 years

Make choices; engage in dramatic play; sing favorite songs; work simple puzzles.

3 1/2 to 5 years

Opportunities to develop fine motor skills; encouragement of language through talking, reading, singing; activities which will develop a positive sense of mastery; opportunities to learn cooperation, helping, sharing; experimentation with pre-writing and pre-reading skills; hands-on exploration for learning through action; opportunities for taking responsibility and making choices; encouragement to develop self-control, cooperation, persistence in completing projects; support for their sense of self-worth and pride in accomplishments; opportunities for self-expression (drawing, painting, work with clay or mud; encouragement of creativity; rhythmic movement; listening to music of all kinds.

Figure 1: Pre-Primary School Children’s needs according to age rangeSource: Adapted from Evans, et al (2000)

The figure shows that getting to the age range of 3-5 children are already

in need of things that can best be provided in the context of the school. This is

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why children within this age range are referred to as pre-primary school children

(Cohen, et al 2005). The proper response to their needs is meant to prepare them

to further acquire more cognitive skills, social skills, motor skills, creativity

skills, and several others indicated above.

Concept of Child Care

Care as a concept involves the provision of support, attention, warmth,

and so on to someone. Evans, et al (2000) noted that in 1990s, UNICEF began

using the term Care in relation to nutrition programs. The reason was because

UNICEF had observed that good nutrition was more than simply providing

children with food. Care was identified by Anuna (2005) as a key element in an

active feeding process that promotes healthy growth and development. Children

with consistent, caring attention are generally better nourished, are less apt to be

sick, and learn better than children who do not receive such care. Conversely,

neglected children are prone to sickness and malnutrition and are less equipped

and motivated to learn.

Beyond this, the concept has evolved further such that it is now being

defined as a process that results in the creation of an enabling environment,

which can support the child’s optimal development. Evans et al (2000) presented

what they regarded as a summary on the concept. In summary, care is the

integrated set of actions that ensure for children the synergy of protection and

supports for their health, nutrition, psycho-social, and cognitive aspects of

development. Therefore Care is one of the key factors in the promotion of

children’s optimal development.

23

Care can also be defined as the behaviours and practices meant to provide

food, health care, psychosocial stimulation and emotional support necessary for

children’s healthy survival, growth and development (Anuna 2005). Caring for

the child means providing the child’s basic needs. However, while Evans, et al

(2000) referred to care as one of the key factors, the concept care is regarded in

this study as the key factor in the promotion of children’s optimal development.

In the context of this study, child care refers to all the supports a child

receives in order to survive, thrive and/or develop. It is the ability to handle

children, a process that results in the creation of an enabling environment meant

to support the child’s optimal development. Child care includes such supports

like appropriate: nutrition, health, active feeding, stimulation, safety,

communication, protection, affection, and modeling (Clayton, 1994). Care is a

key element in any active effort to help the child in the development process. It

includes what adults and significant others in the child’s life are able to provide

for the child. Hence, there could be child care at home, in pre-primary schools,

nursery schools, and so on.

In another view, the report of UNICEF (1996) described child care as all

those things we do to make sure the child stays alive and well, grows and

develops. Lamb (1998) preferred to define child care simply as non-maternal

care. According to Lamb, some of the examples of non-maternal care are: day

care, institutional-care and care by relatives. For this reason, the term Child care

is often used for describing non-maternal care of different settings. According to

24

Philip and McCartney in Anuna (2005), child care settings vary in their

objectives and structure. Baby-sitting children in one’s own home, nursery, day

care center, play group, family-based care center, and institutional care, are

different Child care arrangements. Each has peculiar services it provides. Draper

and Draper (1975) noted that some families make use of child care service

providers outside the home (Child care centers). They can do this for one or more

of the following reasons: (a) parents who work; (b) illness or death of one or both

of parents; (c) mental or physical handicaps of the mother or father; (d)

emotional disturbances of the mother or father; (e) poor family relationships; (f)

slum living conditions and so on. Draper and Draper (1975) also added that:

many families seek child care services “not because mothers work outside of the

home, not because of poverty, and not because of crises. Their interest is simply

to add enriching experiences to their children’s daily living. According to

Victoria (2001) child care practices are meant to:

guarantee the child’s physical well-being keeping the child safe and

free from harm, providing shelter and clothing, preventing and attending

to illness, thereby promoting the child’s psycho-social well-being;

provide emotional security, socialization, nurturing and giving

affection;

support the child’s physical development – feeding, bathing, providing

safe places to play and explore and thus to promote the child’s mental

development – interaction, stimulation and play;

25

facilitate the child’s interaction with others outside the home – within

the community, at health clinics and at school(Child care is manifested

in the ways a child is fed, nurtured, taught and guided.

It is the expression by individuals and families of the domestic and

cultural values that guide them (Anuna, 2005). As stated in the report of UNICEF

(1998), care practices translate food security and health care resources into a

child’s well being. Not only the practices themselves, but also the ways they are

performed in terms of affection and responsiveness to the child are critical to a

child’s survival, growth and development. There are two major forms of

conceiving child care: (a) as the right of the child, and (b) as a need of the child.

In this regard, Evans, et al (2000) noted that children have a right to love and to

develop to their full potential. This right, according to them, is set forth in the

Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); it is also guaranteed by the

Declaration of the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) (1990), the

World Summit of Children (2000), the UNESCO Salamanca Statement (1994),

the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against

Women (CEDAW) (1979), and others. Evans, et al (2000) stated that the

following statements emerged for these world conventions and conferences:

All children, without distinction of gender, race, language, religion or of

any other kind, should have the opportunity to develop to their full

potential.

26

Children, by reason of their physical and mental vulnerability, need

special safeguards and care.

Children living in especially difficult circumstances need special

consideration.

Parents and families (however defined) – men as well as women – have

the primary responsibility for the upbringing, development, and

education of their children.

Governments should establish a policy environment that enables

families and communities to fulfill their responsibilities of childrearing

and protection.

Importance of child care

There are several reasons why child care is important. Some of these

reasons are: it helps children to receive support and protection so that they do not

die; it enables children to be gradually made part of their culture and society; it

helps children transit smoothly from one stage of their development to another,

and so on. Evans and Myers (1994) stated that children are more than the object

of their parents’ attention and love; they are also a biological and social

necessity. The human species perpetuates itself through children, cultural,

religious and national groups transmit their values and traditions through

children; families maintain their lineage through children, and individuals pass

on their genetic and social heritage through children. The ultimate value of

children is the continuity of humanity.

27

It needs to be emphasized that child care is important not only for the

children being taken care of, but in a special way also for the entire society. This

is because when a child is well cared for and he/she grows/develops in an

environment of love and support, he/she turns out to be a good citizen who puts

back to the society what he/she had learnt from his/her care-givers. Evans, et al

(2000) presented the importance of child care in a table based on three items: (a)

who benefits from the care; (b) what changes result; and (c) nature of the

changes. Burchinal and Cryer (2003) also noted that other measures of the

importance of child care include the fact that, children, by being properly cared

for, are initiated into the culture of their society – thus they perpetuate the values

of the culture. The authors noted further that child care giving promotes equality

by providing a fair start to all children and child care giving is a vehicle for social

participation.

Patterns of Child care

Child care involves a set of practices/activities. In different cultures, these

practices are derived from cultural patterns, ideas of what should be done, and

ideas of what constitute the accepted practices or norms. The patterns and norms

themselves are based on beliefs about why one or another practice is better than

another (Lamb, 1998). The practices, patterns and beliefs affect the style and

quality of care-giving. For instance, the practice of constantly carrying a child

has a different effect on the development of that child than the practice of placing

the child in a cradle or playpen (UNICEF, 2000). Further, social and parental

beliefs that children are given by God, and therefore should be treated in a

28

particular way, have effects that are different from the belief that children are just

human creations.

The child-care patterns of a culture constitute the child care norms. They

include the generally accepted styles and types of care expected of care-givers in

responding to the needs of children in their early months and years (Clayton,

1994). The patterns define child care in a way that assures the survival,

maintenance and development of the group or culture as well as of the child.

There are patterns of behaviour surrounding specific times in a child’s life. For

example, there are expectations in terms of parental and community behaviour in

relation to a child’s birth. There are norms in relation to how a child is named.

There are expectations in terms of how an infant’s death is handled. There are

expectations in terms of how the child will learn to become a responsible

member of the society (UNICEF, 2000).

According to Burchinal and Cryer (2003), expectations are based on what

is believed as possible and workable. The authors report further that

communities, families, and child care-givers implement specific child care

practices which they believe will:

Ensure the survival and health of the child, including the development of

the child’s reproductive capacity to continue the lineage and society.

Develop the child’s capacity for economic self-maintenance at maturity, to

provide security for the elders and younger members of the society.

Ensure the survival of the social group by assuring that children

assimilate, embody and transmit appropriate social and cultural values to

their children.

29

As already indicated, there are various expectations of child care practices

in various cultures and based on income levels – what was termed “patterns of

child care”.

Quality child care

It is important to consider whether there are universally valid measures of

assessing what should pass as quality Child care. According to Burchinal and

Cryer (2003), child care quality is of “concern to parents and policy makers

because infants and preschoolers need responsive and stimulating interactions

with adults to enhance social, cognitive, and language development in early

childhood”. Burchinal and Cryer (2003) explained further that the practices, more

than quality, appear to be deeply embedded within value and belief systems that

rooted in ethnicity, community, and social class. The key element of practice

include in which activities the child engages, who participates, how the activities

are organized, and what are the goals. Very different types of practices can be

judged as high quality if those reflect sensitive and stimulating care giving.

There are three separate schools regarding child care quality and ethnic

and economic diversity: (a) those who see high quality care center-based child

care as a means to enhance development among children experiencing risk

factors such as low parental education, single parent homes, and poverty (Lamb,

1998); (b) those who question whether mainstream measures of quality are

relevant for children from diverse backgrounds; and (c) those who take a middle

ground: the dimensions assessed by child care quality measures are important for

all children, but those dimensions can be expressed very differently depending on

the child’s culture (Burchinal and Cryer, 2003).

30

Because of the interest of this study on child care-givers’ skills, it prefers

the last of the three schools above. This is because the care-givers’ skills are

supposed to lead to the same outcomes no matter the culture, ethnic group, or

income levels of the parents of the children. Another reason for preferring this

school is because, as earlier stated, this study sees child care not only from the

needs perspective, but from the perspective that the provision of care is the right

of children.

Rights of the Child

The convention on the rights of the child stands out as the most widely

ratified human rights instrument. Rights according to UNICEF (1995) have been

defined as natural dues, moral claims and legal entitlements of an individual. In

the view of Dorsen and Lieberman (2009), rights are used to imply that the state

has a positive role in ensuring all citizens have equal protection under law and

equal opportunity to exercise the privileges of citizenship regardless of race,

religion, sex, age and other characteristics of the individual. Rights are by their

nature universal and indivisible, they are applicable to all including children.

Child right is important because, children by nature are vulnerable, they depend

on adults for survival, growth and development and as long as they are children,

they need to be protected for steady growth development. Therefore, parents,

care-givers and all other stakeholders that are related to the child have

responsibility of upholding and respecting the rights of the child.

31

The child’s rights in Nigeria are clustered into four main domains namely:

survival rights, development rights, protection rights and participation rights

(NERDC/UNICEF, 2013).

1. Survival rights: These rights are very fundamental to all other rights. It

has positive obligations to ensure the child’s survival. There are other

relevant rights to the survival rights e.g right to health etc. It is the sole

responsibility of the care-givers to ensure that the rights of the child to a

good health is upheld and respected.

2. Development rights: Development rights of the child include providing

opportunities for the child to develop his/her potentials optimally. The

early stage of child development is a critical period wherein children

rapidly develop physically. Therefore, to ensure proper growth and

development of the child through obeying child development right, the

child need adequate care, nutrition, health and stimulation.

3. Protection rights: These rights protect the child from discrimination,

abuse and exploitation. It is imperative to note that some children suffer

abuse and neglects at home such as female genital mutilation, children

been used as hawkers, beggers, pushed to early marriage among others. If

the child right to protection is upheld and respected by al the stakeholders,

the conditions of the children will not remain the same.

4. Participation rights: These rights are grounded in the idea that every

human being has the right to share in the making of decisions which

affects his or her life. If adult want children to grow to be responsible

adult, then the opportunity to be involved in decision making should be

provided at very early stage of development.

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Concept of Child Care-givers

Care-giving has evolved as jargon in the professional gerontological

literature, reflective of the fact that care-giver is a job title. The term is generally

used as a succinct description of the full range of the ways people attend to each

other. Applying the term and the above definition to children, Richter (2004) held

that the concept child care-giver denotes the people who look after infants and

young children. There is considerable controversy about the most accurate and

appropriate term by which to denote the wide variety of people involved in

regular child care. Some advocate the term parent or parenting to denote long-

term family care (UNICEF, 2000). The reasons for such position are that while

parenting embodies past and future perspectives and deep emotional involvement

in the rearing and socialization of a young child, the motives and activities of

people involved in professional care of children are short term.

Families vary in their needs and expectations. From time to time parents’

major concern about the choice of who to care for their children may be subject

to the parents’ consideration of several issues (religious, social, economic and

child development) that may affect them and their children in a setting. The

essence of these considerations, according to Anuna (2005), is that that the

pattern of child care provides the basis for adult personality and therefore has a

vital influence on public events and world history. Lamb (1999) noted three

dimensions of the aspects of care-giver’s behaviour that are especially influential.

These are: the warmth or hostility of the care-giver-child relationship

(acceptance-rejection, the control or autonomy of the disciplinary approach

33

(restrictiveness permissiveness) and the consistency that care-givers show in

using discipline. These behaviours are regarded as influential because they are

the best ways to respond to the needs of children effectively.

Concept of Skill

A skill is ability, coming from one’s knowledge, practice and aptitude to

do something well. It is a potential acquired by individuals through training

which is meant to ensure proficiency and competency in the performance of

occupational tasks. According to Molyneux (2012), the word skill is used in the

following ways:

(1) it can be used when talking about an activity; for example, swimming

and tennis;

(2) it is more frequently used to describe the actions or techniques used

within the activities; examples are: a chest pass and a handstand; and

(3) it is used to indicate the quality of a performance.

Skills are a well established habit of doing things by people. In the opinion

of Okorie (2000) to possess a skill is to demonstrate, acting, thinking and

behaving in a specific activity in such a way that the process becomes natural to

the individual through repetition or practice. Skill in the context of this study is

an organized sequence of actions and proficiency required by technician in

plastics production. Osuala (2004) see skills as ability to put into use acquired

competencies, attitudes and behaviours after an exposure to theories and

practices inherent in a field of study. In Nigeria, what is required today and

tomorrow are workers with good technological skill background, rugged enough

34

to transform this country into a positive technological breakthrough with the

ability to meet its immediate demand as opined by Uwaifo (2009).

Obanya (2003) defined skill as versatility in knowledge, the capacity to

communicate and appreciate the views and feelings of others, ability to adopt to

novel situations, creatively, team spirit, literacy in its comprehensive dimension,

fluency in information and communication technology and the capacity to

embrace learning as a way of life.

Based on the third classification, an action performed well results from

some skills possessed by the performer. In this context the performer may be

referred to as ‘skilled’ or ‘skilful’. Knapp in Molyneux (2012) defined skill as the

learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with the maximum certainty

often with minimum outlay of time or energy or both. This means that a skilful

performer is someone who has the ability to make an accurate analysis of the

demands of a situation and decide the most appropriate way to deal with it. The

action will be carried out at the right moment (timing) and will be well controlled

with the performer being fully aware of the intended outcome of the selected

skill. A skilful performance in any activity is characterised by the following:

The performer appears to be in complete control of their actions

Actions are refined and precise

The actions seem effortless energy is not wasted

Even complicated actions appear simple

The performer has a large repertoire of skills

Skills can be linked into complex combinations

35

The correct action is always selected for the situation

The action is applied at the correct time

Actions are adapted with flair and creativity

The performer always seems to have a lot of time to execute the action

The performer can carry out skills automatically without having to think

them through

There is a high success rate of the outcome of their actions (Molyneux

2012)

According to CareersPortal (2010), there are three groups of skills,

namely: (a) people skills, (b) task skills, and (c) personal skills. People skills

include skills like: sensitivity to others, insight into others, openness to others,

respect, active listening, and so on. Task skills include skills like:

planning/organizing, time management, practical skills, problem solving (with

subsets like-showing interest in finding the cause of problems, looking for and

choosing effective solutions and taking the necessary action to resolve them), and

customer focus, among others. Personal skills include skills like: learning skills,

adaptability, goal setting, initiative, independence, motivation, dependability and

professionalism (CareersPortal, 2010).

Child Care Skill Needs of Pre-primary School Care-givers

Child care skills are societies’ way of shaping children into the kinds of

adults the society wants. It is the art of caring for the child that differs from

culture to culture. Generally, it refers to the interaction between the care-givers

36

and their children which involves the care-giver’s expression of attitudes, values,

interest, beliefs as well as the care taking and training behaviour. It involves

numerous skills and is of immense importance to every individual family that

aims at raising healthy children.

Thus, child care skills are different potentialities and abilities which child

care-givers need to possess, through training, to ensure proficiency and

competency in the performance of their task of caring for children as they grow

and develop. Since there are several things required to be done in the process of

caring for the child as he develops, it means that child care-givers need various

child care skills to be able to be proficient, competent, and achieve the best they

desire in the children they care for. Hence, Clayton (1994) stated that while

playing with children and encouraging them to learn can be a rewarding

experience, yet, it can be more enjoyable if the care-giver has good care giving

skills.

Care-giving skills can be learned informally by watching parents, taking

children’s development class and reading other books on the topic. According to

Clayton (1994), the more one knows about children, the more comfortable he/she

would be with them. One will find that the way the children are handled affects

the way they behave and their friendliness toward the care-giver and indeed other

people. Care-givers who handle children well to be able to meet their needs are

said to possess some skills. They are regarded as skilled care-givers. They are

regarded as capable in their tasks. Ashiabi (2000) noted that child care-givers can

achieve better outcomes in caring for children and promoting their emotional

37

development by using such strategies as: (a) acknowledgment of time; (b)

feelings time; (c) affection activities; emotional management techniques; and (d)

social problem-solving.

Creating acknowledgement time, care-givers enable children to learn to

show their appreciation and regard for others. By means of feelings time care-

givers enable children to develop emotionally by talking about the causes of their

emotions, what they do when they experience those emotions, how they think

they can make those feelings go away, and what they think another child might

do (Ashiabi, 2000). These are examples of how a care-giver can apply skills to

get the best out of the process of responding to the needs of children, enhance

their development, and plan the future of the society. Based on the details above

and for the purpose of this study, the following are the skills useful for child care-

givers: (a) Feeding skills, (b) Clothing skills, (c) Toileting skills, (d) Interacting

skills, (e) Safety skills, and (f) Hygiene skills.

(a) Feeding skills needed by Child care-givers

Proper feeding of children under care is both necessary and difficult. It is

necessary for their continuous growth. It is however difficult because the children

cannot communicate verbally, it requires a lot of skills on the part of the care-

giver to know what each child needs each time. Because of this, Idaho (2009)

noted that healthy feeding of the child can be challenging. For this reason, it

requires a set of skills which the care-givers need to possess. Part of these skills

include: proper positioning of the child to enable them get food to their mouths,

38

swallow and/or chew. For instance, a child in the proper eating position might

look like this:

Head is upright and slightly forward.

Body is upright.

Arms are forward (resting comfortably on a high chair tray or table, if

applicable).

Hips and knees are bent to a sitting position (with the aid of a seat belt or

non-slip seating material, as needed).

Feet are resting flat on a firm surface.

The person offering the food is facing the child at the child's eye level

(Idaho, 2009).

Choice of food types and texture: Providing young children with foods

they can chew and swallow will help them achieve that success. Most foods can

be altered in texture to support a child's abilities. Foods first can be offered in

pureed form, then mashed, ground or chopped, and finally cut in bite-size pieces

when a child is able to eat regular table foods. However, while it is important to

adapt foods to the child's abilities, children also need to be challenged (UNICEF,

2000). Children learn new skills by practicing them. If a child can chew foods but

is only given pureed or mashed foods, he or she cannot learn new feeding skills.

Changing Nutrition needs: Most dieticians and pediatricians recommend

starting solid foods between four and six months of age, when infants are

showing signs of developmental readiness (e.g., good head control, reduced

tongue thrusting) and are consuming up to 26 or more ounces of breastmilk or

39

formula per day. Clayton (2000) stated that there should be gradual shifts

between grains, vegetables, fruits (for vitamins, calcium and iron) and other

foods that provide protein. It is a mark of a skilled care-giver to know also that

babies need fats and in fact to know the dietary need of children of different ages

under his/her care.

Knowing how much is enough: This depends on each child’s appetite

which is determined by health, activity level, and rate of growth. However, a

skilled care-giver needs to know that on average, a child should consume enough

food to maintain a normal rate of weight gain. This attention to each child’s

appetite is necessary to avoid over-feeding or under-feeding (UNICEF, 2000). It

is therefore required of a good child care-giver to know for instance what a child

means when he/she removes his face away from food.

Teaching the children self-feeding skills: The knowledge of when to

begin to teach the children how to feed themselves is also a very important aspect

of skills needed by care-givers. According to Idaho (2009), helping them develop

good feeding skills and obtain adequate nutrition is very important for their

quality of life. Feeding skills for most children progress through several

developmental steps, from sucking through being spoon-fed soft foods, to

chewing solid foods they feed themselves. This process depends on a number of

factors, including natural reflexes, development of oral, fine and gross motor

skills, and the foods and environment in which foods are presented.

For care-givers to help children learn good feeding skills, it is important to

understand and in fact possess the knowledge that each child develops at a

40

different pace and children with special needs are no exception. Idaho (2009)

observed that the rate of development may differ from other children at the same

chronological age. That is, a two-year-old with oral motor skills may not be

ready for the same kinds of food as another two-year-old. Care-givers that

understand a child's developmental stage will be able to match the child's food

needs with their feeding skills.

(a) Clothing skills needed by Child care-givers

Clothing and dressing play important roles in children’s learning and

development. The clothing children wear while in care influences the quality of

their experiences as clothes can affect their health, safety, comfort, play and

learning. According to Stonehouse (2008), strategies to support positive

outcomes for children include:

Discuss clothing with children: Talk about tastes and preferences in

clothing and fashion with children. Even very young children can have a keen

interest in what they and others wear. As children become older they often also

become interested in clothing that shows favourite characters. Many school aged

children, and even some younger children, are conscious of labels and fashions

(Clayton, 2000). When discussing clothing with children, adults should avoid

sending children the message that they are being ‘judged’ either positively or

negatively by what they wear.

Model appropriate dress: For example, adults should wear hats and sun

safe clothing while outside. They should wear clothes and shoes that are safe, and

that allow them to comfortably and easily interact with and care for children.

41

Make the selection of clothes and dressing a pleasant experience: When

children become interested in dressing and undressing themselves, care-givers

should give as little help as is needed for the child to continue. For younger

children, this may mean using strategies such as pulling a sock partially off and

asking the child to take it off the rest of the way (Stonehouse, 2008). Meanwhile,

some issues that child care professionals need to consider with regard to clothing

skills include:

Temperature: It is important that children are not over or under dressed,

and that clothing suits the temperature. The smaller the child the more easily they

can become chilled or overheated. Natural fibers such as cotton are generally

cooler than acrylic fabrics (Carruth and Skinner, 2002). Babies and younger

toddlers should be dressed warmly for sleep, and children should be checked

regularly to see that they are covered if they are not dressed warmly enough to

sleep comfortably without covers.

Footwear: Safe, comfortable footwear that fits well is essential. Shoes

must provide support as well as protection for the feet. Shoes that give little

protection or support or that have raised heels or soles can cause accidents.

Sun protection: Children need protection from the sun. Tightly woven

fabrics such as t-shirt material, long sleeves and long trousers offer good

protection (Carruth and Skinner, 2002).

Clothing types and accessories: It is important that the design and fit of

clothes and accessories, including those for dressing up play, are safe. For

example, long hems can put children at risk of tripping. The younger the child,

42

the more carefully clothing safety hazards need to be considered (Stonehouse,

2008).

Clothing fabrics: Children can be very sensitive to scratchy fabrics, and

some may have an allergic reaction to some treatments on clothes, including

particular detergents. All clothes that children wear, especially those for sleeping,

must be low fire danger.

Dressing children to support their play and learning: Clothes that fit

properly, without being too loose or tight, allow children to move freely and

comfortably and participate freely in experiences. For girls, dresses and skirts

may interfere with their participation in physical activities. According Cobb

(2001) wearing trousers or shorts may allow for free movement and reduce

children’s self-consciousness, particularly for older children.

The clothes children wear can significantly affect the development of their

self-help skills. For example, trousers that fit loosely and have an elastic waist

are easier for young children to pull down and up than ones with zips and studs.

Child care professionals can encourage and support families to provide children

with clothes that will help them to manage some dressing and toileting tasks

independently (Ejieh, 2006). Besides, children often pick up adults’ messages

that certain clothes, shoes or accessories are ‘special’ and must be taken very

good care of. A child who comes to Child care wearing something special may

be reluctant to take part in experiences for fear of damaging their clothing.

Respect for children: All practices in Child care, including clothing

policies and procedures, need to convey respect for children and an appreciation

43

of their individuality. Clayton (2000) observed that the younger the child, the

more control adults usually have over their clothing. However, even very young

children should have opportunities to make choices. To give children these

opportunities, adults need to decide what genuinely matters. For example, issues

related to health, safety and the child’s play and learning are important, whereas

fashion, aesthetics, and sometimes even convention are usually not of great

importance to what young children wear (Ejieh, 2006).

Respect for families: Respect is important in addressing issues about

clothing with families. Sometimes there are differences in the views of child care

professionals and families about appropriate clothing for children in care, and

being respectful and understanding of families’ choices is essential. Stonehouse

(2008) noted that children often come to child care in clothes that may be

considered to be ‘too good’ for care, and these children may be reluctant to

participate in experiences because of what they are wearing, or their clothes may

interfere with their play. Some services may feel that the best solution is to

change the child into spare clothes from the service, and to change the child into

his or her own clothes before they are collected (UNICEF, 2000).

If the child is worried that his or her clothes will be soiled or damaged, try

to work out a solution that respects the precious item, respects the family’s

choice of clothing and allows the child to participate in a range of experiences. It

requires skill on the part of the care-givers to avoid criticizing or judging families

(Evans and Myers, 1994). They may dress their child in their ‘good’ clothes to

demonstrate to you or to other families that they care about their child or that

44

they are doing well financially. They may send the child in good clothes out of

respect for the service, much in the same way that people dress up for a special

occasion.

Alternatively, some families may not have the resources for their child to

have a variety of suitable clothes, or they may not always have access to a

washing machine. Ejieh (2006) observed that children who are dressed in too

many or too few clothes may come from families who are adjusting to a new

climate, or from families who have particular cultural traditions regarding

clothing. There may be a range of cultural and religious issues related to dress

that Child care professionals need to be aware of, although it is important that

Child care professionals avoid making assumptions about families based on

cultural background or religion.

Communicating with families: Effective communication with families is

central to promoting positive outcomes for children. Anuna (2005) stated that

services should ensure that families are provided with information about the

service’s clothing policy and procedures, using strategies such as enrolment and

orientation processes, notice boards, notes and newsletters, e-mails and the

service handbook. Services may find it helpful to provide families with gentle

reminders as the seasons change about appropriate clothing for children. The

report of UNICEF (2000) showed that when differences arise between families

and child care professionals about any aspect of a child’s care, there needs to be

discussion with families. Honest, respectful, two-way communication can help

families and child care professionals learn about each other’s perspective, and

45

can increase the knowledge and understanding of each party. Stonehouse (2008)

stated that as with all communication with families, whether written or verbal,

aim to ensure that it: is friendly and non-judgmental; conveys a sense of shared

responsibility and working together; and is clear.

(b) Toileting skills needed by Child care-givers

With regard to toilet skills needed by care-givers, it is not in doubt that

this affects the cleanliness and eventual healthy living of both the care-giver and

the children in the pre-school. Potty Training Concepts (2008), refers to toileting

as ‘potty’. It was observed that many pre-schools require that children be potty

trained before entering their programs. In child-care centres, some children are

not allowed to move into a classroom for preschool-aged children until they are

using the toilet by themselves. Schools cite health concerns regarding wiping

children. They may say that teachers are not trained or do not have the time to

change diapers. They may even say that a child who is not toilet trained is not

mature enough for their program. In fact, private schools can accept or refuse any

child based on how well the school thinks the child will do there, and how well

the school can provide for that child's needs.

In cases where children who have not learnt to use the toilet are admitted

to the school, the care-givers need to possess some toileting skills to be able to be

of good help to the children. In such cases as one may expect in pre-primary

schools in a country like ours, St. Peters Childcare (2010) suggests that one of the

major skills a care-giver needs to possess is the knowledge of what to expect

from each child depending on the children’s ages. However, a child care-giver

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should have the skill to know when to change nappies and pull-ups, and to do

these regularly at least four times a day) according to the daily schedule.

If a child has soiled him or herself, the nappy will be changed immediately

using wet wipes or if extremely soiled will be washed in tub; no child is to be left

unattended on the changing table; they should know how to use disposable

gloves for each soiled nappy that is changed; the soiled nappies should be

neatly/carefully put in the designated nappy bin; the surface of the changing mat

on the changing table should be skillfully disinfected with diluted bleach after

each use, and nappy change routines should involve positive interactions with the

child (Anuna, 2005). This will help create happy nappy times. It implies also that

patience and love are skills required of a care-giver. Besides, children need to be

supervised during toileting times.

Children still in toilet training need to be encouraged to wear pull-ups and

be provided with changes of clothing in case of accident. They need to be taught

appropriate hygiene skills; be encouraged to develop independent toileting skills,

and finally, they need to be treated with dignity and respect at all times. Still on

the question of age as a skill needed by child care-givers, Pennsylvania State

University (2010) noted that the expectations of the care-giver from the children

determine his attitude towards the children doing toileting.

It is therefore a skill needed by care-givers to be knowledgeable about the

difference between what toilet skills children can develop at different ages. It

recommends that the following age descriptions show care-givers should expect

from the children at each age: 15 - 24 months: child learns to unzip large

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zippers. 24 - 30 months: can pull pants down with assistance; is beginning to

unbutton large buttons; anticipates the need to use the toilet; still needs help

getting pullover shirts over head and pants up over bottom. 30 - 36 months: puts

on items such as shoes, socks, pants, shirts, and jackets; pulls pants up; undresses

and dresses with adult help. 3 - 4 years: uses toilet with adult help; has daytime

toilet control; still needs adult help with dressing; buttons large buttons. 4 years:

buckles shoes and belts and 5 years: put shirts on correctly and puts belt in loops.

Oswalt (2008) adds to this by noting that in theory, children could be ready for

toilet training as early as age 2, because most babies of this age recognize the

urge to urinate or defecate and can control the sphincter muscles that facilitate

waste elimination. Before this point, infants are simply unable to physiologically

monitor and to control waste removal from their bodies. In other words, very

young babies and toddlers can't tell that they have to "go" before it's too late

(they already went), and they are unable to control whether or not they "go". She

emphasized that practicing patience is important on the part of care-givers.

(d) Interacting Skills needed by Child care-givers

The basic thing about interaction is that it involves the communication

among those in the interactive process. Interaction is the sharing of feelings and

ideas. This process may be effective or ineffective. Only those who are skilled

can succeed in making their interaction with others to be effective. According to

DeLuca (2008), effective communication involves four major things: (1) dealing

with feelings, (2) active listening, (3) assertive communication, and (4)

acceptance.

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DeLuca (2008) explained that those who are skillful in human interactions

understand the basics of such interactions. It is the understanding and skillful

application of these basics or major features of communication, that make

interactions to be effective. Those who are skilled in their interaction with others

have realized that their feelings are forms of energy, and that these feelings are

not to be suppressed but expressed and properly channeled. Besides, those who

are skilled in human interaction also possess the art of good listening. According

to Anuna (2005), this skill makes the one who possesses it to be firm yet, without

attacking or belittling others in the process of interaction. It also means being

clear about how one feels and/or what one wants.

In the case of children and their care-givers, communication or interaction

is between the care-giver and the children, and between the care-giver and the

children’s parents. To be effective in communicating with these two groups (the

children and their parents), some skills are required. When such skills are

possessed by the care-giver, the type of care he/she gives to the children is

regarded as ‘quality care’ (Boschee and Jacobs, 1998). A care-giver who is

skilled in interaction ensures that parents of the children are informed, on a

regular basis and at the right time, what happens in the day to day occurrences in

the lives of the children. Skilled care-givers are those whose interactions with the

children and their parents are responsive, accepting, and informative. Such type

of responsive interaction also enhances the happiness that the children exhibit in

the care centre. Responsive forms of interaction on the part of the child care-

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givers have the capability of promoting trust, autonomy, and a true sense of

happiness and well being on the part of the children (Anuna, 2005).

To highlight the importance of the care-giver-child interaction, the World

Health Organization (WHO, 2004) noted that caring interactions promote the

health and development of children. Early care-giver-child interactions play a

profound role in the development of self-regulation, cognitive development,

language acquisition, and socio-emotional adjustment (UNICEF, 2000).

Therefore, care-givers who possess caregiving interacting skills are consistent in

interacting with children with “sensitivity and responsiveness. This is because,

sensitivity and responsiveness in the care-giver-child interaction are the basic

qualities or skills that determine the effectiveness of care giving. The formation

of an ongoing, warm relationship is as crucial to the child’s survival and healthy

development as the provision of food, child care, stimulation and discipline.

Thus, the early interactions and relationships with care-givers exert a strong

effect on the survival and healthy development of young children (WHO, 2004).

Furthermore, it is also the case that care-givers who have interactive skills

simplify and personalize children’s experiences so that these experiences occur in

forms that the children, at their age and level of development, are able to learn

from them. For this reason, long before the child is able to speak, skilled care-

givers attribute meaning to their utterances, gestures and actions, and respond to

these utterances and actions accordingly. Skilled as they are, they can engage

children in rounds of smiling, looking at one another and alternating their

communicative signals in a dialogue.

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Specifically, the Basic Skills Agency (2012) noted that some of the

specific interactive skills needed by child care-givers include: (a) listening

carefully to both the children and their parents; (b) asking sensible questions to

clarify situations (for example, from parents handing over their children, or from

children about their ideas and feelings); (c) giving clear explanations and

instructions (for example to children about play and development activities, and

to parents about their children’s behavior or planned activities); (d) speaking with

clear and pleasant voice when reading or storytelling to children; (e) using a

friendly and positive tone of voice and body language to establish and maintain

good relationships (for example, with children arriving at the centre, with parents

collecting or leaving their children, with children during activities, or when

managing behavior).

According to Cleary, Wetherby, Goldstein and Abbott (1999), the above

list of skills show that care-givers make use of different interaction styles. Some

make use of floor holding behaviours resulting in unbalanced turn taking in their

interaction with children. People who use this style also use more imperatives,

frequently demanding actions from their children. The other style is one in which

the care-givers and the children exhibit more balanced turn taking in their

interactions. The care-givers who employ this style make use of declaratives and

questions to enable the children take their turn in the process of interaction

(Cleary, Wetherby, Goldstein and Abbott, 1999). Of the two styles mentioned

above, the balanced turn taking is a better interactive style. It enhances the

development of children, and, skilled care-givers make use of this style.

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In the view of Cleary, et al (1999), some other interactive skills can be

outlined thus:

Being clear and specific when communicating with children and their

parents;

Recognizing the rights and feelings of children and their parents. The

care-giver should not say something that will intentionally hurt them;

Children want someone who can listen to them to express their feelings. A

skilled care-giver knows this and makes good use of this knowledge by

being a good listener;

Using body language to improve communication and interaction with

children – this includes non-verbal cues and gestures;

Encouraging the children and being reassuring when they need help;

Not attempting to complete children’s thoughts or sentences when they are

interacting with them;

Using a tone of voice which suits the situation/conversation;

Waiting for responses to questions;

Acknowledging the feelings of children;

Listening to the level of language each of the children is able to

communicate with, and respond at the same level;

In line with the above ideas, WHO (2004) is of the view that some of the

features of supportive and facilitative care-giver-child interactions guided by

skilled care-givers are: sensitivity and responsiveness, interactional synchrony,

contingency and social referencing. The attention of children increases or

decreases, depending on the mood, attention, and affection from their care-givers.

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Children are more at home with skilled care-givers who are emotionally

available, and who interact with them in supportive and encouraging manners.

Care-givers who possess interactive skills like sensitivity and responsiveness

possess such characteristics as: (a) they are aware of children’s signals; (b) they

always have accurate interpretation of children’s signals; (c) they have

appropriate response to children’s communications and forms of interaction; (d)

they are prompt in their response to the children under their care (WHO, 2004).

According to Cleary, et al (1999) the responsiveness is frequently operationalized

in experimental and observational studies as either the proportion of infant bids

to which the care-giver responds or as a probability statement of the contingency

of the care-giver’s response to infant behaviours (WHO, 2004).

It needs to be recalled that actions are usually more meaningful than

words. For this reason, interaction with children needs to be such that the care-

giver shows the children how to accomplish tasks. Children also learn from such

assistance, and they try to do some things by themselves. While they try to do

these things, care need to be taken to ensure that they are safe.

(e) Safety Skills needed by Child care-givers

Generally children are curious. They try to do many things by themselves

especially because they are not aware of all the hazards that may go with

experimentation. The only way to protect them and keep them safe from

unnecessary and avoidable harm is by providing a safe environment. According

to The Charity Commission for England and Wales (2009), to keep safe means to

protect. In the case of children, it is the duty of their care-givers to safeguard

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them, that is, protect them and prevent occasions of accidents and possible

injuries. Draper and Draper (1975) made some distinctions between

‘safeguarding children’ and ‘overprotecting them’. According to them, during the

critical early years of every child, they need to be protected from accidents while

they learn to protect themselves. They need to be protected, although not

overprotected. They need to be allowed the opportunities of exploring their

environment and moving about. With careful guide, they will gradually become

aware of dangers and learn to function safely and protect themselves. However, if

they are overprotected, they will be made to be too afraid that they cannot

explore their environment. Consequently, children’s learning process and

abilities may be impaired

Child care-givers are responsible for helping children learn how to satisfy

normal and healthy needs in the safest possible ways. Care-givers therefore need

to provide children the opportunities of knowing what they can do as well as

what they cannot do (UNICEF, 2000). Experiences like these guide children in

developing ideas about safety in their environment. Remembering also that

children learn by copying the behaviours of others and absorbing adult attitudes,

children will try nearly anything they see others do – stand on the chairs, and

drink liquids, to mention only a few. This makes the job more challenging for the

care-givers. These require that care-givers supervise all the children’s activities.

To guide children and ensure they are safe, care-givers need to skillfully show

them how to walk up or down the stairs holding on the handrails, walking instead

of running indoors, and holding on adults’ hands while walking in traffic or on

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busy sidewalks. Very importantly, care-givers need to skillfully plan ahead for

safety.

Planning for the children’s safety involves such skills as knowing what to

expect for majority of children within particular age ranges. This is because

certain accidents occur more frequently at one stage of a child’s development

than others. The more care-givers know about how children grow and what to

expect at each stage, the better they will be able to provide safe and healthy

environment, and also foresee and prevent potential accident situations. In line

with this view, Clayton (2000) outlined some of the safety needs of children of

different ages, and the specific type of cares and skills the care-giver needs to be

able to keep them safe. Care-givers who have the necessary safety skills take note

of events and situations that are likely to cause accidents. Some of such events

and situations according to Cleary, et al (1999) include: (a) the staff members and

parents do not understand what to expect at particular stages of a child’s

development; (b) a child is in the care of persons not familiar with the routines

and activities of children; (c) a child is hungry, tired, angry, or confused; (d) few

safe areas are available for play; (e) hazards are present; (f) adults have little

concern for close supervision of children’s activities and freedom of movement;

(g) care-givers are not prepared to cope with or manage the activities of young

children because of lack of knowledge of rules and safety procedures; (h) care-

givers are unhappy with their work or have conflicts with each other, and so on.

On the basis of the above, outlined what they regarded as ‘Rules of Safety’. They

include that:

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An adult should be alert and present with children at all times: Children

must not be left alone unsupervised.

Children must remain at the center until the parents or responsible

persons come for them.

Outdoor play areas must be fenced.

All areas should be checked daily for harmful objects such as bottles,

cans, waste paper, or other litter.

Each care-giver and staff working at the centre should be familiar with

the fire escape routes and routines for evacuating the building.

Floor areas must be kept free of litter and scattered toys which block or

obstruct traffic lanes and play areas.

Spilled water, other liquids, and food should be wiped up immediately to

prevent slippery spots on the floor.

Harmful supplies, such as medicines, cleaning agents, and insecticides,

should be locked in cabinets or stored in containers out of the children’s

reach.

Electrical outlets must be covered with safety latches or dummy plugs

(Cleary, et al, 1999).

(f) Hygiene Skills needed by Child care-givers

With regard to the hygiene skill needs of child care-givers, it is important

first of all to understand what the term ‘hygiene’ means. Calder (2012) defined

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hygiene based on the distinction between good hygiene and poor hygiene.

According to the author, poor hygiene means that children are not bathed, always

look messy, and have behaviours that spread disease. On the other hand, good

hygiene is more than just looking neat and clean, it can also reduce the spread of

disease. Hygiene status of an individual affects the health and well-being of

children as well as the people with whom they spend their day (Calder, 2012).

In the view of Tansey (2009), there are certain importance of hygiene

skills for child care-givers. Good hygiene in child care services is essential for

reducing the risk of cross infection between children and adults and help children

to develop hygiene habits that they will use throughout their lives. According to

the author, without the appropriate hygiene skills by child care-givers, infection

can easily spread through direct physical contact between or through airborne

droplets from coughing and sneezing or from contact with surfaces and objects.

Tansey (2009) noted that it is not a surprise that children in child care come into

contact with many other children and adults, and with toys, furniture, food and

eating utensils. This high degree of physical contact with people and the

environment creates a risk that children will be exposed to and spread infectious

illnesses. While it is not possible for services to prevent the spread of all

infections, they should be working to create a hygienic environment to minimize

the spread of disease.

In the views of Calder (2012), some of the major areas which a skilled

care-giver pays attention to with regard to the children under his/her care are: (a)

handwashing; (b) noseblowing, coughing and sneezing; (c) hair; (d) nails; (e)

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toys; (f) clothes; (g) oral hygiene; and (h) bathing. Tansey (2009) confirmed the

above list by noting that the basic hygiene practices that form the focus of skilled

care-givers include: (a) correct hand washing; (b) dental care; (c) hygienic nose

blowing, coughing and sneezing; and (d) safe food handling and eating. Besides,

skilled care-givers also exhibit their skills by regularly and respectfully

reminding children about when to wash their hands such as before and after

meals, and after messy activities, after going to the toilet and after wiping their

nose.

The schematic representation of the conceptual framework for the study is

diagrammatically presented in Figure 2 below with the structural linkages of the

major concepts in the study. It shows the relationship between the pre-primary

school care-giver and the skills needed to take care of the child for proper growth

and development of the child.

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The care for children is the primary responsibility of the care-givers. The

care-givers, in caring for the child take into consideration the characteristics of

the child and basic needs of the child. For the care-givers in pre-primary schools

to effectively carry out their responsibilities of caring for the child, certain skills

are required. These skills include: child feeding, clothing, toilet training, hygiene,

interaction and safety skills for optimal growth and development of the child.

Theoretical Framework

The theories upon which this study is anchored are social-cognitive

development theory, evolution and ethology theories and attachment theory. It is

important to remark that the choice of these theories is based on the distinction

HygieneToiletingClothingFeeding Interaction Safety

UPTIMAL CHILD DEVELOPMENT

SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS

CARE FOR THE CHILDREN

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILD

NEEDS OF THE CHILD

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of the StudySource: The Researcher

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between the nature of children/human beings, and the influence of nurture on the

development of children/human beings. Slater, et al (2003) stated that human

beings are products of the interaction of the two broad factors of nature-

inheritance or genetic factors-and nature-environmental influences. For example,

it is argued that humans are genetically predisposed to acquire language, but

which language we acquire is determined by the language we hear and learn. It is

important to note that without both factors no development could occur.

Vygotsky (1929) supported this distinction by stating that we must,

therefore, distinguish the main lines in the development of the child’s behaviour.

First, there is the line of natural development of behaviour which is closely

bound up with the processes of general organic growth and the maturation of the

child. Second, there is the line of cultural improvement of the psychological

functions, the working out of new methods of reasoning, the mastering of the

cultural methods of behaviour. According to Berger (2005), nature refers to the

influence of the genes that each person inherits from his or her parents at the

moment of conception while nurture refers to all the environmental influences

that come into play after conception, beginning with the mother’s health during

pregnancy and including all the individual’s experiences in the outside world-all

that the environment contains.

To reduce the possible confusion about which (nature or nurture) has the

greatest influence in the development of the child, Vygotsky (1994) added that

“usually the two lines of psychological development (the natural and the cultural)

merge into each other in such a way that it is difficult to distinguish them and

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follow the course of each of them separately”. In fact, “cultural development

does not create anything over and above that which potentially exists in the

natural development in the child’s behaviour. Culture, generally speaking, does

not produce anything new apart from that which is given by nature. But it

transforms nature to suit the ends of man”.

From the above distinctions, and relating it with what has been done so far

regarding this study, it is clear that the interest of this study is more on the

nurturing of the child than on the nature of the child-even though the nature as a

human being is what makes nurturing possible. This is because child caregiving

necessarily implies nurturing the child. This is why the above two theories

(social-cognitive development theories, and evolution and ethology theories)

were preferred for the theoretical framework of this study because they are

theories that consider the child as a being that needs to be nurtured to be able to

develop optimally.

Social-cognitive development theories

The theory of social-cognitive development theory was propounded by

Vygotsky (1978). This class of theories lays emphasis on the influence of the

society (namely the environment, adults, culture, and so on) on the development

of the child. They emphasize the important role of the child’s interaction with his

or her community-the social environment-in the child’s learning process and

development. For this reason, this class of theories gives the greatest attention to

behaviors. Hence, behaviorism is associated with this class of theories.

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Berger (2005) referred to ‘behaviourism’ as a grand theory. In her

account, behaviourism arose in direct opposition to the psychoanalytic emphasis

on unconscious, hidden urges. The reason was this: John B. Watson (the earliest

founder of behaviourism) thought it better that psychologists limit themselves to

things that can be observed, and formulate laws concerning only those things.

Because of this confidence in the role of behaviour in child development, Berger

(2005) quoted Watson as saying. That was the birth of behaviourism defined as a

theory of human development that focuses on the sequence and processes by

which behavior is learned (Berger 2005). Based on the above clarifications, three

theorists whose views contribute in providing the framework for this study are:

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, Burrhus Frederic Skinner, and Albert Bandura.

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist regarded by Slater, et al (2003)

one of the first to recognize the importance of knowledgeable adults in the

child’s environment. For him, the development of the intellectual abilities is

influenced by didactic relationship (one based on instructive dialogue) with more

advanced individuals. Thus, a major theme in Vygotsky’s theories is that social

interaction plays a fundamental role in cognitive development.

Riddle (2000) noted that Vygotsky believed that the life long process that

defines human development was dependent on social interaction and that social

learning actually leads to cognitive development. Learning occurs within what is

called the Zone of Proximal Development. Vygotsky (1978) describes this zone

as "the distance between the actual development level as determined by

independent problem solving and the level of potential development as

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determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration

with more capable peers. In other words, a student can perform a task under adult

guidance or with peer collaboration that could not be achieved alone. The Zone

of Proximal Development bridges that gap between what is known and what can

be known. Berger (2005) provides a further explanation about this zone when she

wrote that: for learning to occur, a teacher (who can be a parent or peer as well as

professional) draws the learner into his or her zone of proximal development, the

skills that the learner can master with assistance but cannot yet perform

independently. Through sensitive assessment of the learner’s ability and capacity

for growth, the teacher engages the student’s participation, guiding the transition

from assisted performance to independent achievement.

Figure 3 below shows a diagrammatic presentation of Vygotsky’s idea of

zone of proximal development. The figure shows that there is always a

distinction between what a learner already knows, what he could understand, and

what he is not yet ready or able to understand. Despite these differences, the

figure below shows a striking element which is at the centre of this aspect of

socio-cultural development theory stressed by Vygotsky. This element is: the

importance of guidance/a guide in helping the child as a learner in all three stages

about what he already knows, what he is ready to learn, and what he is not yet

ready to learn.

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In the final analysis, Riddle (2000) noted that Vygotsky’s point of focus

was on the connections between people and the cultural context in which they act

and interact in shared experiences. It is this focus of Vygotsky that kept him

within the framework of behaviourism where also Skinner contributed.

Burrhus Skinner’s contributions on the influence of the environment,

especially adults, in the development of the child are always discussed under

behaviorism. Behaviorism, as already highlighted, is a sub-theme in social-

cognitive theories which holds that the child’s behaviors are always determined

by the environment – in fact, by the behaviors of the adults in the child’s

immediate environment.

Figure 3: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (Adapted from Berger 2005)

What the learner is not yet ready or able to learn (don’t teach; too difficult)

Zone of Proximal Development

What the learner could understand with guidance

(do teach; exciting, challenging)

What the learner already knows

(don’t teach; too boring)

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It is from this perspective of the influence of the environment on the

child’s development that Skinner contributed to the development of the socio-

cognitive theory. Skinner saw the growing child as having active roles to play in

his or her development. Unlike the passivity with which children are described

by Pavlov’s classical conditioning, Skinner’s Operant conditioning holds that

children have active roles to play – they operate (that is, emit behaviors) on their

environments even as their environment dominates their development. This

domination by the environment is evident in the possibility of the

adults/environment manipulating the reinforcement that the child receives for

each behavior emitted. Thus, skinner argued that the child’s behavior can be

modeled by the use of rewards and punishment, and “behaviorism continues to

be used in the control of behavior (Slater, et al, 2003).

The third theorist that emphasized the influence of the environment in the

development of the child was Albert Bandura. Bandura was a psychologist at

Stanford University. According to Cobb (2001), Bandura stressed ‘the social

nature of learning’ with emphasis on his approach which he termed ‘socio-

cognitive theory’. Bandura believes that most human learning is observational

learning, not conditioning, and occurs by observing what others do and imitating

what one sees (Cobb, 2001). Presenting Bandura’s theory, Slater et al (2003)

added that Bandura’s behaviourism was less mechanistic than that of Skinner.

His approach was initially named sociobehaviorism, then social cognitive theory,

and finally social learning theory.

The core of Bandura’s theory is that from his experiments, he came to the

conclusion that from series of observations, imitations and modeling, the child

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mentally assumes the role of the observed person based on perceived

reinforcement. Hence, the adults and others in the child’s life provide models for

the child, and learning by imitation is extremely common in all areas of social

and cognitive development.

This theory emphasize two things which include (a) the child as a being

that needs to be nurtured to enhance his natural potentials and (b) the care-giver

as a very important agent in the environment on which the child leans for

support, care, protection, direction, modeling, and development. These are the

two primary reasons why this theory is considered relevant for this study.

Evolution and ethology theories

Theory of evolution was postulated by British naturalist Charles Darwin.

In his book on the origin of species by means of natural selection, published in

1859, Darwin described the evolution of life as a process of natural selection.

This theory as the name implies, have their basis in Charles Darwin’s theory of

evolution which focuses on the important role of genes as necessary units in

evolution. Evolutionary theories of child development which emphasize the

genetic basis of many behaviors, and point to the adaptive and survival value of

these behaviors, are known as ethological approaches. According to Slater, et al

(2003), these approaches hold that certain behaviors in the young of many

species would be genetic in origin because they (1) promote survival and (2) are

found in many species, including humans. One such behavior is imprinting,

which refers to the tendency of the newborn or newly hatched of precocial

species of animals (which includes ducks, geese, sheep, horses) to follow the first

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moving objects they see. This behavior involves the formation of an attachment

between the infant and the mother. Clearly, imprinting is adaptive (adds to

survival value).

This theory is relevant to the present study in the sense that it provides

grounds for possible prediction such that if a child is properly developed

genetically, one can safely predict that he/she will have poor development and

adjustment in all aspects.

Related Empirical Studies

Related empirical studies were grouped and reviewed as they relate to the

current study generally. The reviews were not done as they relate to each of the

six skills under study. This is because there have been very few, and in most

cases no, studies on each of these skills. Thus, the very few empirical studies

reviewed here are those on: toilet-training skills and general child care-giver

skills.

Bachrach and Gardner (1997) carried out a study titled: “Care-giver

knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding childhood diarrhea and dehydration

in Kingston, Jamaica”. The study focused on childhood diarrhea and dehydration

in order to determine if limited care-giver knowledge about the prevention and

treatment of diarrhea and dehydration puts children at increased risk. The study

was an observational case-control study conducted between February 1997 and

May 1997 at Bustamante Hospital for Children in Kingston. Convenience

sampling was used and data were collected by face-to-face interviews with two

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groups of care-givers of children under 5 years of age. The total sample was 215

care-givers. One group (n = 117) presented with children with acute

gastroenteritis, and the other group (n = 98) presented with acute concerns

unrelated to gastroenteritis. While 197 of the 215 care-givers interviewed were

the mothers of the children, there were also 9 guardians, 5 fathers, and 4

grandmothers in the sample. The following results were obtained among others.

The mean care-giver age, level of education, and socioeconomic status were

similar for the two groups. The care-givers in the gastroenteritis group were more

likely to present with younger children and to have less convenient access to

running water or a refrigerator. Children of care-givers who had never heard of

oral rehydration therapy were at increased risk of presenting with gastroenteritis

and dehydration (odds ratio [OR], 4.6; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.8 – 11.7),

as were children of care-givers with low knowledge scores about the prevention

and treatment of diarrhea and dehydration (OR, 3.7; 95% CI, 1.6 – 8.8). Another

independent risk factor was a care-giver’s poor sense of self-reliance in

managing a child’s diarrhea (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1 – 4.9). They thus concluded

that the findings highlight a need to enhance educational efforts that will

empower care-givers to protect their children from diarrhea-associated morbidity

and mortality.

However, it is one thing to be educated but yet another thing to posses the

skilled needed to take care of children. The above study was focused on toileting

risks but with very little attention to the skills which if these care-givers

possessed, there would be fewer risks in such situations as when children are

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having diarrhea. It is to fill this gap of lack of information regarding care-givers’

skills that can help in risk situations that warranted the current study.

Izuwa (2002) carried out a study titled: “In-service needs of child care-

givers in Aba education zone of Abia state”. The study was carried out to identify

the competences important for nursery school teachers in the area. The

descriptive survey design was used for the study. The population for the study

was made up of 42 proprietors and 196 nursery school teachers in the zone.

Questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. Means and t-test were used

for data analysis. The findings show that there are 22 competences possessed by

the nursery school teachers and 9 competences which these teachers require and

can be gotten from in-service training. Some of the competences considered as

importanct included the teachers’ ability to: be patient, honest and sincere;

express love towards the children; be self-disciplined and composed; arouse

curiosity in the children among others.

The present study is related to that of Izuwa (2002) because they both

focus on competences and skills. The concept competences may be regarded as

similar to what is referred to here as skills. However, while Izuwa (2002) focused

on competences generally, there is the need to consider these skills as they are

relevant for the effective performance of specific basic tasks around the pre-

school/nursery school children. This is the gap this study intends to fill.

Burchinal and Cryer (2003) conducted a study titled: “Diversity, child

care quality, and developmental outcomes”. The study was focused on whether

what constitutes quality care depends on the child’s ethnic and cultural

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background. To address this question, secondary analysis of data from the two

largest studies of child care experiences in the United States - Cost, Quality, and

Outcomes Study, and the NICHD Study of Early Child Care - tested whether

standard measures of Child care quality were less reliable or valid for African-

American and English-speaking Latino children than for white children. Widely

used measures of child care quality showed comparably high levels of reliability

and similar levels of validity for White, African-American, and Latino children.

Analyses tested whether cognitive and social skills were related to child care

quality, the match between child’s and care-giver’s ethnicity, and the match

between the mother’s and care-giver’s beliefs about child-rearing. Results

indicated children from all three ethnic groups showed higher levels of cognitive

and social skills on standardized assessments shown to predict school success

when care-givers were sensitive and stimulating. Children’s skills were not

consistently related to whether the child’s and care-giver’s ethnicity matched or

whether the mother’s and care-giver’s beliefs about child-rearing were similar.

These two large studies suggest that children from all three ethnic groups benefit

from sensitive and stimulating care on child outcomes related to school success.

The results are interpreted as indicating that the global dimension of quality may

be reflected in very different types of practices that reflect cultural differences.

The present study is related to that of Burchinal and Cryer (2003) in that

both studies are tailored towards quality child care. However, the current study

differs from that of Burchinal and Cryer (2003) because once the proper skills are

possessed by the care-givers, there is supposed to be quality care no matter the

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differences in culture. It is to find out what these proper skills are that the current

study is meant to achieve.

Anuna (2005) studied on “Child care practices of care-givers in

motherless babies’ homes in Imo and Abia state”. The purpose of the study was

to investigate how better to take care of children in motherless babies’ homes in

Nigeria. The study made use of descriptive survey design. Six research questions

and three hypotheses were raised and postulated. The population comprised of

120 married and unmarried care-givers. Structured questionnaire items were used

as the instrument for the study. The data collected were analyzed using mean and

standard deviation, while t-test was used to test the hypotheses. The results

showed that there was no significant difference between the Child care practices

of married and unmarried care-givers in Imo and Abia state. The study concluded

that to improve care-givers’ performances, it is necessary that the employers of

care-givers take into consideration the employment of trained and sufficient

manpower, commensurate remuneration for staff, among others.

While it is good to employ sufficient manpower and to remunerate the

staff, the current study considers it important that the improvement of care-

givers’ performance is not so much dependent on their number and remuneration

as it is on whether they possess the appropriate skills. This is what Anuna’s

(2005) study was not able to consider. This is also what the current study wants

to consider in some detail.

Howard, Phillips, Matinhure, Goodman, McCurdy and Johnson (2006) in

a study titled: “Barriers and incentives to orphan care in a time of AIDS and

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economic crisis: a cross- sectional survey of care-givers in rural Zimbabwe”,

investigated the barriers and incentives to orphan care in a time of AIDS and

economic crisis in Zimbabwe, where one-fourth of adults are HIV-positive, one-

fifth of children are orphans, and AIDS and economic decline are straining

society’s ability to care for orphans within their extended families. To explore

barriers and possible incentives to orphan care, a quantitative cross-sectional

survey in rural eastern Zimbabwe asked 371 adults caring for children, including

212 caring for double orphans, about their well-being, needs, resources, and

perceptions and experiences of orphan care. Survey responses indicate that: 1)

foster care-givers are disproportionately female, older, poor, and without a

spouse; 2) 98% of non-foster care-givers are willing to foster orphans, many

from outside their kinship network; 3) poverty is the primary barrier to fostering;

4) financial, physical, and emotional stress levels are high among current and

potential fosterers; 5) financial need may be greatest in single-orphan AIDS-

impoverished households; and 6) struggling families lack external support. The

study concluded that incentives for sustainable orphan care should focus on

financial assistance, starting with free schooling, and development of community

mechanisms to identify and support children in need, to evaluate and strengthen

families’ capacity to provide orphan care, and to initiate and support placement

outside the family when necessary.

The above study by Howard, Phillips, Matinhure, Goodman, McCurdy

and Johnson (2006) paid more attention to demographic factors regarding the

care-givers. Even though these factors are very important in defining care-givers’

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activities, it is important also to consider the skills required by these care-givers

besides these demographic factors. Howard, Phillips, Matinhure, Goodman,

McCurdy and Johnson (2006) could not do that, and this is why the current study

is very important as it hopes to, by means of its findings, bring to the knowledge

of all interested in caregiving, the skills required by care-givers to perform their

tasks effectively.

Atuma (2012) carried out a study on strategies for improved feeding in

early child care centres in Cross River State. The study adopted survey research

design. Four research questions were developed and answered by the study. The

population for the study was 153 care givers in pre-primary schools in the state.

There was no sampling due to the manageable size of the population. A

structured questionnaire was used to obtain data from the respondents for the

study. The questionnaire was face-validated by three experts; one lecturer from

Home Economics Section of the Department of Vocational Teacher Education,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka and two senior staff nurses of general medical

centre, Ikom. The reliability of the instrument was achieved using Cronbach

Alpha method in which a coefficient of 0.87 was obtained. The questionnaire was

administered by the researcher with the help of five research assistants who were

indigenes of the state for familiarity with the terrain. Frequency, percentages,

mean and standard deviation were used in answering the research questions while

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the hypothesis. Based on

the data analysed, the study found that good nutrition and hygiene practices are

required for improved feeding of children in early child care centres in the State.

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The study identified six food preparation methods that are considered hygienic

for preparing children food, the study identified ten health implications of

feeding children with balanced diet and 20 practices for ensuring children meal

safety and security. Based on these findings, the study recommended that State

government should help package the findings of this study into training manual

and distribute to all hospitals in the state. Also, the State government should

ensure that all pre-primary school care-givers and young mothers in the state

should be well informed on the need and importance of healthy feeding practices

for children.

While the above study by Atuma (2012) is very relevant to the current

study because it considered strategies for improved feeding in early child care

centres which is one of the major focus of this study. In addition, the present

study is related to that of Atuma in methodology and the respondents (care-

givers) that were used for responding to the questionnaire for the study.

Carruth, Paula, Ziegler, Gordon and Hendricks (2004) carried out a study

on developmental milestones and self-feeding behaviors in infants and toddlers.

Three research questions and three null hypotheses were developed to guide the

study. The study adopted cross-sectional survey design of households with

infants / toddlers, ages 4 to 24 months. The population for the study was 3,022

primary school care-givers. Multistage random sampling technique was adopted

for selecting 302 care-givers which represented 10% of the total population. The

302 respondents were interviewed through telephone on developmental

milestones and self-feeding behaviors among infants and toddlers. The interview

was guided by pre-design questionnaire. Data generated were analysed using

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frequency, percentage, mean and t-test statistics. From the data analysed, the

primary care-givers reported their children’s food in- take (one 24-hour recall),

the ages when care-givers reported self-feeding skills were shown, and the

number of teeth. Using t-tests, differences in energy and nutrient intake were

determined by age groupings and by the absence or presence of each self-feeding

skill. Results showed that self-feeding skills achieved in the first two years by

care-givers are developmental readiness to self-feed children. The ages at which

children were reported to show gross motor developmental milestones and

eruption of teeth occurred within expected age ranges. A majority of the children

who were reported to show developmental readiness to self-feed at an earlier age

(7 to 14 months) had higher intakes of energy and most nutrients than those who

did not. By 15 to 18 months, most of the children were reported to show

comparable self-feeding skills regardless of whether they self-fed earlier or later.

Summary of Literature Review

The literature reviewed for this study focused on four main headings: the

conceptual framework (with many sub-headings), the theoretical framework

(with three relevant theories), the empirical studies (with many studies reviewed),

and the summary of literature review. Under the conceptual framework, such

concepts as: child, the need of the child, child care, child care-givers, skill and

child care skill needs of pre-primary school care-givers. The care-givers skill

needs was reviewed to cover the specific purposes of the study to include:

feeding skills, clothing skills, toilet training skills, interacting skills, safety skills

and hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools for effective

child upbringing. The theoretical framework was anchored on three theories.

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These are: Social-cognitive development theory, evolution and ethology theory

and attachment theory.

The empirical studies carried out in Nigeria and other countries, revealed

that care-givers influence the development of children. Gaps discovered in the

work so far include the fact that none of the empirical studies reviewed addressed

specifically a set of skills needed by care-givers for better development of

children. Again, the studies reviewed focused on competencies, attitudes,

knowledge of how to take care of people in specific crisis situations like AIDS

and Diarrhea, and manpower and remuneration of care-givers. However, none of

these studies focused particularly on pre-primary care-givers in its topic, nor on

the variables this work hopes to address. The gap between knowledge and

practice underscores the relevance and need for this present study, which is

aimed at empirically investigating some of the Child Care skills needed by care-

givers in pre-primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja,

Nigeria.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the method and procedures that were used for the

study. The procedures are described under the design of the study, area of the

study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for

data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method

of data collection and method for data analysis.

Design of the Study

The design of the study was descriptive survey research design. According

to Osuala (2001), a survey research focuses on people, the vital fact of the

people, their beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivation and behaviour. Olaitan and

Nwoke (1989) viewed survey design as studying the entire population or

representative sample by collecting and analyzing data from the group through

the use of questionnaire, interview or observation. Survey research design is

therefore considered suitable for this study since data were gathered from

childcare-givers in pre-primary and other group of respondents with the use of

structured questionnaire. Information gathered from the investigation according

to Eboh (2009) must be generalized to the whole population and thus a sample

survey is useful for development and planning purposes.

Area of the Study

This study was carried out in Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja. The

Federal Capital Territory (FCT) came into actual existence on 12th December

1992 and covered a land area of about 8000sq km. The FCT is made up of six (6)

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administrative local councils which include: Abaji, Abuja Municipal, Bwari,

Gwagwalada, Kuje and Kwali (Federal Capital Territory Abuja, 2012). The

population of FCT Abuja is 1,405,201 people comprising 740,489 males and

664,712 females (National Population Commission, 2006). There are 100 public

early child care centres (pre-primary schools) in FCT, Abuja with 11 in Abaji, 39

in Abuja Municipal, 24 in Bwari, 11 in Gwagawlada, 10 in Kuje and 5 in Kwali

local council (See Appendix A, page 144).

Population for the Study

The population for the study was made up of 581 respondents that

comprise the following groups: care-givers in pre-primary school, secondary

school Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses.

There are 236 pre-primary school care-givers in the study area (FCT

Universal Basic Education Board, 2010). The population of the care-givers on

area council basis include 25 from Abaji, 49 from Bwari, 37 from Gwagawlada,

25 from Kuje, 16 from Kwali and 84 from Abuja Municipal local council (See

Appendix B, page 152). The pre-primary school care-givers are involved in day-

to-day care giving of the pre-primary school children in the study area, hence

their involvement as part of the respondents from which data were collected for

the study.

There are 265 secondary school Home Economics teachers (FCT

Education Secretariat, Jabi Abuja, 2010). This include 149 Home Economics

teachers in the 143 Junior Secondary Schools and 116 Home Economics teachers

in the existing 108 Senior Secondary Schools in FCT, Abuja (See Appendix C,

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page 154). These are graduates of Home Economics who teach Home Economics

topics such as child development and others in Secondary schools. By their

qualification therefore, they were considered relevant for supplying information

on skills that should be possessed by care-givers for child care in pre-primary

schools.

The population also include 16 Early childhood experts. These are experts

with higher degree qualification in Early childhood education and child

development. The number of the Early childhood experts was ascertained

through feasibility visit of the researcher to higher institutions in FCT, Abuja.

There are 64 nurses from public medical centres in the study area (Federal

Ministry of Health, 2013). These groups of respondents are characteristically

involved in children upbringing by the nature of their professions and hence are

involved in the study.

Sample and Sampling Technique

Due to the manageable size of the population, the entire 581 respondents

were involved in the study; therefore, there was no sampling for this study.

Focus group discussion was also used in this study. For the focus group

discussion, 30 discussants were randomly selected from three area councils with

10 discussants in each of Bwari, Kwali and Abuja Municipal Area Councils.

These discussants were pre-primary school care-givers, secondary school Home

Economics teachers, Nurses and early child care experts. Issues bothering on

child care skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary schools were made subject of

discussion to seek relevant contributions and opinions of the discussants on the

issues raised.

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Instrument for Data Collection

Two sets of instruments were used for data collection namely: (i) Child

Care Skills Needed by Care-givers (CCSNC) and (ii) Focus Group Discussion

(FGD) Guide. Both instruments were developed based on the purposes of the

study and the review of related literature.

The questionnaire was made up of two parts. Part one focused on personal

data of the respondents while Part two had six sections A-F which dealt with the

specific purposes of the study. Section A contained 21 items for collecting data

on feeding skills needed by the care-givers, Section B is made up of 18 items for

eliciting data on clothing skills needed by the care-givers, Section C contained 13

items for generating data on toilet-training skills needed by care-givers, Section

D is made up of 24 items which focused on safety skills needed by the care-

givers, Section E contained 11 items for obtaining data on interacting skills

needed by care-givers while Section F is made up of 14 items for gathering data

on hygiene skills needed by the care-givers. In all, the questionnaire contained

101 structured items on a 4-point response scale each assigned a numerical scale as

follows: Strongly Agree (SA) - 4; Agree (A) - 3; Disagree (D) - 2; Strongly Disagree

(SD) – 1 (See Appendix F, page 158 for Questionnaire)

The Focus Group Discussion guide used for qualitative data for the study

centred on six points that bothered on child care skill needs of care-givers in pre-

primary schools. A Focus Group Discussion is a data collection procedure in the

form of a carefully planned group discussion among about ten people with the

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moderator and observer, in order to obtain diverse ideas and perceptions on a

topic of interest in a relaxed, permissive environment that fosters the expression

of different point of views with no pressure for consensus. Focus Group

Discussion in research scenario involves the presentation of topic of interest to

stimulate debate and dialogue in order to raise ideas and suggestions among the

discussants (See Appendix G, page 164 for Focus Group Discussion Guide).

Validation of the Instrument

The Child Care Skills Needed by Care-givers Questionnaire (CCSNCQ)

was subjected to face validation by three experts. Two lecturers from Home

Economics unit Department of Vocational Teacher Education, and one expert in

Early Childhood Education from Department of Educational Foundation, all

from University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Based on their corrections and

recommendations, the final version of the instrument was made for data

collection (See Appendix F, page 158 for final Instrument and Appendix J, page

205 for Evidence of validation).

Reliability of the Instrument

To determine the reliability of the Child Care Skills Needed by Care-

givers Questionnaire (CCSNCQ), Cronbach Alpha reliability technique was used

to test the internal consistency of the instrument. The instrument was trial-tested

by administering fifty (50) copies of the instrument to 15 care-givers in pre-

primary schools, 25 secondary school Teachers of Home Economics, 5 Early

childhood experts and 5 nurses in Nsukka local government area of Enugu state.

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The data generated was analyzed using Cronbach Alpha reliability

method. Reliability coefficients of 0.74 was obtained for feeding skills, 0.69 for

clothing skills, 0.82 for toilet training skills, 0.85 for safety skills, 0.78 for

interacting skills and 0.83 for hygiene while an overall reliability coefficient of

0.79 was obtained for the entire instrument (See Appendix H, page 165).

Method of Data Collection

Five research assistants were trained for data collection. The minimum

educational qualification of the research assistants was National Certificate

Examination (NCE). They were also residents of FCT Abuja to ensure familiarity

and accessibility in quality data collection. A total of 581 copies of the

questionnaire were administered by the enumerators by hand. The researcher

coordinated the activities of the five research assistants and collated the retrieved

questionnaire after two weeks of administration. Out of the 581 copies of

questionnaire administered. Only 556 copies were properly completed and

returned representing 95.6% return rate. The 556 copies retrieved were analysed

One session of focus group discussion (FGD) was organized in each of the

three municipal area councils (MACs), namely Bwari, Kwali and Abuja MACs.

From each of the three area councils, 10 discussants which include: 5 pre-

primary school care-givers, 3 Secondary school Home Economics teachers, 1

Nurse and 1 Early child care expert were randomly selected making 30

discussants for the FGD session. The FGD was organized by the researcher with

the assistant of one moderator with some sets of questions that bothered on issues

relating to childcare giving skills in pre-primary schools. Light refreshments

were provided by the researcher to the participants and notes were taken by the

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researcher and the assistant. Qualitative data collected from the discussants were

summarized. Each of the FGD sessions lasted for one hour.

Method of Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed using mean for answering the research

questions, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the hypotheses at

p≤0.05 level of significance while the qualitative data from the FGD was

summarized. Real limit of numbers 1.00 – 1.49; 1.50 – 2.49; 2.50 – 3.49 and

3.50 – 4.00 were used to interpret the results as Strongly Disagree, Disagree,

Agree and Strongly Agree respectively.

The hypotheses of no significant difference was accepted for items whose

p-values were greater than 0.05. On the other hand, the hypothesis of no

significant difference was rejected for items whose p-values were less than 0.05.

The qualitative data from each of the FGD session were collated, recorded

and summarized. These are presented under each of the associated research

questions in data presentation and analysis.

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CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

This chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of data generated

from questionnaire and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) on child care skills

needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in the Federal Capital Territory

(FCT), Abuja. The chapter is organized according to research questions and

hypotheses of the study.

Research Question One

What feeding skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja?

The data for answering research question one are presented in Table 1.

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84

Table 1: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Feeding Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).

Caregivers HEc Trs ECC Exp Nurses OVERALLSN Feeding Skills Needed by

Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk1 Care givers should have basic

idea of nutrition.3.53 0.69 3.44 0.51 3.65 0.32 3.56 0.65 3.55 0.65 SA

2 Advise parents on the type of food preparation method to give their children

3.77 0.51 3.54 0.53 3.64 0.42 3.46 0.66 3.60 0.54 SA

3 Advise parents on the quantity and quality of food to be given to their children

3.70 0.45 3.67 0.54 3.69 0.48 3.66 0.65 3.68 0.50 SA

4 Care givers should be able to feed children on time

3.47 0.53 3.54 0.50 3.55 0.51 3.46 0.66 3.29 0.54 A

5 Care givers should be able to feed children to avoid talking when eating

3.40 0.49 3.40 0.47 3.35 0.48 3.40 0.49 3.38 0.48 A

6 Care givers should be able to feed children to avoid eating in-between meals

3.52 0.53 3.22 0.48 3.77 0.42 3.21 0.43 2.43 0.52 D

7 Wash children eating wares immediately after eating

3.62 0.49 3.66 0.51 3.58 0.42 3.71 0.62 3.64 0.51 SA

8 Care givers should be able to sterilize children’s feeding utensils

3.50 0.50 3.56 0.49 3.56 0.48 3.54 0.48 3.54 0.49 SA

9 Keep children’s feeding utensils properly when not used

3.43 0.44 3.50 0.40 3.34 0.68 3.48 0.45 3.44 0.44 A

10 Know the constituents of a balanced meal

3.33 0.48 3.29 0.46 3.37 0.42 3.28 0.41 3.32 0.46 A

11 Give the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods

3.59 0.51 3.59 0.53 3.62 0.51 3.56 0.50

3.59 0.51 SA

12 Have the ability to give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket

3.17 0.55 3.18 0.57 3.00 0.42 3.01 0.54 3.09 0.55 A

13 Have the ability to show affection while feeding the children

3.37 0.49 3.39 0.49 3.33 0.48 3.33 0.53 3.36 0.49 A

14 Ability to help older children feed themselves

2.89 0.49 3.01 0.49 2.95 0.48 2.97 0.46 2.95 0.48 A

15 Make sure children are properly positioned during feeding

2.79 0.47 2.89 0.46 2.86 0.48 2.83 0.47 2.84 0.47 A

16 Face the children at their eyes levels when feeding them

3.11 0.47 3.10 0.48 3.22 0.42 3.13 0.50 3.14 0.47 A

17 Ensure that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered

3.54 0.51 3.45 0.48 3.51 0.58 3.50 0.46 3.50 0.50 SA

18 Teach children good table manners such as the use of cutleries.

3.36 0.52 3.33 0.46 3.40 0.48 3.400 0.43 3.37 0.50 A

Cluster Summary 3.34 0.19 3.30 0.57 3.28 0.18 3.36 0.22 3.32 0.51 ANote: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; D = Disagreed; Rmk = Remarks.

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Table 1 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on 7 out of the 18 identified feeding skills had mean values that

ranged from 3.50 to 3.68 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This

indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 7 feeding skills are needed

by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja. The mean values on ten out of the 18 feeding skills ranged from 2.84 to

3.44 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the

respondent agreed that the ten feeding skills are needed by care-givers for

effective child upbringing in the study area. The mean rating of the responses of

the respondents on item 6 was 2.43 which fell within the real limit of number

1.50 – 2.49 indicating that that the respondents disagreed with the item as part of

the feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.

The overall cluster mean was 3.32 which indicated that the respondents

generally agreed that care-givers needed the identified feeding skills for effective

child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard deviation

values of the 18 items in the table ranged from 0.44 to 0.65 which were less than

1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to one another

and to the mean.

Feeding skills needed by care-givers

Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the

following feeding skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja:

i. have some basic ideas of nutrition,

ii. advise parents on preparation method of food to give to their children,

iii. feed children on time,

iv. advise parents on giving children food and snacks,

v. wash children’s eating wares immediately after eating.

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Research Question Two

What clothing skill needs of care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja?

The data for answering research question two are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Clothing Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).

Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALLSN Clothing Skills Needed by

Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmks1 Change children’s cloths

anytime they are dirty. 3.44 0.47 3.56 0.46 3.48 0.32 3.41 0.45 3.47 0.46 A

2 Care for children’s clothing 3.57 0.46 3.62 0.48 3.57 0.42 3.53 0.46 3.57 0.46 SA3 Put the children’s clothing in

clean and dry containers2.69 0.47 2.99 0.40 3.40 0.43 3.73 0.48 3.21 0.46 A

4 Cloth children with properly fitted cloth for comfortability

3.66 0.47 3.58 0.53 3.74 0.42 3.68 0.53 3.66 0.49 SA

5 Cloth children with cotton fabrics in hot weather

3.00 0.58 3.10 0.65 3.15 0.70 3.03 0.56 3.07 0.60 A

6 Cloth children with woolen fabrics in cold weather

3.52 0.56 3.44 0.52 3.54 0.42 3.50 0.50 3.55 0.54 SA

7 Cloth children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather

3.47 0.49 3.52 0.50 3.43 0.48 3.46 0.50 3.47 0.50 A

8 Wash children’s clothings with mild soap

2.80 0.50 3.00 0.50 3.00 0.42 2.57 0.48 2.83 0.49 A

9 Allow children sometimes to select what they want to wear

2.45 0.49 2.46 0.47 2.49 0.51 2.50 0.50 2.47 0.49 D

10 Cloth children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall

3.64 0.47 3.50 0.49 3.83 0.48 3.57 0.50 3.60 0.48 SA

11 Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass

3.47 0.64 3.49 0.69 3.49 0.64 3.47 0.60 3.48 0.65 A

12 Allowing children to dress themselves atimes

3.35 0.51 3.34 0.53 3.33 0.48 3.31 0.46 3.33 0.51 A

13 Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such

3.53 0.53 3.47 0.53 3.55 0.51 3.53 0.50 3.52 0.53 SA

14 Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts

3.47 0.52 3.49 0.53 3.44 0.51 3.46 0.50 3.47 0.52 A

15 Advising parents to buy clothing

2.39 0.52 2.50 0.63 2.44 0.51 2.52 0.49 2.46 0.54 D

16 Ability to use the elements of design in teaching children example: line and space etc

3.23 0.73 3.24 0.67 3.21 0.75 3.20 0.73 3.22 0.72 A

17 Ability to use colour wheel 3.57 0.51 3.33 0.49 3.26 0.48 3.34 0.47 3.39 0.51 A18 Ability to combine colours 3.49 0.50 3.48 0.53 3.40 0.51 3.55 0.50 3.48 0.50 A

Cluster Summary 3.24 0.23 3.35 0.27 3.30 0.58 3.28 0.24 3.29 0.53 A

Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; D = Disagreed; Rmk = Remarks.

87

Table 2 shows that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on 5 out of the 18 identified clothing skills had mean values that

ranged from 3.52 to 3.66 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This

indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 5 clothing skills are

needed by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja. The mean values of 11 out of the 18 clothing skills ranged from 2.83 to

3.48 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the

respondent agreed that the 11 clothing skills are needed by care-givers for effective

child upbringing in the study area. The mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on items 9 and 15 were 2.47 and 2.46 which fell within the real limit of

number 1.50 – 2.49. This indicated that the respondents disagreed with the two item

as part of the clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja.

The overall cluster mean was 3.29 which indicated that the respondents

generally agreed that care-givers needed the identified clothing skills for effective

child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard deviation

values of the 18 items in the table ranged from 0.46 to 0.72 which were less than

1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to one another

and to the mean.

Clothing skills needed by care-givers

Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the

following clothing skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja:

i. change the children’s clothes any time they are dirty,

ii. put the children’s clothes in clean/dry containers,

iii. cloth children with cotton fabrics in hot weather,

iv. cloth children with bright coloured cloths in hot weather,

v. wash children’s clothes with mild soap.

88

Research Question Three

What toilet training skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools in FCT, Abuja?

The data for answering research question three are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Toilet Training Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT (N= 556).

Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALLSN Toilet Training Skills

Needed by Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk1 Use signs to encourage the

children go to toilet each morning

3.38 0.48 3.39 0.49 3.46 0.48 3.40 0.49 3.40 0.49 A

2 Toilet training the child using potty

3.78 0.55 3.23 0.57 3.88 0.32 3.81 0.39 3.68 0.53 SA

3 Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place

3.56 0.50 3.49 0.69 3.55 0.48 3.56 0.50 3.54 0.55 SA

4 Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating

3.56 0.71 3.54 0.72 3.56 0.51 3.61 0.77 3.57 0.71 SA

5 Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty

3.13 0.47 3.79 0.50 3.31 0.32 3.47 0.48 3.44 0.48 A

6 Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet

3.33 0.53 3.32 0.60 3.23 0.48 3.69 0.49 3.39 0.55 A

7 Teach children the to sit on the toilet seat properly

3.50 0.55 3.56 0.49 3.60 0.48 3.51 0.49 3.54 0.53 SA

8 Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls

3.64 0.56 3.64 0.48 3.55 0.51 3.23 0.50 3.52 0.53 SA

9 Teach older children how to flush the toilet after use

3.56 0.58 3.54 0.50 3.72 0.42 3.56 0.50 3.60 0.55 SA

10 Teach older children how to clean themselves after using the toilet

3.46 0.54 3.64 0.48 3.55 0.51 3.57 0.47 3.23 0.53 A

11 Teach children not to be talking and playing while using the toilet

3.46 0.54 3.50 0.46 3.51 0.51 3.48 0.66 3.56 0.55 SA

Cluster Summary 3.45 0.25 3.53 0.28 3.50 0.48 3.53 0.51 3.50 0.55 SA

Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; Rmk = Remarks.

Table 3 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on 7 out of the 11 identified toilet training skills had mean values that

89

ranged from 3.52 to 3.68 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This

indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 7 toilet training skills are

needed by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja. The mean values of the remaining four toilet training skills ranged from 3.23

to 3.44 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the

respondent agreed that the four toilet training skills are needed by care-givers for

effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.

The overall cluster mean was 3.50 which indicated that the respondents

strongly agreed that care-givers needed the identified toilet training skills for

effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard

deviation values of the 11 items in the table ranged from 0.48 to 0.71 which were

less than 1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to one

another and to the mean.

Toilet training skills needed by care-givers

Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the

following toilet training skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

in FCT, Abuja, these include:

i. toilet training the child using potty,

ii. complete toilet training by the age of 2 years,

iii. correct the children if they defecate in the wrong place,

iv. teach the children to sit on the toilet seat properly,

v. teach children how to flush the toilet after use?

Research Question Four

What interacting skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja?

90

The data for answering research question four are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Interacting Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools, Abuja (N= 556).

Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALL

SN Interacting Skills Needed by Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk

1 Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents

3.50 0.56 3.47 0.57 3.60 0.48 3.50 0.56 3.50 0.56 SA

2 Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents

3.33 0.56 3.52 0.63 3.43 0.60 3.70 0.56 3.49 0.57 A

3 Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s

3.07 0.65 3.00 0.81 2.99 0.48 3.11 0.73 3.00 0.70 A

4 Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents

3.50 0.58 3.50 0.69 3.62 0.48 3.43 0.61 3.51 0.61 SA

5 Ability to know the right of the child

3.39 0.50 3.39 0.62 3.44 0.51 3.25 0.66 3.37 0.55 A

6 Ability to recognize the right of the child

3.59 0.56 3.55 0.60 3.63 0.48 3.15 0.66 3.46 0.58 A

7 Ability to recognize the feelings of the child

3.47 0.55 3.42 0.60 3.56 0.48 3.46 0.66 3.48 0.57 A

8 Ability to reassure children when they need help

3.00 0.59 3.42 0.63 3.03 0.48 3.14 0.59 3.15 0.60 A

9 Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs

3.47 0.56 3.37 0.62 3.52 0.51 3.50 0.49 3.46 0.56 A

10 Ability to respond without delay to children’s needs

3.29 0.62 3.52 0.63 3.54 0.42 3.79 0.54 3.53 0.61 SA

11 Ability to give clear instructions to children about play

3.65 0.54 3.61 0.68 3.36 0.48 3.61 0.50 3.61 0.57 SA

12 Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand

3.54 0.49 3.47 0.69 3.55 0.51 3.53 0.50 3.52 0.54 SA

13 Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner

3.13 0.55 3.39 0.60 3.38 0.70 3.68 0.46 3.49 0.56 A

14 Ability to praise the children for what they do well

3.51 0.59 3.52 0.69 3.55 0.51 3.65 0.47 3.53 0.60 SA

15 Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes

3.64 0.76 3.41 0.76 3.52 0.42 3.55 0.70 3.34 0.75 A

16 Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways

3.03 0.60 3.00 0.76 2.96 0.48 3.07 0.60 3.02 0.63 A

17 Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children

3.60 0.55 3.65 0.57 3.47 0.42 3.65 0.54 3.59 0.55 SA

18 Ability to use children’s language when interacting with them

3.37 0.49 3.39 0.49 3.33 0.48 3.33 0.53 3.36 0.49 A

19 Come to children’s level when interacting with them

3.25 0.49 3.34 0.49 3.13 0.48 3.31 0.46 3.25 0.48 A

20 Ability to teach children how to interact with peers

2.94 0.48 2.99 0.46 2.94 0.48 2.95 0.47 2.95 1.07 A

21 Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully

3.33 0.47 3.30 0.48 3.32 0.42 3.41 0.50 3.34 0.47 A

Cluster Summary 3.26 0.58 3.21 0.28 3.60 0.54 3.46 0.49 3.38 0.60 A

91

Table 4 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on 7 out of the 21 identified interacting skills had mean values that

ranged from 3.50 to 3.61 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This

indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 7 interacting skills are

needed by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja. The mean values of the remaining 13 interacting skills ranged from

2.95 to 3.49 which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated

that the respondent agreed that the 13 interacting skills are needed by care-givers

for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.

The overall cluster mean was 3.38 which indicated that the respondents

generally agreed that care-givers needed the identified interacting skills for

effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard

deviation values of the 21 items in the table ranged from 0.47 to 1.07 which were

less than 1.96. This implied that the responses of the respondents are close to one

another and to the mean.

Interacting skills needed by care-givers

Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the

following interacting skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

in FCT, Abuja, these include:

i. listening carefully to the children and their parents,

ii. know the rights of the child,

iii. recognize the rights of the child,

iv. reassure children when they need help,

v. being sensitive to children’s needs.

92

Research Question Five

What safety skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja?

The data for answering research question five are presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Safety Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).

Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALLSN Safety Skills Needed by

Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk1 Ability to know what to do

in emergency cases 3.54 0.51 3.47 0.48 3.51 0.58 3.51 0.46 3.50 0.50 SA

2 Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads

3.67 0.53 3.74 0.50 3.66 0.51 3.70 0.66 3.69 0.54 SA

3 Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when necessary

3.54 0.49 3.63 0.47 3.63 0.48 3.54 0.49 3.58 0.48 SA

4 Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children

3.32 0.53 3.68 0.48 3.56 0.42 3.75 0.43 3.58 0.52 SA

5 Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the reach of children

3.62 0.49 3.66 0.51 3.67 0.42 3.61 0.62 3.64 0.51 SA

6 Being vigilant at all times with children

3.50 0.50 3.54 0.49 3.53 0.48 3.62 0.48 3.54 0.49 SA

7 Ability to ensure that children are taken home only by their parents or guidance

3.77 0.44 3.79 0.40

3.68 0.68 3.75 0.45 3.74 0.44 SA

8 Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building

3.71 0.48 3.69 0.46 3.74 0.42 3.75 0.41 3.72 0.46 SA

9 Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and stumbling

3.49 0.51 3.49 0.53 3.55 0.51 3.46 0.50 3.49 0.51 A

10 Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor

3.56 0.55 3.63 0.57 3.57 0.42 3.60 0.54 3.59 0.55 SA

11 Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks

3.77 0.49 3.69 0.49 3.73 0.48 3.73 0.53 3.73 0.49 SA

Cluster Summary 3.63 0.51 3.64 0.40 3.57 0.57 3.66 0.52 3.62 0.49 SA

Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; Rmk = Remarks.

93

Table 5 shows that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on 10 out of the 11 identified safety skills had mean values that

ranged from 3.50 to 3.74 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This

indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 10 safety skills are needed

by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja. The mean values of the remaining one item specifically, item 9 was 3.49

which fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the

respondent agreed that item 9 is needed by care-givers for effective child

upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.

The overall cluster mean was 3.62 which indicated that the respondents

strongly agreed that care-givers needed the identified interacting skills for

effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard

deviation values of the 11 items in the table ranged from 0.44 to 0.55 which were

less than 1.96. This indicated that the responses of the respondents are close to

one another and to the mean.

Safety skills needed by care-givers

Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the

following safety skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja, these include:

i. take the correct actions in cases of emergency,

ii. know what to do in cases of emergency,

iii. keep sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children,

iv. being vigilant at all times,

v. cover electrical outlets with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks in

pre-primary schools.

94

Research Question Six

What hygiene skills are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja?

The data for answering research question six are presented in Table 6.

Table 6: Mean Ratings of the Responses of the Respondents on the Hygiene Skills Needed by Caregivers in Pre-primary Schools in FCT, Abuja (N= 556).

Caregivers HE Trs CH Expt Nurses OVERALL

SN Hygiene Skills Needed by Caregivers: X SD X SD X SD X SD X SD Rmk

1 Use hygienic toiletries / handkerchief / tissue paper to clean the children’s nose

3.35 0.49 3.39 0.49 3.33 0.48 3.31 0.46 3.35 0.48 A

2 Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children

3.64 0.47 3.69 0.46 3.63 0.48 3.65 0.47 3.65 0.47 SA

3 Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination

3.44 0.47 3.45 0.48 3.33 0.42 3.53 0.50 3.44 0.47 A

4 Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other

3.29 0.51 3.33 0.48 3.33 0.58 3.26 0.46 3.30 0.52 A

5 Avoiding coughing/sneezing into children’s food

3.65 0.52 3.67 0.46 3.66 0.48 3.73 0.43 3.67 0.50 SA

6 Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean

3.54 0.47 3.59 0.46 3.58 0.32 3.60 0.45 3.57 0.46 SA

7 Regularly cleaning children’s toys & playing equipment

3.67 0.46 3.65 0.48 3.67 0.42 3.68 0.46 3.67 0.46 SA

8 Preventing children from eating food that has bones

3.68 0.47 3.53 0.40 3.81 0.53 3.78 0.48 3.71 0.46 SA

9 Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons

3.30 0.47 2.98 0.53 3.17 0.42 3.18 0.53 3.15 0.49 A

10 Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the floor

3.54 0.58 3.39 0.65 3.55 0.70 3.57 0.56 3.51 0.60 SA

11 Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing

3.56 0.50 3.54 0.69 3.53 0.48 3.56 0.50 3.54 0.55 SA

12 Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet

3.46 0.71 3.42 0.72 3.45 0.51 3.54 0.77 3.47 0.73 A

13 Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities

3.56 0.47 3.49 0.50 3.61 0.32 3.52 0.48 3.54 0.48 SA

14 Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold

3.33 0.53 3.47 0.60 3.38 0.48 3.39 0.49 3.39 0.55 A

Cluster Summary 3.49 0.58 3.51 0.43 3.50 0.45 3.50 0.41 3.50 0.52 SA

Note: X = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; HEc Trs = Home Economics Teachers; Early Child Care Expert; N = Number of Respondents; SA = Strongly Agreed; A = Agreed; Rmk = Remarks.

95

Table 6 reveals that the overall mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on 8 out of the 14 identified hygiene skills had mean values that

ranged from 3.51 to 3.71 which fell within real limit of number 3.50 – 4.00. This

indicated that the respondents strongly agreed that the 8 hygiene skills are needed

by care-givers for effective child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja. The mean values of the remaining 6 items ranged from 3.15 to 3.47 which

fell within real limit of number 2.50 – 3.49. This indicated that the respondent

agreed that the 6 hygiene skills are needed by care-givers for effective child

upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja.

The overall cluster mean was 3.50 which indicated that the respondents

strongly agreed that care-givers needed the identified hygiene skills for effective

child upbringing in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja. The standard deviation

values of the 14 items in the table ranged from 0.46 to 0.73 which were less than

1.96. This implied that the responses of the respondents are close to one another

and to the mean.

Hygiene skills needed by care-givers

Focus Group Discussion result showed that, discussants agreed on the

following safety skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT, Abuja, these include:

i. use hygienic toiletries/handkerchiefs/tissue papers to clean children’s

nose,

ii. know how to store food and water to avoid contamination,

iii. avoid coughing/sneezing into children’s food,

iv. ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean,

v. prevent children from sharing utensils like spoon.

96

Testing of Hypotheses

HO1

There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the feeding skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja.

The data for testing hypothesis one are presented in Table 7 below.

97

Table 7: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on feeding skills needed by the care-givers (N= 556).

SN Feeding Skills Total Sum of Square

Total Mean Square F-cal

P-value Rmks

1 Ability to have basic idea of nutrition. 207.498 0.775 0.840 0.47 NS2 Advising parents on the type of food

preparation method to give their children

145.814 1.165 3.987 0.01 S*

3 Advising parents on the quantity of food to give their children

125.992 0.379 0.479 0.70 NS

4 Ability to feed children on time 147.482 0.465 0.551 0.65 NS

5 Teaching children to avoid talking when eating

117.377 0.377 0.578 0.63 NS

6 Teache children to avoid eating in-between meals

132.097 1.509 4.760 0.00 S*

7 Wash children eating wares immediately after eating

132.713 0.557 1.071 0.36 NS

8 Have the ability to sterilize children’s feeding utensils

122.607 0.614 1.477 0.22 NS

9 Have the ability to keep children feeding utensils properly when not used

98.834 0.346 0.724 0.54 NS

10 Have the ability to know the constituents of a balanced meal

107.449 0.342 0.562 0.64 NS

11 Give the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods

131.482 0.306 0.140 0.93 NS

12 Have the ability to give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket

151.028 0.848 1.782 0.15 NS

13 Have the ability to show affection while feeding the children

122.947 0.353 0.412 0.74 NS

14 Have the ability to help older children feed themselves

117.296 0.341 0.425 0.73 NS

15 Make sure children are properly positioned during feeding

110.866 0.295 0.305 0.82 NS

16 Face the children at their eyes levels when feeding them

112.113 0.519 1.285 0.27 NS

17 Ensure that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered

125.231 0.676 1.671 0.17 NS

18 Teach children good table manners such as the use of cutleries.

124.874 0.420 0.655 0.58 NS

Cluster Summary 129.650 0.572 1.206 0.47 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493

98

Table 7 shows that the p-values of 16 out of the 18 items in the table

ranged from 0.15 to 0.93 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This

indicated that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-

givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 16

feeding skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of

the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on the 16 items.

On the other hand, the p-values of the remaining two items, specifically

items 2 and 6 were 0.01 and 0.00 respectively which were less than 0.05 level of

significance. This indicated that there are significant differences in the mean

ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents on the two items.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of

the four groups of respondents were rejected on the two items. The result of the

Post-Hoc analysis showing the direction of the significance on the two items

revealed that the difference in the mean ratings on item two was between care-

givers and nurse while on item 6 the difference in the mean ratings was among

care-givers, nurse and childhood expert (See Appendix I, page 173).

The overall p-value of the entire 18 feeding skills in the Table was 0.47

which was greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no

significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics

teachers, early child care experts and nurses on feeding skills needed by the care-

givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

HO2

There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the clothing skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja.

The data for testing hypothesis two are presented in Table 8 below.

99

Table 8: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on clothing skills needed by the care-givers (N= 556).

SN Clothing Skills Total Sum of Square

Total Mean Square F-cal

P-value Rmks

1 Change children’s cloths anytime they are dirty.

108.178 0.632 1.895 0.13 NS

2 Ability to properly care for children’s clothing

108.874 0.385 0.743 0.52 NS

3 Putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers

105.182 1.164 4.575 0.00 S*

4 Ability to cloth children with properly fitted cloth for comfortability

119.498 0.542 1.241 0.29 NS

5 Clothing children with cotton fabrics in hot weather

179.401 0.994 1.744 0.16 NS

6 Clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather

146.235 0.805 1.727 0.16 NS

7 Clothing children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather

123.255 0.472 0.889 0.45 NS

8 Washing children’s clothings with mild soap

122.769 0.879 3.564 0.01 S*

9 Allowing children sometimes to select what they want to wear

120.729 0.727 1.988 0.12 NS

10 Clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall

118.235 1.028 3.351 0.02 S*

11 Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces

211.336 1.114 1.609 0.18 NS

12 Allowing children to dress themselves atimes

129.555 0.402 0.522 0.67 NS

13 Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such as shoes with ventro instead of buckles

139.255 0.401 0.416 0.74 NS

14 Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts

135.255 0.290 0.052 0.99 NS

15 Advising parents to buy clothing 148.453 0.592 0.966 0.41 NS16 Ability to use the elements of design in

teaching children example: line, space and form

254.607 0.652 0.256 0.86 NS

17 Ability to use colour wheel 126.235 0.832 4.274 0.01 S*18 Ability to combine colours 127.449 0.370 0.428 0.73 NS

Cluster Summary 140.250 0.683 1.680 0.36 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493

100

Table 8 reveals that the p-values of 14 out of the 18 items in the table

ranged from 0.12 to 0.99 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This

indicated that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-

givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 14

clothing skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of

the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on the 14 items.

The p-values on the remaining four items, specifically items 3, 8, 10 and

17 were 0.00, 0.01, 0.02 and 0.01 respectively which were less than 0.05 level of

significance. This showed that there are significant differences in the mean

ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents on the four items.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of

the four groups of respondents are rejected on the four items. The result of the

Post-Hoc analysis showing the direction of the significance on the four items

showed that the differences in the mean ratings on item 3 was among care-givers,

childhood experts and nurse, for item 8 was between care-givers and childhood

experts, for item 10 was care-givers, Home Economics teachers and childhood

experts while on item 17 the difference in the mean ratings was between care-

givers and childhood expert (See Appendix I, page 179).

The overall p-value of the clothing skills cluster was 0.36 which was

greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant

difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on clothing skills needed by the care-givers in the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

101

HO3

There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the toilet training skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja.

The data for testing hypothesis three are presented in Table 9 below.

Table 9: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the toilet training skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).

SN Toilet training skillsTotal Sum of Square

Total Mean Square F-cal

P-value Rmks

1 Ability to use signs to encourage the children go to toilet each morning

118.640 0.688 1.876 0.13 NS

2 Ability to toilet training the child using potty

143.466 1.083 3.762 0.04 S*

3 Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place

150.607 0.741 1.431 0.23 NS

4 Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating

254.559 0.756 0.460 0.71 NS

5 Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty

115.498 1.525 5.692 0.00 S*

6 Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet

150.235 1.759 4.907 0.00 S*

7 Ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat properly

138.607 0.718 1.564 0.19 NS

8 Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls

143.158 0.948 3.291 0.03 S*

9 Ability to teach older children how to flush the toilet after use

151.482 1.056 2.465 0.06 NS

10 Ability to teach older children how to clean themselves after using the toilet

139.045 1.503 4.441 0.00 S*

11 Ability to teach children not to be talking and playing while using the toilet

149.296 0.904 2.003 0.11 NS

Cluster Summary 150.418 1.062 2.899 0.14 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493

102

Table 9 shows that the p-values of 6 out of the 11 items in the table ranged

from 0.06 to 0.71 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This indicated

that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home

economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 6 toilet training

skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of

the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on the 6 items.

The p-values on the remaining five items, specifically items 2, 5, 6, 8 and

10 were 0.04, 0.00, 0.00, 0.03 and 0.00 respectively which were less than 0.05

level of significance. This showed that there are significant differences in the

mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents on the five items.

Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of

the four groups of respondents are rejected on the five items. The result of the

Post-Hoc analysis showing the direction of the significance on the five items

showed that the differences in the mean ratings on item 2 was between Home

economics teachers and nurse, on items 5 was among care-givers, childhood

experts and nurse, on item 6 and 8 were between care-givers and nurse, while for

item 10 the significance lies between care-givers and Home economics teachers

(See Appendix I, page 185).

The overall p-value of the toilet training skills cluster was 0.14 which was

greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant

difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on toilet training skills needed by the care-givers in

the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

HO4

There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the interacting skills needed by the care-givers for child upbringing in

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

The data for testing hypothesis four are presented in Table 10 below.

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Table 10: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the interacting skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).

SN Interacting Skills Total Sum of Square

Total Mean Square F-cal

P-value Rmks

1 Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents

155.482 0.515 0.629 0.59 NS

2 Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents

163.482 2.090 5.475 0.00 S*

3 Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s

242.024 1.257 1.569 0.19 NS

4 Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents

183.482 0.630 0.689 0.56 NS

5 Ability to know the right of the child 151.968 0.716 1.326 0.27 NS6 Ability to recognize the right of the child 171.045 1.702 3.995 0.01 S*7 Ability to recognize the feelings of the child 163.401 0.543 0.635 0.59 NS8 Ability to reassure children when they need

help178.429 1.112 2.092 0.10 NS

9 Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs 159.045 0.994 2.103 0.09 NS10 Ability to respond without delay to

children’s needs186.769 1.193 3.173 0.04 S*

11 Ability to give clear instructions to children about play

163.336 1.031 2.135 0.09 NS

12 Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand

147.158 0.437 0.460 0.71 NS

13 Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner

159.482 1.552 3.882 0.01 S*

14 Ability to praise the children for what they do well

178.769 0.714 0.969 0.40 NS

15 Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes

278.866 2.289 3.097 0.03 S*

16 Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways

200.421 0.892 1.196 0.31 NS

17 Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children

151.028 0.848 1.782 0.15 NS

18 Ability to use children’s language when interacting with them

122.947 0.353 0.412 0.74 NS

19 Come to children’s level when interacting with them

117.296 0.341 0.425 0.74 NS

20 Ability to teach children how to interact with peers

110.866 0.295 6.305 0.00 S*

21 Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully

112.113 0.519 1.285 0.28 NS

Cluster Summary 166.543 0.953 2.077 0.28 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493

104

Table 10 shows that the p-values of 16 out of the 21 items in the table

ranged from 0.09 to 0.74 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This

showed that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the

responses of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the 16 interacting skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal

Capital Territory, Abuja. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant

difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents

were accepted on the 16 items.

The p-values on the remaining six items, specifically items 2, 6, 10, 13, 15

and 20 were 0.00, 0.01, 0.04, 0.01, 0.03 and 0.00 respectively which were less

than 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that there are significant

differences in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents

on the six items of interacting skills. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no

significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of

respondents are rejected on the six items. The result of the Post-Hoc analysis

showing the direction of the significance on the six items revealed that the

differences in the mean ratings on items 2, 10 and 13 were between care-givers

and nurse. On item 6, the difference in the mean ratings were among care-givers,

childhood experts and nurses while on items 15 and 20, the difference in the

mean ratings were between Home Economics teachers and nurses (See Appendix

I, page 190).

The overall p-value of the interacting skills cluster was 0.28 which was

greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant

difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on interacting skills needed by the care-givers in the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

105

HO5

There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the safety skills needed by the care-givers in Federal Capital Territory,

Abuja.

The data for testing hypothesis five are presented in Table 11 below.

Table 11: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on safety skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).

SN Safety skillsTotal Sum of Square

Total Mean Square F-cal

P-value Rmks

1 Ability to know what to do in emergency cases

125.231 0.676 1.671 0.17 NS

2 Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads

147.482 0.465 0.551 0.65 NS

3 Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when necessary

117.377 0.377 0.578 0.63 NS

4 Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children

132.097 1.509 4.760 0.00 S*

5 Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the reach of children

132.713 0.557 1.071 0.36 NS

6 Being vigilant at all times with children 122.607 0.614 1.477 0.22 NS7 Ability to ensure that children are taken

home only by their parents or guidance198.834 0.346 0.724 0.53 NS

8 Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building

107.449 0.342 0.562 0.64 NS

9 Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and stumbling

131.482 0.306 0.140 0.93 NS

10 Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor

151.028 0.848 1.782 0.15 NS

11 Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks

122.947 0.353 0.412 0.74 NS

Cluster Summary 135.386 0.581 1.248 0.46 NSNote: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05Degree of freedom = 493

106

Table 11 reveals that the p-values of 10 out of the 11 items in the table

ranged from 0.15 to 0.93 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This

revealed that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the

responses of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the 10 safety skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the

mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on

the 10 items.

The p-value on the remaining one item, specifically item 4 was 0.00 which

was less than 0.05 level of significance. This indicated that there is significant

difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents

on the item. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the

mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents is rejected on

item 4 in the table. The result of the Post-Hoc analysis revealed that the

significance difference in the mean ratings of the respondents is between care-

givers and nurses (See Appendix I, page 196).

The overall p-value of the safety skills cluster was 0.46 which was greater

than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant difference

in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early child care

experts and nurses on safety skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal

Capital Territory, Abuja.

HO6

There were no significant difference in the mean ratings of care-givers in

pre-primary schools, Home Economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the hygiene skills needed by the care-givers for child upbringing in

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

The data for testing hypothesis six are presented in Table 12 below.

107

Table 12: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers in pre-primary schools, home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on hygiene skills needed by the care-givers (N=556).

SN Hygiene Skills Total Sum of Square

Total Mean Square F-cal

P-value Rmks

1 Using hygienic toiletries / handkerchief / tissue paper to clean the children’s nose

117.296 0.341 0.425 0.74 NS

2 Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children

110.866 0.295 0.305 0.82 NS

3 Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination

112.113 0.519 1.285 0.28 NS

4 Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other

125.231 0.676 1.671 0.17 NS

5 Avoiding coughing / sneezing into children’s food

124.874 0.420 0.655 0.58 NS

6 Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean

108.178 0.632 1.895 0.12 NS

7 Regularly washing / cleaning children’s toys and playing equipment

108.874 0.385 0.743 0.53 NS

8 Preventing children from eating food that has bones

105.182 1.164 4.575 0.01 S*

9 Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons

119.498 0.542 1.241 0.29 NS

10 Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the floor

179.401 0.994 1.744 0.16 NS

11 Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing

150.607 0.741 1.431 0.23 NS

12 Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet

254.559 0.756 0.460 0.71 NS

13 Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities

115.498 1.525 5.692 0.00 S*

14 Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold

150.235 1.759 4.907 0.00 S*

Cluster Summary 134.458 0.767 1.930 0.33 NS

Note: S* = Significant NS = Not Significant Level of Sig. 0.05 Degree of freedom = 493

108

Table 12 shows that the p-values of 11 out of the 14 items in the table

ranged from 0.12 to 0.82 which are greater than 0.05 level of significance. This

showed that there are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the

responses of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the 11 hygiene skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the

mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents were accepted on

the 11 hygiene skill items.

The p-value on the remaining 3 items, specifically items 8, 13 and 14 were

0.01, 0.00 and 0.00 respectively which were less than 0.05 level of significance.

This indicated that there is significant difference in the mean ratings of the

responses of the four groups of respondents on the 3 items. Therefore, the null

hypothesis of no significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the

four groups of respondents is rejected on items 8, 13 and 14 in the table. The

result of the Post-Hoc analysis revealed that the significance difference in the

mean ratings of the respondents is among care-givers, childhood experts and

nurses (See Appendix I, page 200).

The overall p-value of the hygiene skills cluster was 0.33 which was

greater than 0.05 level of significance. This shows that there is no significant

difference in the mean ratings of care-givers, Home Economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on hygiene skills needed by the care-givers in the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

109

Findings of the Study

Based on the data analysed, the following major findings emerged:

Feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study as regards to research question one found out that care-givers

needed 17 out of the 18 identified feeding skills in pre-primary schools in FCT

Abuja. The 17 feeding skills needed by the care-givers include:

The care-givers should:

1. have basic idea of nutrition

2. Advise parents of the type of food preparation method to give their

children

3. Advise parents on the quantity of food to give their children

4. feed children on time

5. Teach children to avoid talking when eating

6. Wash children eating wares immediately after eating

7. sterilize children’s feeding utensils

8. keep children feeding utensils properly when not used

9. know the constituents of a balanced meal

10.Give the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods

11.give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket

12.show affection while feeding the children

13.help older children feed themselves

14.Make sure children are properly positioned during feeding

110

15.Face the children at their eyes levels when feeding them

16.Ensure that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered

17.Teach children good table manners such as the use of cutleries

H01: The study on hypothesis one found that there are no significant

differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on 16 out of the 18 feeding skills needed by the

care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on the remaining 2

feeding skills, there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the

responses of the four groups of respondents.

Clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study in respect to research question two found that care-givers

needed 16 out of the 18 identified clothing skills in pre-primary schools in FCT

Abuja. The 16 clothing skills needed by the care-givers include:

1. Change children’s cloths anytime they are dirty.

2. Ability to properly care for children’s clothing

3. Putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers

4. Ability to cloth children with properly fitted cloth for comfortability

5. Clothing children with cotton fabrics in hot weather

6. Clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather

7. Clothing children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather

8. Washing children’s clothings with mild soap

9. Clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall

111

10. Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces

11. Allowing children to dress themselves atimes

12. Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such as shoes

with ventro instead of buckles

13. Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts

14. Ability to use the elements of design in teaching children example: line,

space and form

15. Ability to use colour wheel

16. Ability to combine colours

H02: The study on hypothesis two found that there are no significant

differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on 14 out of the 18 clothing skills needed by the

care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on the remaining 4

clothing skills, there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the

responses of the four groups of respondents.

Toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study in respect to research question three found that care-givers

needed all the 11 identified toilet training skills in pre-primary schools in FCT

Abuja. The 11 toilet training skills needed by the care-givers are as follows:

1. Ability to use signs to encourage the children go to toilet each morning

2. Ability to toilet training the child using potty

3. Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place

4. Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating

112

5. Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty

6. Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet

7. Ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat properly

8. Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls

9. Ability to teach older children how to flush the toilet after use

10. Ability to teach older children how to clean themselves after using the

toilet

11. Ability to teach children not to be talking and playing while using the

toilet

H03: The study on hypothesis three found that there are no significant

differences in the mean ratings of care-givers, home economics teachers, early

child care experts and nurses on 6 out of 11 toilet training skills needed by the

care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Although, on the remaining 5

toilet training skills, there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the

responses of the four groups of respondents.

Interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study as regards to research question four found that care-givers

needed all the 21 identified interacting skills in pre-primary schools in FCT

Abuja. The 21 interacting skills needed by the care-givers include the following:

1. Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents

2. Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents

3. Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s

4. Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents

113

5. Ability to know the right of the child

6. Ability to recognize the right of the child

7. Ability to recognize the feelings of the child

8. Ability to reassure children when they need help

9. Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs

10. Ability to respond without delay to children’s need

11. Ability to give clear instructions to children about play

12. Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to

understand

13. Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner

14. Ability to praise the children for what they do well

15. Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes

16. Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways

17. Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children

18. Ability to use children’s language when interacting with them

19. Come to children’s level when interacting with them

20. Ability to teach children how to interact with peers

21. Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully

H04: The study on hypothesis four found that there are no significant

differences in the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers, home economics

teachers, early child care experts and nurses on 16 out of the 21 interacting skills

needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on

114

the remaining 6 interacting skills, there are significant differences in the mean

ratings of the responses of the four groups of respondents.

Safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study as regards to research question five found that care-givers

needed all the 11 identified safety skills in pre-primary schools in FCT Abuja.

The 11 safety skills needed by the care-givers include:

1. Ability to know what to do in emergency cases

2. Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads

3. Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when

necessary

4. Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children

5. Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides

beyond the reach of children

6. Being vigilant at all times with children

7. Ability to ensure that children are taken home only by their parents or

guidance

8. Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building

9. Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and

stumbling

10. Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor

11. Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs

to avoid shocks.

H05: The study on hypothesis five found that there are no significant

differences in the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers, home economics

115

teachers, early child care experts and nurses on 10 out of the 11 safety skills

needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Although, on

the remaining 1 safety skill, there was significant difference in the mean ratings

of the responses of the four groups of respondents.

Hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study as regards to research question six found that care-givers

needed all the 14 identified hygiene skills in pre-primary schools in FCT Abuja.

The 14 hygiene skills needed by the care-givers include the following:

1. Using hygienic toiletries / handkerchief / tissue paper to clean the

children’s nose

2. Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children

3. Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination

4. Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up

with each other

5. Avoiding coughing / sneezing into children’s food

6. Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean

7. Regularly washing / cleaning children’s toys and playing equipment

8. Preventing children from eating food that has bones

9. Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons

10.Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the

floor

116

11.Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor

without washing

12.Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet

13.Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities

14.Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold

H06: The study on hypothesis six found that there are no significant

differences in the mean ratings of the responses of care-givers, home economics

teachers, early child care experts and nurses on 11 out of the 14 hygiene skills

needed by the care-givers in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other

hand, the findings on the remaining 3 hygiene skills showed that there are

significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses of the four groups of

respondents.

Discussion of Findings of the Study

Feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The findings of this study as regards to research question one showed that

the respondents agreed that care-givers needed the following feeding skills for

caring for pre-primary school pupils: ability to have basic idea of nutrition,

advising parents of the type of food preparation method to give their children,

advising parents on the quantity of food to give their children, ability to feed

children on time, teaching children to avoid talking when eating, washing

children eating wares immediately after eating, ability to sterilize children’s

feeding utensils, ability to keep children feeding utensils properly when not used,

117

ability to know the constituents of a balanced meal, giving the children warm

food instead of too hot or too cold foods, ability to give children the right

quantity of food for their age bracket, ability to show affection while feeding the

children, ability to help older children feed themselves, making sure children are

properly positioned during feeding among, teaching children good table manners

such as the use of cutleries among others.

The findings of this study on care giving skills required by care-givers in

feeding the child agreed with the findings of Anuna (2005) who found that care-

givers needed feeding skills such as using artificial milk to feed the child, testing

the temperature of the milk by using the bottle to touch their cheek before using

it to feed the baby, sterilizing feeding utensils in the sterilizing kit, showing

affection to the child when feeding them, giving the child balanced meals always

and force feeding the child when he refuse it among others.

The findings of this study on feeding skills needed by care-givers agreed

with the findings of Carruth and Skinner (2002) on feeding behaviors and other

motor development in healthy children where the authors found that care-givers

need skills in teaching children on grasps food with hands, removing food from

spoon with lips without spilling much, self-feeding with spoon without spilling

much, drinking from sippy cup without help, drinking from a regular cup without

help, keep children feeding utensils properly, and giving children the right

quantity of food for their age bracket. In addition, the findings of this study is in

consonance with that of Butte, Cobb, Graney, Heird and Rickard (2004) where

the authors found that care-givers interactions and communication with children

118

during feeding influences the infant’s ability to progress in feeding skills and

consume a nutritionally adequate diet. The findings of the authors further showed

that the relationship nurtured when the care-giver correctly interprets the infant’s

feeding cues and abilities enhance teaching children to avoid talking when eating,

basic idea of nutrition, attentive to the infant’s needs, and responds appropriately

to satisfy their feeding needs.

Clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The findings of this study in respect to research question two revealed

that the respondents agreed that care-givers needed the following clothing skills

for effective caring for pre-primary school pupils: change children’s cloths

anytime they are dirty, ability to properly care for children’s clothing, putting the

children’s clothing in clean and dry containers, ability to cloth children with

properly fitted cloth for comfortability, clothing children with cotton fabrics in

hot weather, clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather, clothing

children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather, washing children’s clothings

with mild soap, clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do

not fall, helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces, allowing

children to dress themselves atimes, ability to use the elements of design in

teaching children example: line, space and form, ability to use colour wheel and

combination.

The findings of this study on clothing skills needed by care-givers

conformed with the report of a study carried out by Alzheimer’s Association

(2010) where the identified clothing skills needed by care-givers to include:

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helping to have the person get dressed at the same time each day so he or she will

come to expect it as part of the daily routine, encourage the person to dress

himself or herself to whatever degree possible, planning to allow extra time so

there is no pressure or rush, allowing the person to choose from a limited

selection of outfits, store some clothes in another room to reduce the number of

choices, keeping only one or two outfits in the closet or dresser, arranging the

clothes in the order they are to be put on to help the person move through the

process, handing the person one item at a time or give clear, step-by-step

instructions if the person needs prompting and choose clothing that is

comfortable, easy to get on and off, and easy to care for. The findings of the

study further corroborated the result of the study of Smart and Wood (2008) who

investigated family acceptance and use of clothing strategies for early childhood

children and found that care family members required such skills which include

putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers, clothing children with

cotton fabrics in hot weather and laundry children’s clothing with mild soap.

In addition, the findings of this study on clothing skills needed by care-

giver corroborated that submission of Anyakoha and Eluwa (1999) who outlined

children clothing care to include: provision of suitable storage for children

clothings, wash children’s clothing with mild soap, rinse children’s clothing

thoroughly to remove all washing powder, dry cleaning children clothing in the

sun whenever possible to kill the germs on the cloths, iron children cloth to

improve its appearance and kill any germs that may have accepted other laundry

processes, providing a separate bucket with a lid for soaking children napkin, if

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the napkin is soiled , shake or scrap off as much of the stool as you can and avoid

stiffen children’s clothing among others.

Toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The findings of this study as regards to research question three showed

that the respondents agreed that care-givers in pre-primary schools needed toilet

training skills for effective caring for pre-primary school pupils. The toilet

training skills needed include: ability to toilet training the child using potty,

ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place, cleaning the

potty immediately after the child finishes defecating, ability to gradually stop

children at the appropriate age, from using potty, washing hands properly with

soap after visiting toilet, ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat

properly, teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls, ability to teach older

children how to flush the toilet after use, ability to teach older children how to

clean themselves after using the toilet and ability to teach children not to be

talking and playing while using the toilet.

The findings of this study is in conformity with the findings of National

Health and Safety Performance Standards (2002) which reported that: care-givers

need to learn the words the child’s family uses for body parts, urine and bowel

movements to be consistent with what the child is doing at home, toilet training

involves many steps (discussing, undressing, going, wiping, dressing, flushing,

hand washing) reinforce the child’s success at each step, help children recognize

when they are urinating or have a bowel movement, they must be aware of what

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they are doing before they can do anything about it, care-givers should included

toilet training into the daily routine such as reading books, songs and games that

reinforce the skill needed to toilet train, and encourage parents to dress children

in easy to remove clothing to help children be successful in undressing and

dressing.

The findings of the study on toilet training skills needed by care-givers is

in consonance with the findings of Gorski (2009) who identified anticipatory

toilet guidance for children to include: avoiding pressurizing children to use the

potty chair if the child does not want to, use a chair, not a seat that fits over the

toilet seat, ensuring consistent encouragement for toilet training of children, toilet

training a child when the child is not experiencing any other changes and

encourage parents to resist external pressures by family or other day care

provider. In addition, the findings of this study on care giving skills required by

care-givers in toilet training the child agreed with the findings of Anuna (2005)

who found that care-givers in motherless babies home in Imo State required skills

in toilet training child using potty, washing the potty immediately after use by the

child, changing the child’s napkin as soon as it was wet and encouraging the

child to use the toilet each morning among others.

Interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The study on research question four found that the respondents agreed that

care-givers in pre-primary schools needed interacting skills for effective caring

for pre-primary school pupils. Some of the interacting skills needed as found out

by the study include: ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents,

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ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents, ability

to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s, being clear and

specific when interacting with the children’s parents, ability to know the right of

the child, ability to recognize the right of the child, ability to recognize the

feelings of the child, ability to reassure children when they need help, ability to

be sensitive to children’s needs, ability to respond without delay to children’s

need, ability to give clear instructions to children about play, using simple and

positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand, telling children

what they want in a pleasant manner, ability to praise the children for what they

do well, encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes, ability to

discipline the children in firm and positive ways, ability to share non-verbal

interaction like smiles to interact with children, and ability to use children’s

language when interacting with them among other.

The findings of the study on interacting skills needed by care-givers is in

line with the report of Basic Skills Agency (2012) which showed that some of the

specific interactive skills needed by child care-givers include: listening carefully

to both the children and their parents; asking sensible questions to clarify

situations, giving clear explanations and instructions (for example to children

about play and development activities, speaking with clear and pleasant voice

when reading or storytelling to children, using a friendly and positive tone of

voice and body language to establish and maintain good relationships with

children among others. The findings of this study agreed with that of Izuwa

(2002) carried out a study on in-service needs of child care-givers in Aba

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education zone of Abia state and found that some of the competences considered

as importance included the teachers’ ability to: be patient, honest and sincere;

express love towards the children; be self-discipline and composed; arouse

curiosity in the children and so on.

In addition, the findings of the study on interacting skills needed by care-

givers supported the report of Sinclair, Hefner and Perez (2010). The purpose of

their study was to present interactive literacy skills which will engage young

children and the adults who care for them. Adults will develop confidence in

their skills to teach and foster early literacy skills. The information presented in

this workshop is intended to inform, assist, and inspire: parents, care-givers,

teachers, librarians, as well as anyone who would like to become more

knowledgeable about promoting early literacy skills in young children. As part of

the interacting skills needed to be possessed by care-givers, the authors found

that relying on the give and take of conversation with each other and on a shared

context to obtain clues for understanding the message and the meaning of any

new words and cognitive skills and interspersing conversation with the reading of

a book, not just reading straight through the book are needed by care-givers to

effectively interact with children.

Safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The findings of this study as regards to research question five showed that

the respondents agreed that care-givers needed the following safety skills for

effective caring for pre-primary school pupils: ability to know what to do in

emergency cases, keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to

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the roads, knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when

necessary, keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children,

ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the

reach of children, being vigilant at all times with children, ability to ensure that

children are taken home only by their parents or guidance, ability to know how to

use the fire escape routes in the building, ability to keep floor areas clean and free

to avoid children tripping and stumbling, wiping water, food or other liquids to

avoid slippery spots on the floor, and covering electrical outlets or naked wires

with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks.

The findings of this study on safety skills needed by care-givers agreed

with the report of Alzheimer’s Association (2010) who reported that that care-

givers need to be safety conscious to install secure locks on all outside windows

and doors, remove the locks on bathroom doors to prevent the person from

accidentally locking himself or herself in, using childproof latches on kitchen

cabinets and anyplace where cleaning supplies or other chemicals are kept, label

medications and keep them locked up, make sure knives, lighters and matches,

and guns are secured and out of reach of children, keep the house free from

clutter, remove scatter rugs and anything else that might contribute to a fall,

make sure lighting is good both inside and outside the home, be alert to and

address kitchen-safety issues, such as the person forgetting to turn off the stove

after cooking, consider installing an automatic shut-off switch on the stove to

prevent burns or fire and be sure to secure or put away anything that could cause

danger, both inside and outside the home.

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The findings of the study also corroborated with the finding of Beach

(2000) who identified safety precautions to be taking by care-givers to include:

reducing the temperature on the water heater this will prevent accidental

scalding, move frequently used items in the kitchen or bath to an area that is easy

to reach. It is important to avoid climbing on step stools or chairs to retrieve

items, remove all throw rugs or replace them with items that have non-skid

backing, make sure all banisters, railings, and grab bars are securely attached to

the wall, check towel racks and toilet paper holders that might be used to help

stand up from the toilet or step out of the tub, install an intercom to the outside so

visitors can be identified prior to entry, secure furniture in place that is used to

help rise from a chair and check electrical outlets and cords.

Hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools

The findings of this study as regards to research question six showed that

the respondents agreed that care-givers in pre-primary schools needed hygiene

skills for effective caring for pre-primary school pupils. The hygiene skills

needed include: using hygienic toiletries/handkerchief/tissue paper to clean the

children’s nose, thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children,

ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination, ability to

separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other,

avoiding coughing / sneezing into children’s food, ability to ensure that

children’s toilet facilities are clean, regularly washing/cleaning children’s toys

and playing equipment, preventing children from eating food that has bones,

ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons, preventing children

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from picking food items that have dropped on the floor, preventing children from

using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing, ability to teach

children how to wash their hands after using the toilet, providing children with

protective clothing for messy activities and ability to handle children’s food to

avoid being cold.

This finding is in line with the findings of Bupa (2008) stated that

maintaining high levels of personal and kitchen hygiene are important and

effective ways to stop germs from spreading. Bacteria can spread from raw food,

in particular meat, to food that has already been cooked or is eaten raw, such as

salads. To ensure hygienic food preparation for children therefore, it is also very

important that food is stored in the right place (eg fridge or freezer) and at the

correct temperature. WHO (2008) added that the working environment should

also be clean and easy to clean.

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In addition, the findings of the study of Health Expert Organisation (2010)

recommended the following general hygiene practices theses include: hand

washing when working with food; avoidance of food that has fallen to the floor

even if the floor looks clean; Do not cook if unwell, have a known infection or

have an open and uncovered wound; use of a clean and washable apron will help

to prevent the cross contamination of bacteria from clothing to food stuff and

vice versa among others. Also in agreement with the findings of this study, Food

Standard Agency (2008) reported that there are basic food safety and security

measures against the growth and spread of bacteria, these are: ensuring food

areas are clean and good standards of personal hygiene are maintained, cooking

foods thoroughly and keeping foods at the right temperature.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter presented the restatement of the problem, procedure used for

carrying out the study, major findings of the study, conclusion based on the

findings, implications of the study, limitations of the study, recommendation for

implementation and suggestions for further study.

Restatement of the Problem

For the influence of the care-givers to be positive, they need to be skillful

in carrying out their duties such that they know what to do for the child, when to

do it, how to do it, for how long to do it, and so on. These skills are important

because when they are not possessed by the care-givers, the result is that the

child will not be properly taken care of. This further results in the child having

poor social and emotional adjustment which will continue to hinder the child’s all

round development and well being. Since the future of Nigeria depends on how

well the present generation of her children is looked after by care-givers who are

knowledgeable, skilled and equipped for the task, it also means that if the future

of Nigeria is to be taken seriously, the skills of child care-givers in Nigeria need

to be assessed to identify the strength and weakness of such care-givers in such

areas of care-giving skills.

The above situation is necessary more so when it has been reported that

the care-givers in most of the child care-giving centers and schools in most cities

(including the FCT), are not very skillful child care-givers. The authors noted

that they lack the knowledge essential for the social, emotional, and physical

development of children under their care. These are sources of worry for any

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129

interested home economist who would have reasons to ask: could it be that those

who employ these care-givers do not even know what skills to look out for in

their staff? Could it be that those who present themselves as child care-givers are

not aware of what skills are needed for proficient performance of their tasks

which are very important for the development of the children under their care?

For these reasons, this study was carried out to identify skills needed by care-

givers in the pre-primary schools in Abuja? In carrying the study, the following

specific purposes guided the study:

1. feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT,

Abuja,

2. clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,

3. toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,

4. interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,

5. safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools,

6. hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.

Summary of the Procedure Used for the Study

Six research questions were developed and answered by the study while

six null hypotheses were formulated and tested at p ≤ 0.05 level of significance.

The study adopted descriptive survey research design and was carried out in FCT

Abuja. The population for the study consist of 581 respondents in the six local

area councils in the area of study. These include 236 pre-primary school care-

givers in the study area, 265 secondary schools Home Economics teachers, 16

early child care experts and 64 nurses in the study area. Due to the manageable

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size of the population, the entire number of 581 respondents were used, therefore

there was no sampling.

For data collection, two sets of instruments were used namely: Focus

Group Discussion (FGD) Guide and structured questionnaire titled: “Child Care

Skills Needed by Care-givers Questionnaire (CCSNCQ)”. The questionnaire

contains 93 structured items. The instrument was subjected to face validation by

three experts. To determine the reliability of the instrument, Cronbach Alpha

reliability co-efficient was used to test the internal consistency of the instrument.

Reliability coefficients of 0.74 was obtained for feeding skills, 0.69 for clothing

skills, 0.82 for toilet training skills, 0.85 for safety skills, 0.78 for interacting

skills and 0.83 for hygiene while an overall reliability coefficient of 0.79 was

obtained for the entire instrument.

The data for the study was collected by the the researcher with the help of

five trained research assistants. Out of a total of 581 copies of the questionnaire

administered, 556 copies were completely filled and retrieved representing

95.6% rate of return. The focus group discussion (FGD) was carried out with 30

discussants. The data collected from the questionnaire administered were

analyzed using mean for answering the research questions while Analysis of

variance (ANOVA) was used for testing the hypotheses at p≤0.05 level of

significance.

Major Findings of the Study

The findings of the focus group discussion (FGD) revealed that the

responses of the discussants suggested the need to carry out the study.

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Based on the data collected and analysed, the study identified 90 skills

needed by care-givers for effective management of pre-school children in FCT

Abuja. Specifically, the study identified:

1. 17 feeding skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in

FCT Abuja.

2. 16 clothing skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.

3. 11 toilet training skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools.

4. 21 interacting skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary

schools.

5. 11 safety skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.

6. 14 hygiene skills that are needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools.

7. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers,

home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 16

out of the 18 feeding skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal

Capital Territory, Abuja while on the remaining 2 feeding skills there are

significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents.

8. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers,

home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 14

out of the 18 clothing skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal

Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, on the remaining four clothing skills,

there are significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses of

the respondents.

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9. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of care-givers,

home economics teachers, early child care experts and nurses on the 6

out of the 11 toilet training skills needed by the care-givers in the Federal

Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other hand, there are significant

difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the respondents on the

remaining 5 toilet training skills.

10. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses

of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the 16 out of the 21 interacting skills needed by the care-givers

in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other hand, there are

significant difference in the mean ratings of the responses of the

respondents on the remaining 5 interacting skills.

11. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses

of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the 10 out of the 11 safety skills needed by the care-givers in

the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Whereas, there are significant

difference in the mean ratings of the respondents on the remaining one

safety skill.

12. There are no significant differences in the mean ratings of the responses

of care-givers, home economics teachers, early child care experts and

nurses on the 11 out of the 14 hygiene skills needed by the care-givers in

the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. On the other hand, there is

significant difference in the mean ratings of the respondents on the

remaining 3 hygiene skills.

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Implications of the Study

The aims of raising educationally sound children in pre-school depend

largely on the quality of care given to them by the care-givers at the pre-school

level of education. In addition, the roles played by the parents, Home economics

educators, curriculum planners and policy makers at this level is also crucial.

To the care-givers and parents, the findings of this study will provide

useful information that will assist to expose them to more care giving skills for

desirable change in the growth and development of the children under their care.

When they are updated with the needed skills, the implication will be felt on

proper feeding, clothing, protection, and socialization of the children for better

development.

The outcome of this study when published will make an immense

contribution to the advancement of knowledge in the field of Home Economics

as Home economics educators will gain ideas and proper understanding of the

required skills in care giving for proper growth and development of pre-school

children.

The findings of this study will provide to curriculum planners of pre-

primary school programmes useful information in developing course contents

useful for care-giver on care giving skills. The findings will also be relevant to

educational institutions that offer courses in Child care education. This is because

these findings will guide those in charge of these institutions in choosing which

skills they need to emphasize while training care-givers.

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Conclusion

Child care-giving skills, like other skills, are learned and not inborn traits.

For the impact of the care-givers to be positive on the pre-school children, they

need to be skillful in carrying out their duties such that they know what to do for

the child, when to do it, how to do it, for how long to do it and at what stage to

do it. These skills are important because when they are not possessed by the care-

givers, the resultant effect is shown on the pre-school children inform of poor

physical, psychological and educational development of the child. This

necessitated the study to investigate child care skills needed by care-givers in

pre-primary schools in Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. It was therefore

found that care-givers required feeding, clothing, toilet training, interacting,

safety and hygiene skills for effective management of pre-school children in FCT

Abuja.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn from this study, the

following recommendations were made that:

1. The Federal and state governments through their respective parastatals and

administrators of pre-primary schools such as Universal Basic Education

Commission (UBEC), State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB),

United Nations Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF), Nigerian

Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC), National

Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) and Ministry of

Education (MOE) should help package the identified care giving skills

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into programmes for training care-givers and other groups that care for the

child for proper physical, social and psychological development of the

child.

2. The concerned parastatals and administrators of pre-primary schools at

Federal and state levels should ensure regular and timely workshops and

conferences on care giving skills where care-givers will be specifically

made the participants of such educational exercise.

3. The administrators of pre-primary schools at Federal and state levels

should ensure the recruitment of competent pre-school care-givers for

effective care-giving to children in pre-schools.

Suggestions for Further Research

The following related areas have been suggested for further research:

1. Child care skills needed by parents for effective child up-bringing in

Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja.

2. Child care skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in other

states in the country.

3. Constraints militating against effective service delivery of pre-school

teachers in FCT Abuja.

4. Effects of pre-school education on academic achievement of primary

school students in Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja.

136

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

NUMBER OF PUBLIC EARLY CHILD CARE CENTRES (PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS) BY LOCAL AREA COUNCIL (LEA) IN

FCT, ABUJA

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

APPENDIX B

POPULATION OF CARE-GIVERS IN EARLY CHILD CARE CENTRES (PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS) IN FCT, ABUJA

154

155

APPENDIX C

POPULATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOL HOME ECONOMICS TEACHERS IN FCT, ABUJA

156

157

APPENDIX D

LETTER OF REQUEST FOR VALIDATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Department of Vocational Teacher EducationUniversity of Nigeria, Nsukka31/01/2013

Dear Sir/Madam

Request for Validation of Research Instrument

I am a postgraduate student of the above named department/university

currently carrying out a research study titled: “Child-Care Skills Needed by

Care-givers in Pre-Primary Schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT),

Abuja.” Kindly read the attached questions and assess their validity.

Attached also is a copy of the research purpose and research questions for

your guidance. Please check [√] beside each serial number of items you

consider relevant and [χ] for items that you consider irrelevant.

Your comments and suggestions that could enhance the validity of the

instrument will be highly appreciated.

Thanks in anticipation for your co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

Panyi Amy Blessis

158

APPENDIX E

LETTER OF REQUEST FOR RESPONSE TO RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Department of Vocational Teacher EducationUniversity of Nigeria, Nsukka18.02.2013

Dear Sir/Madam

Request for Response to Research Instrument

I am a postgraduate student of the above named department/university

currently carrying out a research study titled: “Child-Care Skills Needed by

Care-givers in Pre-Primary Schools in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT),

Abuja.” Kindly respond the items below as you think appropriate.

Thanks in anticipation for your co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

Panyi Amy Blessis

159

APPENDIX F

QUESTIONNAIRE

PROJECT TITLE: CHILD-CARE SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS IN PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN THE FEDERAL CAPITAL TERRITORY (FCT), ABUJA

QUESTIONNAIRE TITLE: CHILD CARE SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS (CCSNC).

PART I: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Please, provide the information as appropriate1. Name of Care Giving Institution ____________________________ 2. Owner of Institution: Government [ ]

Private [ ]3. Educational Qualification:

FSLC [ ] WASC [ ] TC II [ ] OND [ ]HND [ ] NCE [ ] B.Sc [ ] M.Sc [ ]Ph.D [ ]

4. For how long have you worked as a care-giver:1-5yrs [ ] 6-10yrs [ ] 11-15yrs [ ] 16yrs and above [ ]

PART II

CHILD-CARE SKILLS NEEDED BY CARE-GIVERS IN PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Instructions:Please, tick (√) to the response category that best represent your view on each

item. The response scales and their points are:

Strongly Agree (SA) - 4

Agree (A) - 3

Disagree (D) - 2

Strongly Disagree (SD) - 1

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SECTION A: The feeding skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja

SN Feeding Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD

1 Ability to have basic idea of nutrition.

2 Advising parents of the type of food preparation method to give their children

3 Advising parents on the quantity of food to give their children

4 Ability to feed children on time

5 Teaching children to avoid talking when eating

6 Teaching children to avoid eating in-between meals

7 Washing children eating wares immediately after eating

8 Ability to sterilize children’s feeding utensils

9 Ability to keep children feeding utensils properly when not used

10 Ability to know the constituents of a balanced meal

11 Giving the children warm food instead of too hot or too cold foods

12 Ability to give children the right quantity of food for their age bracket

13 Ability to show affection while feeding the children

14 Ability to help older children feed themselves

15 Making sure children are properly positioned during feeding

16 Facing the children at their eyes levels when feeding them

17 Ensuring that the food children bring to school are properly handled/covered

18 Teaching children good table manners such as the use of cutleries.

SECTION B: The clothing skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja

SN Clothing Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD

1 Change children’s cloths anytime they are dirty.

2 Ability to properly care for children’s clothing

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3 Putting the children’s clothing in clean and dry containers4 Ability to cloth children with properly fitted cloth for

comfortability5 Clothing children with cotton fabrics in hot weather

6 Clothing children with woolen fabrics in cold weather

7 Clothing children with bright coloured cloth in hot weather

8 Washing children’s clothings with mild soap

9 Allowing children sometimes to select what they want to wear

10 Clothing children with the proper size of cloths so that they do not fall

11 Helping children to properly tie/untie their canvass/shoelaces

12 Allowing children to dress themselves atimes

13 Advising parents to buy garments with self-help accessories such as shoes with ventro instead of buckles

14 Advising parents to buy garments with growth features like tucks in shirts

15 Advising parents to buy clothing

16 Ability to use the elements of design in teaching children example: line, space and form

17 Ability to use colour wheel

18 Ability to combine colours

SECTION C: The toilet training skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja

SN Toilet Training Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD

1 Ability to use signs to encourage the children go to toilet each morning

2 Ability to toilet training the child using potty

3 Ability to firmly correct children if they defecate in the wrong place

4 Cleaning the potty immediately after the child finishes defecating

5 Ability to gradually stop children at the appropriate age, from using potty

6 Washing hands properly with soap after visiting toilet

7 Ability to teach children the to sit on the toilet seat

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properly8 Teaching the children not to play with toilet bowls

9 Ability to teach older children how to flush the toilet after use

10 Ability to teach older children how to clean themselves after using the toilet

11 Ability to teach children not to be talking and playing while using the toilet

SECTION D: The interacting skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja

SN Interacting Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD

1 Ability to listen carefully to the children and their parents

2 Ability to communicate constantly and on time with the children’s parents

3 Ability to be clear and specific when interacting with the children’s

4 Being clear and specific when interacting with the children’s parents

5 Ability to know the right of the child

6 Ability to recognize the right of the child

7 Ability to recognize the feelings of the child

8 Ability to reassure children when they need help

9 Ability to be sensitive to children’s needs

10 Ability to respond without delay to children’s needs

11 Ability to give clear instructions to children about play

12 Using simple and positive sentences that are easy for the children to understand

13 Telling children what they want in a pleasant manner

14 Ability to praise the children for what they do well

15 Encouraging the children to keep trying if they make mistakes

16 Ability to discipline the children in firm and positive ways

17 Ability to share non-verbal interaction like smiles to interact with children

18 Ability to use children’s language when interacting with

163

them19 Come to children’s level when interacting with them

20 Ability to teach children how to interact with peers

21 Teaching children to resolve conflicts peacefully

SECTION E: The safety skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT

SN Safety Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD

1 Ability to know what to do in emergency cases

2 Keeping children within the school premises to avoid going to the roads

3 Knowing how to teach the children parents about child safety when necessary

4 Keeping sharp and harmful objects beyond the reach of children

5 Ability to keep harmful liquids such as cleaning agents/insecticides beyond the reach of children

6 Being vigilant at all times with children

7 Ability to ensure that children are taken home only by their parents or guidance

8 Ability to know how to use the fire escape routes in the building

9 Ability to keep floor areas clean and free to avoid children tripping and stumbling

10 Wiping water, food or other liquids to avoid slippery spots on the floor

11 Covering electrical outlets or naked wires with patches and dummy plugs to avoid shocks

SECTION F: The hygiene skills needed by care-givers in pre-primary schools in FCT

SN Hygiene Skills Needed by Care-givers include: SA A D SD

1 Using hygienic toiletries/handkerchief/tissue paper to clean the children’s nose

2 Thorough washing and drying hands before feeding the children

3 Ability to know how to store food and water to avoid contamination

4 Ability to separately keep different children food items to avoid mixed up with each other

164

5 Avoiding coughing/sneezing into children’s food

6 Ability to ensure that children’s toilet facilities are clean

7 Regularly washing/cleaning children’s toys and playing equipment

8 Preventing children from eating food that has bones

9 Ability to prevent children from sharing utensils like spoons

10 Preventing children from picking food items that have dropped on the floor

11 Preventing children from using utensils that have dropped on the floor without washing

12 Ability to teach children how to wash their hands after using the toilet

13 Providing children with protective clothing for messy activities

14 Ability to handle children’s food to avoid being cold

165

APPENDIX G

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD) GUIDE

i What are the child feeding skills that are needed by care-givers for caring for

the child in pre-primary schools in your locality?

ii In pre-primary school, what are the child clothing skills that are required by

the care-givers?

iii What toileting training skills are needed by care-givers for caring for the child

in pre-primary schools?

iv What are the child safety skills that you think should be possessed by care-

givers in pre-primary schools in FCT, Abuja?

v For quality interaction with the child, what are the child interaction skills that

are needed by care-givers for caring for the child in pre-primary schools?

vi What are the hygiene skills that are needed by care-givers for caring for the

child in pre-primary schools in your locality?

166

APPENDIX HRESULTS OF RELIABILITY TEST

Section A. Feeding Skills N %

Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.743 18

Section B. Clothing Skills N %

Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.691 18

Section C. Toilet Training Skills N %

Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.816 11

167

Section D. Safety Skills N %

Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.847 21

Section E. Interacting Skills N %

Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.782 11

Section F. Hygiene Skills N %

Cases Valid 50 100.0Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.833 14

168

OVERALL RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT

N %Cases Valid 50 100.0

Excludeda 0 .0Total 50 100.0

Reliability StatisticsCronbach's

Alpha N of Items.790 93

169

APPENDIX I

RESULT OF DATA ANALYSEDSection A. Feeding Skills

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

AITEM1 556 1.00 4.00 3.5559 .64876

AITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.6073 .54385

AITEM3 556 1.00 4.00 3.6883 .50553

AITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.2939 .54695

AITEM5 556 3.00 4.00 3.3887 .48794

AITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 2.4330 .51763

AITEM7 556 1.00 4.00 3.6478 .51884

AITEM8 556 3.00 4.00 3.5425 .49869

AITEM9 556 2.00 4.00 3.4409 .44774

AITEM10 556 2.00 4.00 3.3206 .46685

AITEM11 556 2.00 4.00 3.5939 .51643

AITEM12 556 1.00 4.00 3.0951 .55348

AITEM13 556 2.00 4.00 3.3684 .49939

AITEM14 556 2.00 4.00 2.9563 .48777

AITEM15 556 3.00 4.00 2.8499 .47422

AITEM16 556 3.00 4.00 3.1482 .47688

AITEM17 556 1.00 4.00 3.5077 .50400

AITEM18 556 1.00 4.00 3.3721 .50328

Valid N (listwise) 556

170

Section B. Clothing Skills Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

BITEM1 556 3.00 4.00 3.4761 .46843

BITEM2 556 3.00 4.00 3.5721 .46994

BITEM3 556 2.00 4.00 3.2126 .46190

BITEM4 556 2.00 4.00 3.6559 .49233

BITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.0742 .60324

BITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 3.5506 .54463

BITEM7 556 3.00 4.00 3.4777 .50001

BITEM8 556 3.00 4.00 2.8385 .49902

BITEM9 556 3.00 4.00 2.4749 .49486

BITEM10 556 3.00 4.00 3.6032 .48972

BITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.4818 .65473

BITEM12 556 2.00 4.00 3.3320 .51263

BITEM13 556 1.00 4.00 3.5223 .53147

BITEM14 556 2.00 4.00 3.4777 .52379

BITEM15 556 1.00 4.00 2.4606 .54875

BITEM16 556 1.00 4.00 3.2267 .71864

BITEM17 556 2.00 4.00 3.3968 .50602

BITEM18 556 2.00 4.00 3.4899 .50845

Valid N (listwise) 556

171

Section C. Toilet Training Skills Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

CITEM1 556 3.00 4.00 3.4008 .49056CITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.6802 .53945CITEM3 556 1.00 4.00 3.5425 .55271CITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.5753 .71857CITEM5 556 2.00 4.00 3.4441 .48402CITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 3.3968 .55203CITEM7 556 1.00 4.00 3.5425 .53024CITEM8 556 1.00 4.00 3.5263 .53887CITEM9 556 1.00 4.00 3.6061 .55432CITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.2304 .53107CITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.5668 .55030Valid N (listwise) 556

Section D. Interacting Skills Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

DITEM1 556 1.00 4.00 3.5061 .56159DITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.4939 .57585DITEM3 556 1.00 4.00 3.0053 .70066DITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.5061 .61006DITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.3765 .55520DITEM6 556 1.00 4.00 3.4696 .58902DITEM7 556 1.00 4.00 3.4858 .57571DITEM8 556 1.00 4.00 3.1534 .60160DITEM9 556 1.00 4.00 3.4696 .56798DITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.5385 .61550DITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.6182 .57560DITEM12 556 1.00 4.00 3.5263 .54635DITEM13 556 1.00 4.00 3.4939 .56876DITEM14 556 1.00 4.00 3.5385 .60218DITEM15 556 1.00 4.00 3.3401 .75210DITEM16 556 1.00 4.00 3.0211 .63760DITEM17 556 1.00 4.00 3.5951 .55348DITEM18 556 2.00 4.00 3.3684 .49939DITEM19 556 2.00 4.00 3.2563 .48777DITEM20 556 3.00 4.00 2.9599 1.07422DITEM21 556 3.00 4.00 3.3482 .47688Valid N (listwise) 556

172

Section E. Safety Skills Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

EITEM1 556 1.00 4.00 3.5077 .50400

EITEM2 556 1.00 4.00 3.6939 .54695

EITEM3 556 3.00 4.00 3.5887 .48794

EITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.5830 .51763

EITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.6478 .51884

EITEM6 556 3.00 4.00 3.5425 .49869

EITEM7 556 2.00 4.00 3.7409 .44774

EITEM8 556 2.00 4.00 3.7206 .46685

EITEM9 556 2.00 4.00 3.4939 .51643

EITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.5951 .55348

EITEM11 556 2.00 4.00 3.7384 .49939

Valid N (listwise) 556

Section F. Hygiene Skills Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

FITEM1 556 2.00 4.00 3.3563 .48777

FITEM2 556 3.00 4.00 3.6599 .47422

FITEM3 556 3.00 4.00 3.4482 .47688

FITEM4 556 1.00 4.00 3.3077 .50400

FITEM5 556 1.00 4.00 3.6721 .50328

FITEM6 556 3.00 4.00 3.5761 .46843

FITEM7 556 3.00 4.00 3.6721 .46994

FITEM8 556 2.00 4.00 3.7126 .46190

FITEM9 556 2.00 4.00 3.1559 .49233

FITEM10 556 1.00 4.00 3.5142 .60324

FITEM11 556 1.00 4.00 3.5425 .55271

FITEM12 556 1.00 4.00 3.4753 .71857

FITEM13 556 2.00 4.00 3.5441 .48402

FITEM14 556 1.00 4.00 3.3968 .55203

Valid N (listwise) 556

173

Hypothesis OneANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

AITEM1 Between Groups 1.062 3 .354 .840 .472

Within Groups 206.436 490 .421

Total 207.498 493

AITEM2 Between Groups 2.619 3 .873 3.987 .011Within Groups 143.195 490 .292

Total 145.814 493

AITEM3 Between Groups .368 3 .123 .479 .697Within Groups 125.624 490 .256

Total 125.992 493

AITEM4 Between Groups .496 3 .165 .551 .648Within Groups 146.986 490 .300

Total 147.482 493

AITEM5 Between Groups .414 3 .138 .578 .630Within Groups 116.963 490 .239

Total 117.377 493

AITEM6 Between Groups 3.741 3 1.247 4.760 .003Within Groups 128.357 490 .262

Total 132.097 493

AITEM7 Between Groups .864 3 .288 1.071 .361Within Groups 131.848 490 .269

Total 132.713 493

AITEM8 Between Groups 1.099 3 .366 1.477 .220Within Groups 121.508 490 .248

Total 122.607 493

AITEM9 Between Groups .436 3 .145 .724 .538Within Groups 98.398 490 .201

Total 98.834 493

AITEM10 Between Groups .368 3 .123 .562 .640Within Groups 107.081 490 .219

Total 107.449 493

AITEM11 Between Groups .113 3 .038 .140 .936Within Groups 131.369 490 .268

Total 131.482 493

AITEM12 Between Groups 1.630 3 .543 1.782 .150Within Groups 149.399 490 .305

Total 151.028 493

AITEM13 Between Groups .309 3 .103 .412 .744Within Groups 122.638 490 .250

174

Total 122.947 493

AITEM14 Between Groups .305 3 .102 .425 .735Within Groups 116.991 490 .239

Total 117.296 493

AITEM15 Between Groups .207 3 .069 .305 .821Within Groups 110.659 490 .226

Total 110.866 493

AITEM16 Between Groups .875 3 .292 1.285 .279Within Groups 111.238 490 .227

Total 112.113 493

AITEM17 Between Groups 1.268 3 .423 1.671 .172Within Groups 123.963 490 .253

Total 125.231 493

AITEM18 Between Groups .499 3 .166 .655 .580

Within Groups 124.375 490 .254

Total 124.874 493

POST HOC Multiple Comparisons

Scheffe

Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status

Mean Difference

(I-J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

AITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .01209 .07315 .999 -.1931 .2173

Childhood Experts -.23529 .15742 .526 -.6769 .2063

Nurse/Midwife .02859 .08922 .991 -.2217 .2789

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.01209 .07315 .999 -.2173 .1931

Childhood Experts -.24738 .16547 .526 -.7116 .2168

Nurse/Midwife .01651 .10275 .999 -.2717 .3047

Childhood Experts Care-givers .23529 .15742 .526 -.2063 .6769

HomeEc Teachers .24738 .16547 .526 -.2168 .7116

Nurse/Midwife .26389 .17317 .509 -.2219 .7497

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02859 .08922 .991 -.2789 .2217

HomeEc Teachers -.01651 .10275 .999 -.3047 .2717

Childhood Experts -.26389 .17317 .509 -.7497 .2219AITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09989 .06093 .443 -.0710 .2708

Childhood Experts -.13072 .13111 .803 -.4985 .2371Nurse/Midwife .17831* .07430 .125 -.0301 .3868

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09989 .06093 .443 -.2708 .0710Childhood Experts -.23061 .13781 .424 -.6172 .1560Nurse/Midwife .07842 .08558 .840 -.1616 .3185

175

Childhood Experts Care-givers .13072 .13111 .803 -.2371 .4985HomeEc Teachers .23061 .13781 .424 -.1560 .6172Nurse/Midwife .30903 .14423 .206 -.0956 .7136

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.17831* .07430 .125 -.3868 .0301HomeEc Teachers -.07842 .08558 .840 -.3185 .1616Childhood Experts -.30903 .14423 .206 -.7136 .0956

AITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .02664 .05707 .975 -.1334 .1867Childhood Experts .03922 .12280 .992 -.3053 .3837Nurse/Midwife .08088 .06960 .717 -.1144 .2761

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.02664 .05707 .975 -.1867 .1334Childhood Experts .01258 .12908 1.000 -.3495 .3747Nurse/Midwife .05425 .08015 .928 -.1706 .2791

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12280 .992 -.3837 .3053HomeEc Teachers -.01258 .12908 1.000 -.3747 .3495Nurse/Midwife .04167 .13509 .992 -.3373 .4206

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.08088 .06960 .717 -.2761 .1144HomeEc Teachers -.05425 .08015 .928 -.2791 .1706Childhood Experts -.04167 .13509 .992 -.4206 .3373

AITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07005 .06173 .732 -.2432 .1031Childhood Experts -.07843 .13284 .951 -.4511 .2942Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07528 1.000 -.2028 .2196

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07005 .06173 .732 -.1031 .2432Childhood Experts -.00839 .13962 1.000 -.4001 .3833Nurse/Midwife .07842 .08670 .845 -.1648 .3216

Childhood Experts Care-givers .07843 .13284 .951 -.2942 .4511HomeEc Teachers .00839 .13962 1.000 -.3833 .4001Nurse/Midwife .08681 .14612 .950 -.3231 .4967

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07528 1.000 -.2196 .2028HomeEc Teachers -.07842 .08670 .845 -.3216 .1648Childhood Experts -.08681 .14612 .950 -.4967 .3231

AITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06561 .05506 .701 -.0889 .2201Childhood Experts .07190 .11850 .947 -.2605 .4043Nurse/Midwife -.00102 .06715 1.000 -.1894 .1874

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06561 .05506 .701 -.2201 .0889Childhood Experts .00629 .12455 1.000 -.3431 .3557Nurse/Midwife -.06663 .07734 .863 -.2836 .1503

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.07190 .11850 .947 -.4043 .2605HomeEc Teachers -.00629 .12455 1.000 -.3557 .3431Nurse/Midwife -.07292 .13035 .958 -.4386 .2927

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00102 .06715 1.000 -.1874 .1894HomeEc Teachers .06663 .07734 .863 -.1503 .2836Childhood Experts .07292 .13035 .958 -.2927 .4386

AITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09977 .05768 .394 -.2616 .0620Childhood Experts -.25490* .12413 .240 -.6031 .0933Nurse/Midwife -.22712* .07035 .016 -.4245 -.0298

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09977 .05768 .394 -.0620 .2616Childhood Experts -.15514 .13048 .702 -.5212 .2109

176

Nurse/Midwife -.12736 .08102 .481 -.3546 .0999Childhood Experts Care-givers .25490* .12413 .240 -.0933 .6031

HomeEc Teachers .15514 .13048 .702 -.2109 .5212Nurse/Midwife .02778* .13655 .998 -.3553 .4108

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .22712* .07035 .016 .0298 .4245HomeEc Teachers .12736 .08102 .481 -.0999 .3546Childhood Experts -.02778* .13655 .998 -.4108 .3553

AITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.03946 .05846 .928 -.2035 .1245

Childhood Experts -.15686 .12581 .670 -.5098 .1961

Nurse/Midwife -.09783 .07130 .597 -.2978 .1022

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .03946 .05846 .928 -.1245 .2035

Childhood Experts -.11740 .13224 .852 -.4884 .2536

Nurse/Midwife -.05837 .08211 .918 -.2887 .1720

Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12581 .670 -.1961 .5098

HomeEc Teachers .11740 .13224 .852 -.2536 .4884

Nurse/Midwife .05903 .13839 .980 -.3292 .4473

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09783 .07130 .597 -.1022 .2978

HomeEc Teachers .05837 .08211 .918 -.1720 .2887

Childhood Experts -.05903 .13839 .980 -.4473 .3292

AITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05623 .05612 .800 -.2137 .1012

Childhood Experts -.15686 .12078 .640 -.4957 .1819

Nurse/Midwife -.11520 .06845 .419 -.3072 .0768

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05623 .05612 .800 -.1012 .2137

Childhood Experts -.10063 .12695 .890 -.4567 .2555

Nurse/Midwife -.05896 .07883 .906 -.2801 .1622

Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12078 .640 -.1819 .4957

HomeEc Teachers .10063 .12695 .890 -.2555 .4567

Nurse/Midwife .04167 .13286 .992 -.3310 .4144

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .11520 .06845 .419 -.0768 .3072

HomeEc Teachers .05896 .07883 .906 -.1622 .2801

Childhood Experts -.04167 .13286 .992 -.4144 .3310

AITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.06043 .05050 .698 -.2021 .0812

Childhood Experts .06536 .10869 .948 -.2395 .3702

Nurse/Midwife .01328 .06159 .997 -.1595 .1861

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .06043 .05050 .698 -.0812 .2021

Childhood Experts .12579 .11424 .750 -.1947 .4463

Nurse/Midwife .07370 .07094 .782 -.1253 .2727

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.06536 .10869 .948 -.3702 .2395

HomeEc Teachers -.12579 .11424 .750 -.4463 .1947

Nurse/Midwife -.05208 .11956 .979 -.3875 .2833

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01328 .06159 .997 -.1861 .1595

HomeEc Teachers -.07370 .07094 .782 -.2727 .1253

Childhood Experts .05208 .11956 .979 -.2833 .3875

AITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .01431 .05269 .995 -.1335 .1621

Childhood Experts -.06536 .11338 .954 -.3834 .2527

Nurse/Midwife -.06883 .06426 .766 -.2491 .1114

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.01431 .05269 .995 -.1621 .1335

Childhood Experts -.07966 .11917 .930 -.4140 .2546

Nurse/Midwife -.08314 .07400 .738 -.2907 .1245

177

Childhood Experts Care-givers .06536 .11338 .954 -.2527 .3834

HomeEc Teachers .07966 .11917 .930 -.2546 .4140

Nurse/Midwife -.00347 .12472 1.000 -.3533 .3464

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .06883 .06426 .766 -.1114 .2491

HomeEc Teachers .08314 .07400 .738 -.1245 .2907

Childhood Experts .00347 .12472 1.000 -.3464 .3533

AITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .00617 .05836 1.000 -.1575 .1699

Childhood Experts -.05882 .12558 .974 -.4111 .2935

Nurse/Midwife .02798 .07117 .985 -.1717 .2276

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.00617 .05836 1.000 -.1699 .1575

Childhood Experts -.06499 .13200 .970 -.4353 .3053

Nurse/Midwife .02182 .08197 .995 -.2081 .2517

Childhood Experts Care-givers .05882 .12558 .974 -.2935 .4111

HomeEc Teachers .06499 .13200 .970 -.3053 .4353

Nurse/Midwife .08681 .13814 .941 -.3007 .4743

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02798 .07117 .985 -.2276 .1717

HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .08197 .995 -.2517 .2081

Childhood Experts -.08681 .13814 .941 -.4743 .3007

AITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09187 .06223 .537 -.0827 .2664

Childhood Experts -.17647 .13392 .629 -.5522 .1992

Nurse/Midwife -.05494 .07590 .914 -.2679 .1580

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09187 .06223 .537 -.2664 .0827

Childhood Experts -.26834 .14077 .305 -.6632 .1265

Nurse/Midwife -.14682 .08741 .421 -.3920 .0984

Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .13392 .629 -.1992 .5522

HomeEc Teachers .26834 .14077 .305 -.1265 .6632

Nurse/Midwife .12153 .14732 .878 -.2917 .5348

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .05494 .07590 .914 -.1580 .2679

HomeEc Teachers .14682 .08741 .421 -.0984 .3920

Childhood Experts -.12153 .14732 .878 -.5348 .2917

AITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02368 .05638 .981 -.1818 .1345

Childhood Experts .03922 .12134 .991 -.3012 .3796

Nurse/Midwife .06005 .06876 .858 -.1329 .2529

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02368 .05638 .981 -.1345 .1818

Childhood Experts .06289 .12754 .970 -.2949 .4207

Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07919 .773 -.1384 .3059

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12134 .991 -.3796 .3012

HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12754 .970 -.4207 .2949

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13347 .999 -.3536 .3953

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06005 .06876 .858 -.2529 .1329

HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07919 .773 -.3059 .1384

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13347 .999 -.3953 .3536

AITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04329 .05507 .892 -.1978 .1112

Childhood Experts .01961 .11851 .999 -.3128 .3521

Nurse/Midwife .04044 .06716 .948 -.1480 .2288

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04329 .05507 .892 -.1112 .1978

Childhood Experts .06289 .12457 .968 -.2865 .4123

Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07735 .760 -.1333 .3007

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .11851 .999 -.3521 .3128

178

HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12457 .968 -.4123 .2865

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13036 .999 -.3449 .3865

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .06716 .948 -.2288 .1480

HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07735 .760 -.3007 .1333

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13036 .999 -.3865 .3449

AITEM15 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05356 .823 -.2013 .0992

Childhood Experts -.01961 .11526 .999 -.3429 .3037

Nurse/Midwife -.00919 .06532 .999 -.1924 .1740

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05356 .823 -.0992 .2013

Childhood Experts .03145 .12115 .995 -.3084 .3713

Nurse/Midwife .04186 .07523 .958 -.1692 .2529

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .11526 .999 -.3037 .3429

HomeEc Teachers -.03145 .12115 .995 -.3713 .3084

Nurse/Midwife .01042 .12679 1.000 -.3453 .3661

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00919 .06532 .999 -.1740 .1924

HomeEc Teachers -.04186 .07523 .958 -.2529 .1692

Childhood Experts -.01042 .12679 1.000 -.3661 .3453

AITEM16 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02516 .05370 .974 -.1758 .1255

Childhood Experts .11111 .11556 .819 -.2131 .4353

Nurse/Midwife -.10417 .06549 .471 -.2879 .0795

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02516 .05370 .974 -.1255 .1758

Childhood Experts .13627 .12146 .739 -.2045 .4770

Nurse/Midwife -.07901 .07542 .778 -.2906 .1326

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.11111 .11556 .819 -.4353 .2131

HomeEc Teachers -.13627 .12146 .739 -.4770 .2045

Nurse/Midwife -.21528 .12712 .413 -.5719 .1413

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .10417 .06549 .471 -.0795 .2879

HomeEc Teachers .07901 .07542 .778 -.1326 .2906

Childhood Experts .21528 .12712 .413 -.1413 .5719

AITEM17 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08324 .05669 .541 -.2423 .0758

Childhood Experts .18301 .12199 .523 -.1592 .5252

Nurse/Midwife -.01838 .06913 .995 -.2123 .1756

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08324 .05669 .541 -.0758 .2423

Childhood Experts .26625 .12822 .231 -.0935 .6259

Nurse/Midwife .06486 .07962 .882 -.1585 .2882

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18301 .12199 .523 -.5252 .1592

HomeEc Teachers -.26625 .12822 .231 -.6259 .0935

Nurse/Midwife -.20139 .13419 .522 -.5778 .1751

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .01838 .06913 .995 -.1756 .2123

HomeEc Teachers -.06486 .07962 .882 -.2882 .1585

Childhood Experts .20139 .13419 .522 -.1751 .5778

AITEM18 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02565 .05678 .977 -.1849 .1336

Childhood Experts -.01307 .12219 1.000 -.3558 .3297

Nurse/Midwife -.09641 .06925 .586 -.2907 .0979

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02565 .05678 .977 -.1336 .1849

Childhood Experts .01258 .12844 1.000 -.3477 .3729

Nurse/Midwife -.07075 .07975 .853 -.2945 .1530

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .12219 1.000 -.3297 .3558

179

HomeEc Teachers -.01258 .12844 1.000 -.3729 .3477

Nurse/Midwife -.08333 .13442 .943 -.4604 .2937

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09641 .06925 .586 -.0979 .2907

HomeEc Teachers .07075 .07975 .853 -.1530 .2945

Childhood Experts .08333 .13442 .943 -.2937 .4604

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Hypothesis TwoANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

BITEM1 Between Groups 1.241 3 .414 1.895 .129

Within Groups 106.937 490 .218

Total 108.178 493

BITEM2 Between Groups .493 3 .164 .743 .527Within Groups 108.381 490 .221

Total 108.874 493

BITEM3 Between Groups 2.866 3 .955 4.575 .004Within Groups 102.316 490 .209

Total 105.182 493

BITEM4 Between Groups .901 3 .300 1.241 .294Within Groups 118.597 490 .242

Total 119.498 493

BITEM5 Between Groups 1.896 3 .632 1.744 .157Within Groups 177.505 490 .362

Total 179.401 493

BITEM6 Between Groups 1.530 3 .510 1.727 .161Within Groups 144.705 490 .295

Total 146.235 493

BITEM7 Between Groups .667 3 .222 .889 .447Within Groups 122.588 490 .250

Total 123.255 493

BITEM8 Between Groups 1.897 3 .632 3.564 .014Within Groups 120.872 490 .247

Total 122.769 493

BITEM9 Between Groups 1.452 3 .484 1.988 .115Within Groups 119.277 490 .243

Total 120.729 493

BITEM10 Between Groups 2.377 3 .792 3.351 .019Within Groups 115.858 490 .236

Total 118.235 493

BITEM11 Between Groups 2.062 3 .687 1.609 .186

180

Within Groups 209.274 490 .427

Total 211.336 493

BITEM12 Between Groups .413 3 .138 .522 .667Within Groups 129.142 490 .264

Total 129.555 493

BITEM13 Between Groups .353 3 .118 .416 .742Within Groups 138.902 490 .283

Total 139.255 493

BITEM14 Between Groups .043 3 .014 .052 .985Within Groups 135.212 490 .276

Total 135.255 493

BITEM15 Between Groups .872 3 .291 .966 .409Within Groups 147.581 490 .301

Total 148.453 493

BITEM16 Between Groups .398 3 .133 .256 .857Within Groups 254.209 490 .519

Total 254.607 493

BITEM17 Between Groups 1.733 3 .578 4.274 .009Within Groups 124.501 490 .254

Total 126.235 493

BITEM18 Between Groups .333 3 .111 .428 .733

Within Groups 127.117 490 .259

Total 127.449 493

POST HOC Multiple Comparisons

Scheffe

Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status

Mean Difference

(I-J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

BITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05265 .816 -.1988 .0966

Childhood Experts -.24183 .11330 .209 -.5597 .0760

Nurse/Midwife -.07169 .06421 .742 -.2518 .1084

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05265 .816 -.0966 .1988

Childhood Experts -.19078 .11909 .464 -.5249 .1433

Nurse/Midwife -.02064 .07395 .994 -.2281 .1868

Childhood Experts Care-givers .24183 .11330 .209 -.0760 .5597

HomeEc Teachers .19078 .11909 .464 -.1433 .5249

Nurse/Midwife .17014 .12464 .602 -.1795 .5198

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07169 .06421 .742 -.1084 .2518

HomeEc Teachers .02064 .07395 .994 -.1868 .2281

181

Childhood Experts -.17014 .12464 .602 -.5198 .1795BITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05710 .05300 .763 -.0916 .2058

Childhood Experts -.09804 .11407 .864 -.4180 .2219Nurse/Midwife -.00776 .06464 1.000 -.1891 .1736

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05710 .05300 .763 -.2058 .0916Childhood Experts -.15514 .11989 .643 -.4915 .1812Nurse/Midwife -.06486 .07445 .859 -.2737 .1440

Childhood Experts Care-givers .09804 .11407 .864 -.2219 .4180HomeEc Teachers .15514 .11989 .643 -.1812 .4915Nurse/Midwife .09028 .12548 .915 -.2617 .4423

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00776 .06464 1.000 -.1736 .1891HomeEc Teachers .06486 .07445 .859 -.1440 .2737Childhood Experts -.09028 .12548 .915 -.4423 .2617

BITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10618 .05150 .237 -.2506 .0383Childhood Experts -.31373* .11083 .047 -.6246 -.0028Nurse/Midwife .06127 .06281 .813 -.1149 .2375

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10618 .05150 .237 -.0383 .2506Childhood Experts -.20755 .11649 .367 -.5343 .1192Nurse/Midwife .16745 .07234 .149 -.0355 .3704

Childhood Experts Care-givers .31373* .11083 .047 .0028 .6246HomeEc Teachers .20755 .11649 .367 -.1192 .5343Nurse/Midwife .37500* .12191 .025 .0330 .7170

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06127 .06281 .813 -.2375 .1149HomeEc Teachers -.16745 .07234 .149 -.3704 .0355Childhood Experts -.37500* .12191 .025 -.7170 -.0330

BITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .08176 .05545 .538 -.0738 .2373Childhood Experts -.11111 .11932 .833 -.4458 .2236Nurse/Midwife -.02083 .06762 .992 -.2105 .1689

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.08176 .05545 .538 -.2373 .0738Childhood Experts -.19287 .12542 .501 -.5447 .1590Nurse/Midwife -.10259 .07788 .629 -.3211 .1159

Childhood Experts Care-givers .11111 .11932 .833 -.2236 .4458HomeEc Teachers .19287 .12542 .501 -.1590 .5447Nurse/Midwife .09028 .13126 .925 -.2779 .4585

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .02083 .06762 .992 -.1689 .2105HomeEc Teachers .10259 .07788 .629 -.1159 .3211Childhood Experts -.09028 .13126 .925 -.4585 .2779

BITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .15279 .06783 .168 -.0375 .3431Childhood Experts -.00654 .14598 1.000 -.4160 .4030Nurse/Midwife .01777 .08273 .997 -.2143 .2498

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.15279 .06783 .168 -.3431 .0375Childhood Experts -.15933 .15344 .782 -.5898 .2711Nurse/Midwife -.13502 .09528 .571 -.4023 .1323

Childhood Experts Care-givers .00654 .14598 1.000 -.4030 .4160HomeEc Teachers .15933 .15344 .782 -.2711 .5898Nurse/Midwife .02431 .16058 .999 -.4262 .4748

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01777 .08273 .997 -.2498 .2143

182

HomeEc Teachers .13502 .09528 .571 -.1323 .4023Childhood Experts -.02431 .16058 .999 -.4748 .4262

BITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07436 .06125 .688 -.2462 .0974Childhood Experts -.24837 .13180 .315 -.6181 .1214Nurse/Midwife .02941 .07470 .984 -.1801 .2389

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07436 .06125 .688 -.0974 .2462Childhood Experts -.17400 .13854 .665 -.5626 .2146Nurse/Midwife .10377 .08603 .693 -.1375 .3451

Childhood Experts Care-givers .24837 .13180 .315 -.1214 .6181HomeEc Teachers .17400 .13854 .665 -.2146 .5626Nurse/Midwife .27778 .14499 .301 -.1289 .6845

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02941 .07470 .984 -.2389 .1801HomeEc Teachers -.10377 .08603 .693 -.3451 .1375Childhood Experts -.27778 .14499 .301 -.6845 .1289

BITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05771 .05637 .790 -.2158 .1004

Childhood Experts .13725 .12131 .734 -.2031 .4776

Nurse/Midwife .00184 .06875 1.000 -.1910 .1947

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05771 .05637 .790 -.1004 .2158

Childhood Experts .19497 .12751 .506 -.1627 .5527

Nurse/Midwife .05955 .07918 .904 -.1626 .2817

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.13725 .12131 .734 -.4776 .2031

HomeEc Teachers -.19497 .12751 .506 -.5527 .1627

Nurse/Midwife -.13542 .13345 .794 -.5098 .2389

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00184 .06875 1.000 -.1947 .1910

HomeEc Teachers -.05955 .07918 .904 -.2817 .1626

Childhood Experts .13542 .13345 .794 -.2389 .5098

BITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04390 .05598 .893 -.2009 .1131

Childhood Experts -.27451* .12046 .160 -.6124 .0634

Nurse/Midwife -.12173 .06827 .366 -.3132 .0698

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04390 .05598 .893 -.1131 .2009

Childhood Experts -.23061 .12662 .346 -.5858 .1246

Nurse/Midwife -.07783 .07862 .806 -.2984 .1427

Childhood Experts Care-givers .27451* .12046 .160 -.0634 .6124

HomeEc Teachers .23061 .12662 .346 -.1246 .5858

Nurse/Midwife .15278 .13251 .722 -.2189 .5245

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .12173 .06827 .366 -.0698 .3132

HomeEc Teachers .07783 .07862 .806 -.1427 .2984

Childhood Experts -.15278 .13251 .722 -.5245 .2189

BITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09175 .05561 .437 -.2477 .0642

Childhood Experts .12418 .11966 .783 -.2115 .4599

Nurse/Midwife .06863 .06782 .795 -.1216 .2589

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09175 .05561 .437 -.0642 .2477

Childhood Experts .21593 .12578 .401 -.1369 .5688

Nurse/Midwife .16038 .07810 .240 -.0587 .3795

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.12418 .11966 .783 -.4599 .2115

HomeEc Teachers -.21593 .12578 .401 -.5688 .1369

Nurse/Midwife -.05556 .13163 .981 -.4248 .3137

183

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06863 .06782 .795 -.2589 .1216

HomeEc Teachers -.16038 .07810 .240 -.3795 .0587

Childhood Experts .05556 .13163 .981 -.3137 .4248

BITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .08102* .05480 .535 -.0727 .2348

Childhood Experts .31373* .11793 .071 -.0171 .6446

Nurse/Midwife .11581 .06684 .392 -.0717 .3033

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.08102* .05480 .535 -.2348 .0727

Childhood Experts .23270* .12396 .319 -.1150 .5804

Nurse/Midwife .03479 .07697 .977 -.1811 .2507

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.31373* .11793 .071 -.6446 .0171

HomeEc Teachers -.23270* .12396 .319 -.5804 .1150

Nurse/Midwife -.19792 .12973 .508 -.5618 .1660

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.11581 .06684 .392 -.3033 .0717

HomeEc Teachers -.03479 .07697 .977 -.2507 .1811

Childhood Experts .19792 .12973 .508 -.1660 .5618

BITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01998 .07365 .995 -.2266 .1866

Childhood Experts .24837 .15850 .484 -.1963 .6930

Nurse/Midwife -.12316 .08983 .598 -.3751 .1288

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01998 .07365 .995 -.1866 .2266

Childhood Experts .26834 .16660 .459 -.1990 .7357

Nurse/Midwife -.10318 .10345 .803 -.3934 .1870

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.24837 .15850 .484 -.6930 .1963

HomeEc Teachers -.26834 .16660 .459 -.7357 .1990

Nurse/Midwife -.37153 .17436 .210 -.8606 .1176

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .12316 .08983 .598 -.1288 .3751

HomeEc Teachers .10318 .10345 .803 -.1870 .3934

Childhood Experts .37153 .17436 .210 -.1176 .8606

BITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06992 .05786 .692 -.0924 .2322

Childhood Experts .01961 .12451 .999 -.3297 .3689

Nurse/Midwife .04044 .07056 .955 -.1575 .2384

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06992 .05786 .692 -.2322 .0924

Childhood Experts -.05031 .13088 .986 -.4174 .3168

Nurse/Midwife -.02948 .08127 .988 -.2575 .1985

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .12451 .999 -.3689 .3297

HomeEc Teachers .05031 .13088 .986 -.3168 .4174

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13697 .999 -.3634 .4051

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .07056 .955 -.2384 .1575

HomeEc Teachers .02948 .08127 .988 -.1985 .2575

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13697 .999 -.4051 .3634

BITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06425 .06001 .766 -.1041 .2326

Childhood Experts -.01961 .12913 .999 -.3819 .3426

Nurse/Midwife .00470 .07318 1.000 -.2006 .2100

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06425 .06001 .766 -.2326 .1041

Childhood Experts -.08386 .13573 .944 -.4646 .2969

Nurse/Midwife -.05955 .08428 .919 -.2960 .1769

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .12913 .999 -.3426 .3819

HomeEc Teachers .08386 .13573 .944 -.2969 .4646

184

Nurse/Midwife .02431 .14205 .999 -.3742 .4228

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00470 .07318 1.000 -.2100 .2006

HomeEc Teachers .05955 .08428 .919 -.1769 .2960

Childhood Experts -.02431 .14205 .999 -.4228 .3742

BITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01344 .05920 .997 -.1795 .1526

Childhood Experts .03268 .12740 .996 -.3247 .3901

Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07220 1.000 -.1942 .2109

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01344 .05920 .997 -.1526 .1795

Childhood Experts .04612 .13392 .989 -.3295 .4218

Nurse/Midwife .02182 .08316 .995 -.2115 .2551

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03268 .12740 .996 -.3901 .3247

HomeEc Teachers -.04612 .13392 .989 -.4218 .3295

Nurse/Midwife -.02431 .14015 .999 -.4175 .3688

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07220 1.000 -.2109 .1942

HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .08316 .995 -.2551 .2115

Childhood Experts .02431 .14015 .999 -.3688 .4175

BITEM15 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09681 .06185 .485 -.0767 .2703

Childhood Experts -.04575 .13310 .990 -.4191 .3276

Nurse/Midwife -.00756 .07543 1.000 -.2192 .2041

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09681 .06185 .485 -.2703 .0767

Childhood Experts -.14256 .13991 .792 -.5350 .2499

Nurse/Midwife -.10436 .08688 .696 -.3481 .1393

Childhood Experts Care-givers .04575 .13310 .990 -.3276 .4191

HomeEc Teachers .14256 .13991 .792 -.2499 .5350

Nurse/Midwife .03819 .14642 .995 -.3725 .4489

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00756 .07543 1.000 -.2041 .2192

HomeEc Teachers .10436 .08688 .696 -.1393 .3481

Childhood Experts -.03819 .14642 .995 -.4489 .3725

BITEM16 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.00999 .08118 1.000 -.2377 .2177

Childhood Experts .12418 .17469 .918 -.3659 .6142

Nurse/Midwife .04779 .09900 .972 -.2299 .3255

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .00999 .08118 1.000 -.2177 .2377

Childhood Experts .13417 .18362 .911 -.3809 .6493

Nurse/Midwife .05778 .11402 .968 -.2621 .3776

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.12418 .17469 .918 -.6142 .3659

HomeEc Teachers -.13417 .18362 .911 -.6493 .3809

Nurse/Midwife -.07639 .19217 .984 -.6155 .4627

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04779 .09900 .972 -.3255 .2299

HomeEc Teachers -.05778 .11402 .968 -.3776 .2621

Childhood Experts .07639 .19217 .984 -.4627 .6155

BITEM17 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05488 .05681 .817 -.2142 .1045

Childhood Experts -.28758* .12225 .138 -.6305 .0554

Nurse/Midwife .03533 .06928 .967 -.1590 .2297

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05488 .05681 .817 -.1045 .2142

Childhood Experts -.23270 .12850 .352 -.5932 .1278

Nurse/Midwife .09021 .07979 .734 -.1336 .3141

Childhood Experts Care-givers .28758* .12225 .138 -.0554 .6305

185

HomeEc Teachers .23270 .12850 .352 -.1278 .5932

Nurse/Midwife .32292 .13448 .125 -.0543 .7002

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.03533 .06928 .967 -.2297 .1590

HomeEc Teachers -.09021 .07979 .734 -.3141 .1336

Childhood Experts -.32292 .13448 .125 -.7002 .0543

BITEM18 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .03737 .05740 .935 -.1237 .1984

Childhood Experts -.06536 .12353 .964 -.4119 .2812

Nurse/Midwife -.04105 .07001 .952 -.2374 .1553

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.03737 .05740 .935 -.1984 .1237

Childhood Experts -.10273 .12984 .890 -.4670 .2615

Nurse/Midwife -.07842 .08063 .814 -.3046 .1478

Childhood Experts Care-givers .06536 .12353 .964 -.2812 .4119

HomeEc Teachers .10273 .12984 .890 -.2615 .4670

Nurse/Midwife .02431 .13589 .998 -.3569 .4055

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04105 .07001 .952 -.1553 .2374

HomeEc Teachers .07842 .08063 .814 -.1478 .3046

Childhood Experts -.02431 .13589 .998 -.4055 .3569

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Hypothesis Three

186

ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

CITEM1 Between Groups 1.347 3 .449 1.876 .133

Within Groups 117.293 490 .239

Total 118.640 493

CITEM2 Between Groups 2.386 3 .795 3.762 .042Within Groups 141.080 490 .288

Total 143.466 493

CITEM3 Between Groups 1.308 3 .436 1.431 .233Within Groups 149.299 490 .305

Total 150.607 493

CITEM4 Between Groups .715 3 .238 .460 .710Within Groups 253.843 490 .518

Total 254.559 493

CITEM5 Between Groups 3.890 3 1.297 5.692 .001Within Groups 111.608 490 .228

Total 115.498 493

CITEM6 Between Groups 4.382 3 1.461 4.907 .002Within Groups 145.853 490 .298

Total 150.235 493

CITEM7 Between Groups 1.315 3 .438 1.564 .197Within Groups 137.293 490 .280

Total 138.607 493

CITEM8 Between Groups 11.980 3 .660 3.291 .027Within Groups 131.178 490 .288

Total 143.158 493

CITEM9 Between Groups 2.252 3 .751 2.465 .062Within Groups 149.230 490 .305

Total 151.482 493

CITEM10 Between Groups 3.681 3 1.227 4.441 .004Within Groups 135.364 490 .276

Total 139.045 493

CITEM11 Between Groups 1.809 3 .603 2.003 .113

Within Groups 147.486 490 .301

Total 149.296 493

POST HOC Multiple ComparisonsScheffe

Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

187

Mean Difference

(I-J)Lower Bound

Upper Bound

CITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01061 .05514 .998 -.1653 .1441

Childhood Experts -.28105 .11866 .134 -.6139 .0518

Nurse/Midwife -.02063 .06725 .993 -.2093 .1680

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01061 .05514 .998 -.1441 .1653

Childhood Experts -.27044 .12473 .196 -.6203 .0794

Nurse/Midwife -.01002 .07745 .999 -.2273 .2072

Childhood Experts Care-givers .28105 .11866 .134 -.0518 .6139

HomeEc Teachers .27044 .12473 .196 -.0794 .6203

Nurse/Midwife .26042 .13053 .265 -.1058 .6266

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .02063 .06725 .993 -.1680 .2093

HomeEc Teachers .01002 .07745 .999 -.2072 .2273

Childhood Experts -.26042 .13053 .265 -.6266 .1058CITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.03872 .06047 .938 -.2084 .1309

Childhood Experts -.24837 .13014 .304 -.6134 .1167Nurse/Midwife -.17198 .07375 .144 -.3789 .0349

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .03872 .06047 .938 -.1309 .2084Childhood Experts -.20964 .13679 .504 -.5934 .1741Nurse/Midwife -.13325* .08494 .483 -.3715 .1050

Childhood Experts Care-givers .24837 .13014 .304 -.1167 .6134HomeEc Teachers .20964 .13679 .504 -.1741 .5934Nurse/Midwife .07639 .14316 .963 -.3252 .4780

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .17198 .07375 .144 -.0349 .3789HomeEc Teachers .13325* .08494 .483 -.1050 .3715Childhood Experts -.07639 .14316 .963 -.4780 .3252

CITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .07806 .06221 .665 -.0965 .2526Childhood Experts .23529 .13388 .379 -.1403 .6109Nurse/Midwife .00613 .07587 1.000 -.2067 .2190

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.07806 .06221 .665 -.2526 .0965Childhood Experts .15723 .14072 .741 -.2375 .5520Nurse/Midwife -.07193 .08738 .878 -.3171 .1732

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.23529 .13388 .379 -.6109 .1403HomeEc Teachers -.15723 .14072 .741 -.5520 .2375Nurse/Midwife -.22917 .14727 .490 -.6423 .1840

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00613 .07587 1.000 -.2190 .2067HomeEc Teachers .07193 .08738 .878 -.1732 .3171Childhood Experts .22917 .14727 .490 -.1840 .6423

CITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .02269 .08112 .994 -.2049 .2502Childhood Experts -.17647 .17457 .796 -.6662 .3132Nurse/Midwife -.04453 .09893 .977 -.3221 .2330

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.02269 .08112 .994 -.2502 .2049Childhood Experts -.19916 .18349 .758 -.7139 .3156Nurse/Midwife -.06722 .11394 .951 -.3868 .2524

Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .17457 .796 -.3132 .6662HomeEc Teachers .19916 .18349 .758 -.3156 .7139

188

Nurse/Midwife .13194 .19203 .925 -.4067 .6706Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04453 .09893 .977 -.2330 .3221

HomeEc Teachers .06722 .11394 .951 -.2524 .3868Childhood Experts -.13194 .19203 .925 -.6706 .4067

CITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.18991* .05379 .006 -.3408 -.0390Childhood Experts .18954 .11575 .444 -.1352 .5143Nurse/Midwife -.07435 .06560 .733 -.2584 .1097

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .18991* .05379 .006 .0390 .3408Childhood Experts .37945* .12167 .022 .0382 .7208Nurse/Midwife .11557 .07555 .506 -.0964 .3275

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18954 .11575 .444 -.5143 .1352HomeEc Teachers -.37945* .12167 .022 -.7208 -.0382Nurse/Midwife -.26389 .12733 .233 -.6211 .0933

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07435 .06560 .733 -.1097 .2584HomeEc Teachers -.11557 .07555 .506 -.3275 .0964Childhood Experts .26389 .12733 .233 -.0933 .6211

CITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .06149 .169 -.3109 .0341Childhood Experts .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712Nurse/Midwife -.26042* .07499 .008 -.4708 -.0500

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13836 .06149 .169 -.0341 .3109Childhood Experts .13836 .13909 .804 -.2518 .5285Nurse/Midwife -.12205 .08637 .573 -.3643 .1202

Childhood Experts Care-givers .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .13909 .804 -.5285 .2518Nurse/Midwife -.26042 .14556 .363 -.6687 .1479

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .26042* .07499 .008 .0500 .4708HomeEc Teachers .12205 .08637 .573 -.1202 .3643Childhood Experts .26042 .14556 .363 -.1479 .6687

CITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10051 .05966 .418 -.2679 .0668Childhood Experts -.16340 .12838 .655 -.5235 .1967Nurse/Midwife -.09048 .07276 .672 -.2946 .1136

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10051 .05966 .418 -.0668 .2679Childhood Experts -.06289 .13494 .975 -.4414 .3157Nurse/Midwife .01002 .08379 1.000 -.2250 .2451

Childhood Experts Care-givers .16340 .12838 .655 -.1967 .5235HomeEc Teachers .06289 .13494 .975 -.3157 .4414Nurse/Midwife .07292 .14122 .966 -.3232 .4691

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09048 .07276 .672 -.1136 .2946HomeEc Teachers -.01002 .08379 1.000 -.2451 .2250Childhood Experts -.07292 .14122 .966 -.4691 .3232

CITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.15785 .06050 .080 -.3276 .0119Childhood Experts -.07190 .13018 .959 -.4371 .2933Nurse/Midwife -.04759* .07378 .937 -.2546 .1594

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .15785 .06050 .080 -.0119 .3276Childhood Experts .08595 .13684 .941 -.2979 .4698Nurse/Midwife .11026 .08497 .641 -.1281 .3486

Childhood Experts Care-givers .07190 .13018 .959 -.2933 .4371

189

HomeEc Teachers -.08595 .13684 .941 -.4698 .2979Nurse/Midwife .02431 .14321 .999 -.3774 .4260

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04759* .07378 .937 -.1594 .2546HomeEc Teachers -.11026 .08497 .641 -.3486 .1281Childhood Experts -.02431 .14321 .999 -.4260 .3774

CITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08312 .06220 .618 -.2576 .0914Childhood Experts -.31373 .13385 .141 -.6892 .0617Nurse/Midwife -.09845 .07585 .641 -.3112 .1143

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08312 .06220 .618 -.0914 .2576Childhood Experts -.23061 .14069 .443 -.6253 .1640Nurse/Midwife -.01533 .08736 .999 -.2604 .2297

Childhood Experts Care-givers .31373 .13385 .141 -.0617 .6892HomeEc Teachers .23061 .14069 .443 -.1640 .6253Nurse/Midwife .21528 .14723 .545 -.1977 .6283

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09845 .07585 .641 -.1143 .3112HomeEc Teachers .01533 .08736 .999 -.2297 .2604Childhood Experts -.21528 .14723 .545 -.6283 .1977

CITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.17746* .05924 .031 -.3436 -.0113Childhood Experts -.09150 .12748 .915 -.4491 .2661Nurse/Midwife -.19220 .07224 .071 -.3949 .0105

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .17746* .05924 .031 .0113 .3436Childhood Experts .08595 .13399 .938 -.2899 .4618Nurse/Midwife -.01474 .08320 .999 -.2481 .2187

Childhood Experts Care-givers .09150 .12748 .915 -.2661 .4491HomeEc Teachers -.08595 .13399 .938 -.4618 .2899Nurse/Midwife -.10069 .14023 .915 -.4941 .2927

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .19220 .07224 .071 -.0105 .3949HomeEc Teachers .01474 .08320 .999 -.2187 .2481Childhood Experts .10069 .14023 .915 -.2927 .4941

CITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13676 .06183 .181 -.3102 .0367

Childhood Experts -.01307 .13306 1.000 -.3863 .3602

Nurse/Midwife .04248 .07541 .957 -.1691 .2540

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13676 .06183 .181 -.0367 .3102

Childhood Experts .12369 .13986 .854 -.2687 .5160

Nurse/Midwife .17925 .08685 .236 -.0644 .4229

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .13306 1.000 -.3602 .3863

HomeEc Teachers -.12369 .13986 .854 -.5160 .2687

Nurse/Midwife .05556 .14637 .986 -.3551 .4662

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04248 .07541 .957 -.2540 .1691

HomeEc Teachers -.17925 .08685 .236 -.4229 .0644

Childhood Experts -.05556 .14637 .986 -.4662 .3551

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Hypothesis FourANOVA

190

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

DITEM1 Between Groups .596 3 .199 .629 .597

Within Groups 154.886 490 .316

Total 155.482 493

DITEM2 Between Groups 5.302 3 1.767 5.475 .001Within Groups 158.180 490 .323

Total 163.482 493

DITEM3 Between Groups 2.303 3 .768 1.569 .196Within Groups 239.721 490 .489

Total 242.024 493

DITEM4 Between Groups .771 3 .257 .689 .559Within Groups 182.711 490 .373

Total 183.482 493

DITEM5 Between Groups 1.223 3 .408 1.326 .265Within Groups 150.744 490 .308

Total 151.968 493

DITEM6 Between Groups 4.083 3 1.361 3.995 .008Within Groups 166.961 490 .341

Total 171.045 493

DITEM7 Between Groups .633 3 .211 .635 .593Within Groups 162.768 490 .332

Total 163.401 493

DITEM8 Between Groups 2.256 3 .752 2.092 .100Within Groups 176.173 490 .360

Total 178.429 493

DITEM9 Between Groups 2.022 3 .674 2.103 .099Within Groups 157.023 490 .320

Total 159.045 493

DITEM10 Between Groups 4.452 3 .817 3.173 .040Within Groups 180.318 490 .376

Total 186.769 493

DITEM11 Between Groups 2.107 3 .702 2.135 .095Within Groups 161.229 490 .329

Total 163.336 493

DITEM12 Between Groups .413 3 .138 .460 .710Within Groups 146.745 490 .299

Total 147.158 493

DITEM13 Between Groups 3.703 3 1.234 3.882 .009Within Groups 155.779 490 .318

Total 159.482 493

191

DITEM14 Between Groups 1.054 3 .351 .969 .407Within Groups 177.715 490 .363

Total 178.769 493

DITEM15 Between Groups 5.189 3 1.730 3.097 .027Within Groups 273.677 490 .559

Total 278.866 493

DITEM16 Between Groups 1.457 3 .486 1.196 .311Within Groups 198.964 490 .406

Total 200.421 493

DITEM17 Between Groups 1.630 3 .543 1.782 .150Within Groups 149.399 490 .305

Total 151.028 493

DITEM18 Between Groups .309 3 .103 .412 .744Within Groups 122.638 490 .250

Total 122.947 493

DITEM19 Between Groups .305 3 .102 .425 .735Within Groups 116.991 490 .239

Total 117.296 493

DITEM20 Between Groups 10.207 3 .069 6.305 .001Within Groups 100.659 490 .226

Total 110.866 493

DITEM21 Between Groups .875 3 .292 1.285 .279

Within Groups 111.238 490 .227

Total 112.113 493

192

POST HOC Multiple ComparisonsScheffe

Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status

Mean Difference

(I-J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

DITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .03811 .06336 .948 -.1396 .2159

Childhood Experts -.15686 .13636 .724 -.5394 .2257

Nurse/Midwife .00980 .07728 .999 -.2070 .2266

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.03811 .06336 .948 -.2159 .1396

Childhood Experts -.19497 .14333 .604 -.5970 .2071

Nurse/Midwife -.02830 .08900 .992 -.2780 .2214

Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .13636 .724 -.2257 .5394

HomeEc Teachers .19497 .14333 .604 -.2071 .5970

Nurse/Midwife .16667 .15000 .745 -.2541 .5874

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00980 .07728 .999 -.2266 .2070

HomeEc Teachers .02830 .08900 .992 -.2214 .2780

Childhood Experts -.16667 .15000 .745 -.5874 .2541DITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07732 .06403 .692 -.2570 .1023

Childhood Experts -.54902 .13780 .801 -.9356 -.1625Nurse/Midwife -.04902* .07810 .001 -.2681 .1701

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07732 .06403 .692 -.1023 .2570Childhood Experts -.47170 .14484 .055 -.8780 -.0654Nurse/Midwife .02830 .08994 .992 -.2240 .2806

Childhood Experts Care-givers .54902 .13780 .211 .1625 .9356HomeEc Teachers .47170 .14484 .215 .0654 .8780Nurse/Midwife .50000 .15159 .113 .0748 .9252

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04902* .07810 .001 -.1701 .2681HomeEc Teachers -.02830 .08994 .992 -.2806 .2240Childhood Experts -.50000 .15159 .113 -.9252 -.0748

DITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05549 .07883 .920 -.1656 .2766Childhood Experts -.19608 .16964 .721 -.6720 .2798Nurse/Midwife .15809 .09614 .440 -.1116 .4278

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05549 .07883 .920 -.2766 .1656Childhood Experts -.25157 .17831 .575 -.7518 .2486Nurse/Midwife .10259 .11072 .835 -.2080 .4132

Childhood Experts Care-givers .19608 .16964 .721 -.2798 .6720HomeEc Teachers .25157 .17831 .575 -.2486 .7518Nurse/Midwife .35417 .18661 .309 -.1693 .8777

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.15809 .09614 .440 -.4278 .1116HomeEc Teachers -.10259 .11072 .835 -.4132 .2080Childhood Experts -.35417 .18661 .309 -.8777 .1693

DITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .00037 .06882 1.000 -.1927 .1934Childhood Experts -.15686 .14810 .772 -.5723 .2586Nurse/Midwife .07230 .08393 .863 -.1631 .3078

193

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.00037 .06882 1.000 -.1934 .1927Childhood Experts -.15723 .15567 .796 -.5939 .2795Nurse/Midwife .07193 .09666 .907 -.1992 .3431

Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .14810 .772 -.2586 .5723HomeEc Teachers .15723 .15567 .796 -.2795 .5939Nurse/Midwife .22917 .16292 .577 -.2279 .6862

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.07230 .08393 .863 -.3078 .1631HomeEc Teachers -.07193 .09666 .907 -.3431 .1992Childhood Experts -.22917 .16292 .577 -.6862 .2279

DITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.00407 .06251 1.000 -.1794 .1713Childhood Experts -.05229 .13452 .985 -.4297 .3251Nurse/Midwife .14216 .07624 .325 -.0717 .3560

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .00407 .06251 1.000 -.1713 .1794Childhood Experts -.04822 .14140 .990 -.4449 .3484Nurse/Midwife .14623 .08780 .429 -.1001 .3925

Childhood Experts Care-givers .05229 .13452 .985 -.3251 .4297HomeEc Teachers .04822 .14140 .990 -.3484 .4449Nurse/Midwife .19444 .14798 .631 -.2207 .6096

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.14216 .07624 .325 -.3560 .0717HomeEc Teachers -.14623 .08780 .429 -.3925 .1001Childhood Experts -.19444 .14798 .631 -.6096 .2207

DITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01924 .06579 .994 -.2038 .1653Childhood Experts -.17647* .14157 .000 -.5736 .2207Nurse/Midwife .24020* .08023 .001 .0151 .4653

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01924 .06579 .994 -.1653 .2038Childhood Experts -.15723 .14881 .773 -.5747 .2602Nurse/Midwife .25943 .09240 .050 .0002 .5186

Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647* .14157 .000 -.2207 .5736HomeEc Teachers .15723 .14881 .773 -.2602 .5747Nurse/Midwife .41667* .15574 .008 -.0202 .8535

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.24020* .08023 .031 -.4653 -.0151HomeEc Teachers -.25943 .09240 .111 -.5186 -.0002Childhood Experts -.41667* .15574 .008 -.8535 .0202

DITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01344 .06496 .998 -.1957 .1688Childhood Experts -.18954 .13979 .607 -.5817 .2026Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07922 1.000 -.2139 .2306

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01344 .06496 .998 -.1688 .1957Childhood Experts -.17610 .14693 .697 -.5883 .2361Nurse/Midwife .02182 .09124 .996 -.2341 .2778

Childhood Experts Care-givers .18954 .13979 .607 -.2026 .5817HomeEc Teachers .17610 .14693 .697 -.2361 .5883Nurse/Midwife .19792 .15377 .647 -.2334 .6293

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07922 1.000 -.2306 .2139HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .09124 .996 -.2778 .2341Childhood Experts -.19792 .15377 .647 -.6293 .2334

DITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09039 .06758 .618 -.2800 .0992Childhood Experts -.22876 .14543 .481 -.6367 .1792

194

Nurse/Midwife .09416 .08242 .728 -.1370 .3254HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09039 .06758 .618 -.0992 .2800

Childhood Experts -.13836 .15286 .845 -.5672 .2904Nurse/Midwife .18455 .09492 .287 -.0817 .4508

Childhood Experts Care-givers .22876 .14543 .481 -.1792 .6367HomeEc Teachers .13836 .15286 .845 -.2904 .5672Nurse/Midwife .32292 .15998 .255 -.1258 .7717

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.09416 .08242 .728 -.3254 .1370HomeEc Teachers -.18455 .09492 .287 -.4508 .0817Childhood Experts -.32292 .15998 .255 -.7717 .1258

DITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09323 .06380 .545 -.0857 .2722Childhood Experts -.08497 .13730 .944 -.4701 .3002Nurse/Midwife -.12316 .07781 .475 -.3414 .0951

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09323 .06380 .545 -.2722 .0857Childhood Experts -.17820 .14431 .677 -.5830 .2266Nurse/Midwife -.21639 .08961 .122 -.4678 .0350

Childhood Experts Care-givers .08497 .13730 .944 -.3002 .4701HomeEc Teachers .17820 .14431 .677 -.2266 .5830Nurse/Midwife -.03819 .15103 .996 -.4619 .3855

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .12316 .07781 .475 -.0951 .3414HomeEc Teachers .21639 .08961 .122 -.0350 .4678Childhood Experts .03819 .15103 .996 -.3855 .4619

DITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09471 .06912 .040 -.2886 .0432Childhood Experts -.28758 .14875 .292 -.7049 .1297Nurse/Midwife -.13480* .08430 .006 -.3713 .1017

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09471 .06912 .094 -.0992 .2886Childhood Experts -.19287 .15635 .677 -.6315 .2457Nurse/Midwife -.04009 .09709 .982 -.3124 .2323

Childhood Experts Care-givers .28758 .14875 .292 -.1297 .7049HomeEc Teachers .19287 .15635 .677 -.2457 .6315Nurse/Midwife .15278 .16363 .832 -.3062 .6118

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .13480* .08430 .006 -.1017 .3713HomeEc Teachers .04009 .09709 .982 -.2323 .3124Childhood Experts -.15278 .16363 .832 -.6118 .3062

DITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .14046 .06465 .195 -.0409 .3218Childhood Experts -.11111 .13912 .888 -.5014 .2792Nurse/Midwife .08681 .07884 .750 -.1344 .3080

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.14046 .06465 .195 -.3218 .0409Childhood Experts -.25157 .14623 .399 -.6618 .1586Nurse/Midwife -.05366 .09080 .950 -.3084 .2011

Childhood Experts Care-givers .11111 .13912 .888 -.2792 .5014HomeEc Teachers .25157 .14623 .399 -.1586 .6618Nurse/Midwife .19792 .15304 .643 -.2314 .6272

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.08681 .07884 .750 -.3080 .1344HomeEc Teachers .05366 .09080 .950 -.2011 .3084Childhood Experts -.19792 .15304 .643 -.6272 .2314

DITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .07079 .06168 .725 -.1022 .2438

195

Childhood Experts -.01307 .13273 1.000 -.3854 .3593Nurse/Midwife .01123 .07522 .999 -.1998 .2222

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.07079 .06168 .725 -.2438 .1022Childhood Experts -.08386 .13951 .948 -.4752 .3075Nurse/Midwife -.05955 .08663 .925 -.3026 .1835

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .13273 1.000 -.3593 .3854HomeEc Teachers .08386 .13951 .948 -.3075 .4752Nurse/Midwife .02431 .14600 .999 -.3853 .4339

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01123 .07522 .999 -.2222 .1998HomeEc Teachers .05955 .08663 .925 -.1835 .3026Childhood Experts -.02431 .14600 .999 -.4339 .3853

DITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10926 .06355 .399 -.2875 .0690

Childhood Experts -.00654 .13675 1.000 -.3902 .3771

Nurse/Midwife -.24959* .07750 .016 -.4670 -.0322

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10926 .06355 .399 -.0690 .2875

Childhood Experts .10273 .14374 .916 -.3005 .5059

Nurse/Midwife -.14033 .08926 .481 -.3907 .1101

Childhood Experts Care-givers .00654 .13675 1.000 -.3771 .3902

HomeEc Teachers -.10273 .14374 .916 -.5059 .3005

Nurse/Midwife -.24306 .15043 .456 -.6650 .1789

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .24959* .07750 .016 .0322 .4670

HomeEc Teachers .14033 .08926 .481 -.1101 .3907

Childhood Experts .24306 .15043 .456 -.1789 .6650

DITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.01196 .06787 .999 -.2024 .1784

Childhood Experts -.03922 .14606 .995 -.4490 .3705

Nurse/Midwife -.13991 .08278 .415 -.3721 .0923

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .01196 .06787 .999 -.1784 .2024

Childhood Experts -.02725 .15353 .999 -.4579 .4034

Nurse/Midwife -.12795 .09533 .615 -.3954 .1395

Childhood Experts Care-givers .03922 .14606 .995 -.3705 .4490

HomeEc Teachers .02725 .15353 .999 -.4034 .4579

Nurse/Midwife -.10069 .16067 .942 -.5514 .3500

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .13991 .08278 .415 -.0923 .3721

HomeEc Teachers .12795 .09533 .615 -.1395 .3954

Childhood Experts .10069 .16067 .942 -.3500 .5514

DITEM15 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13405 .08423 .470 -.3703 .1022

Childhood Experts -.49673 .18126 .059 -1.0052 .0117

Nurse/Midwife -.09395 .10272 .841 -.3821 .1942

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13405 .08423 .300 -.1022 .3703

Childhood Experts -.36268 .19052 .306 -.8971 .1718

Nurse/Midwife .04009* .11830 .000 -.2918 .3720

Childhood Experts Care-givers .49673 .18126 .059 -.0117 1.0052

HomeEc Teachers .36268 .19052 .306 -.1718 .8971

Nurse/Midwife .40278 .19939 .254 -.1566 .9621

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09395 .10272 .841 -.1942 .3821

HomeEc Teachers -.04009* .11830 .000 -.3720 .2918

Childhood Experts -.40278 .19939 .254 -.9621 .1566

196

DITEM16 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05401 .07182 .904 -.1474 .2555

Childhood Experts -.23529 .15455 .510 -.6688 .1983

Nurse/Midwife .05637 .08759 .937 -.1893 .3021

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05401 .07182 .904 -.2555 .1474

Childhood Experts -.28931 .16245 .367 -.7450 .1664

Nurse/Midwife .00236 .10087 1.000 -.2806 .2853

Childhood Experts Care-givers .23529 .15455 .510 -.1983 .6688

HomeEc Teachers .28931 .16245 .367 -.1664 .7450

Nurse/Midwife .29167 .17001 .401 -.1852 .7686

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.05637 .08759 .937 -.3021 .1893

HomeEc Teachers -.00236 .10087 1.000 -.2853 .2806

Childhood Experts -.29167 .17001 .401 -.7686 .1852

DITEM17 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09187 .06223 .537 -.0827 .2664

Childhood Experts -.17647 .13392 .629 -.5522 .1992

Nurse/Midwife -.05494 .07590 .914 -.2679 .1580

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09187 .06223 .537 -.2664 .0827

Childhood Experts -.26834 .14077 .305 -.6632 .1265

Nurse/Midwife -.14682 .08741 .421 -.3920 .0984

Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .13392 .629 -.1992 .5522

HomeEc Teachers .26834 .14077 .305 -.1265 .6632

Nurse/Midwife .12153 .14732 .878 -.2917 .5348

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .05494 .07590 .914 -.1580 .2679

HomeEc Teachers .14682 .08741 .421 -.0984 .3920

Childhood Experts -.12153 .14732 .878 -.5348 .2917

DITEM18 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02368 .05638 .981 -.1818 .1345

Childhood Experts .03922 .12134 .991 -.3012 .3796

Nurse/Midwife .06005 .06876 .858 -.1329 .2529

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02368 .05638 .981 -.1345 .1818

Childhood Experts .06289 .12754 .970 -.2949 .4207

Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07919 .773 -.1384 .3059

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12134 .991 -.3796 .3012

HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12754 .970 -.4207 .2949

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13347 .999 -.3536 .3953

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06005 .06876 .858 -.2529 .1329

HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07919 .773 -.3059 .1384

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13347 .999 -.3953 .3536

DITEM19 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04329 .05507 .892 -.1978 .1112

Childhood Experts .01961 .11851 .999 -.3128 .3521

Nurse/Midwife .04044 .06716 .948 -.1480 .2288

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04329 .05507 .892 -.1112 .1978

Childhood Experts .06289 .12457 .968 -.2865 .4123

Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07735 .760 -.1333 .3007

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .11851 .999 -.3521 .3128

HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12457 .968 -.4123 .2865

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13036 .999 -.3449 .3865

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .06716 .948 -.2288 .1480

HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07735 .760 -.3007 .1333

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13036 .999 -.3865 .3449

197

DITEM20 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05356 .823 -.2013 .0992

Childhood Experts -.01961 .11526 .999 -.3429 .3037

Nurse/Midwife -.00919 .06532 .999 -.1924 .1740

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05356 .823 -.0992 .2013

Childhood Experts .03145 .12115 .995 -.3084 .3713

Nurse/Midwife .04186* .07523 .008 -.1692 .2529

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .11526 .999 -.3037 .3429

HomeEc Teachers -.03145 .12115 .995 -.3713 .3084

Nurse/Midwife .01042 .12679 1.000 -.3453 .3661

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00919 .06532 .999 -.1740 .1924

HomeEc Teachers -.04186* .07523 .008 -.2529 .1692

Childhood Experts -.01042 .12679 1.000 -.3661 .3453

DITEM21 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02516 .05370 .974 -.1758 .1255

Childhood Experts .11111 .11556 .819 -.2131 .4353

Nurse/Midwife -.10417 .06549 .471 -.2879 .0795

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02516 .05370 .974 -.1255 .1758

Childhood Experts .13627 .12146 .739 -.2045 .4770

Nurse/Midwife -.07901 .07542 .778 -.2906 .1326

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.11111 .11556 .819 -.4353 .2131

HomeEc Teachers -.13627 .12146 .739 -.4770 .2045

Nurse/Midwife -.21528 .12712 .413 -.5719 .1413

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .10417 .06549 .471 -.0795 .2879

HomeEc Teachers .07901 .07542 .778 -.1326 .2906

Childhood Experts .21528 .12712 .413 -.1413 .5719

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Hypothesis Five

198

ANOVA

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

EITEM1 Between Groups 1.268 3 .423 1.671 .172

Within Groups 123.963 490 .253

Total 125.231 493

EITEM2 Between Groups .496 3 .165 .551 .648Within Groups 146.986 490 .300

Total 147.482 493

EITEM3 Between Groups .414 3 .138 .578 .630Within Groups 116.963 490 .239

Total 117.377 493

EITEM4 Between Groups 3.741 3 1.247 4.760 .003Within Groups 128.357 490 .262

Total 132.097 493

EITEM5 Between Groups .864 3 .288 1.071 .361Within Groups 131.848 490 .269

Total 132.713 493

EITEM6 Between Groups 1.099 3 .366 1.477 .220Within Groups 121.508 490 .248

Total 122.607 493

EITEM7 Between Groups .436 3 .145 .724 .538Within Groups 198.398 490 .201

Total 198.834 493

EITEM8 Between Groups .368 3 .123 .562 .640Within Groups 107.081 490 .219

Total 107.449 493

EITEM9 Between Groups .113 3 .038 .140 .936Within Groups 131.369 490 .268

Total 131.482 493

EITEM10 Between Groups 1.630 3 .543 1.782 .150Within Groups 149.399 490 .305

Total 151.028 493

EITEM11 Between Groups .309 3 .103 .412 .744

Within Groups 122.638 490 .250

Total 122.947 493

POST HOC Multiple Comparisons

Scheffe

Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

199

Mean Difference

(I-J)Lower Bound

Upper Bound

EITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08324 .05669 .541 -.2423 .0758

Childhood Experts .18301 .12199 .523 -.1592 .5252

Nurse/Midwife -.01838 .06913 .995 -.2123 .1756

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08324 .05669 .541 -.0758 .2423

Childhood Experts .26625 .12822 .231 -.0935 .6259

Nurse/Midwife .06486 .07962 .882 -.1585 .2882

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18301 .12199 .523 -.5252 .1592

HomeEc Teachers -.26625 .12822 .231 -.6259 .0935

Nurse/Midwife -.20139 .13419 .522 -.5778 .1751

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .01838 .06913 .995 -.1756 .2123

HomeEc Teachers -.06486 .07962 .882 -.2882 .1585

Childhood Experts .20139 .13419 .522 -.1751 .5778EITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.07005 .06173 .732 -.2432 .1031

Childhood Experts -.07843 .13284 .951 -.4511 .2942Nurse/Midwife .00837 .07528 1.000 -.2028 .2196

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .07005 .06173 .732 -.1031 .2432Childhood Experts -.00839 .13962 1.000 -.4001 .3833Nurse/Midwife .07842 .08670 .845 -.1648 .3216

Childhood Experts Care-givers .07843 .13284 .951 -.2942 .4511HomeEc Teachers .00839 .13962 1.000 -.3833 .4001Nurse/Midwife .08681 .14612 .950 -.3231 .4967

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00837 .07528 1.000 -.2196 .2028HomeEc Teachers -.07842 .08670 .845 -.3216 .1648Childhood Experts -.08681 .14612 .950 -.4967 .3231

EITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .06561 .05506 .701 -.0889 .2201Childhood Experts .07190 .11850 .947 -.2605 .4043Nurse/Midwife -.00102 .06715 1.000 -.1894 .1874

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.06561 .05506 .701 -.2201 .0889Childhood Experts .00629 .12455 1.000 -.3431 .3557Nurse/Midwife -.06663 .07734 .863 -.2836 .1503

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.07190 .11850 .947 -.4043 .2605HomeEc Teachers -.00629 .12455 1.000 -.3557 .3431Nurse/Midwife -.07292 .13035 .958 -.4386 .2927

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00102 .06715 1.000 -.1874 .1894HomeEc Teachers .06663 .07734 .863 -.1503 .2836Childhood Experts .07292 .13035 .958 -.2927 .4386

EITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.09977 .05768 .394 -.2616 .0620Childhood Experts -.25490 .12413 .240 -.6031 .0933Nurse/Midwife -.22712* .07035 .016 -.4245 -.0298

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .09977 .05768 .394 -.0620 .2616Childhood Experts -.15514 .13048 .702 -.5212 .2109Nurse/Midwife -.12736 .08102 .481 -.3546 .0999

Childhood Experts Care-givers .25490 .12413 .240 -.0933 .6031HomeEc Teachers .15514 .13048 .702 -.2109 .5212

200

Nurse/Midwife .02778 .13655 .998 -.3553 .4108Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .22712* .07035 .016 .0298 .4245

HomeEc Teachers .12736 .08102 .481 -.0999 .3546Childhood Experts -.02778 .13655 .998 -.4108 .3553

EITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.03946 .05846 .928 -.2035 .1245Childhood Experts -.15686 .12581 .670 -.5098 .1961Nurse/Midwife -.09783 .07130 .597 -.2978 .1022

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .03946 .05846 .928 -.1245 .2035Childhood Experts -.11740 .13224 .852 -.4884 .2536Nurse/Midwife -.05837 .08211 .918 -.2887 .1720

Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12581 .670 -.1961 .5098HomeEc Teachers .11740 .13224 .852 -.2536 .4884Nurse/Midwife .05903 .13839 .980 -.3292 .4473

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09783 .07130 .597 -.1022 .2978HomeEc Teachers .05837 .08211 .918 -.1720 .2887Childhood Experts -.05903 .13839 .980 -.4473 .3292

EITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05623 .05612 .800 -.2137 .1012Childhood Experts -.15686 .12078 .640 -.4957 .1819Nurse/Midwife -.11520 .06845 .419 -.3072 .0768

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05623 .05612 .800 -.1012 .2137Childhood Experts -.10063 .12695 .890 -.4567 .2555Nurse/Midwife -.05896 .07883 .906 -.2801 .1622

Childhood Experts Care-givers .15686 .12078 .640 -.1819 .4957HomeEc Teachers .10063 .12695 .890 -.2555 .4567Nurse/Midwife .04167 .13286 .992 -.3310 .4144

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .11520 .06845 .419 -.0768 .3072HomeEc Teachers .05896 .07883 .906 -.1622 .2801Childhood Experts -.04167 .13286 .992 -.4144 .3310

EITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.06043 .05050 .698 -.2021 .0812Childhood Experts .06536 .10869 .948 -.2395 .3702Nurse/Midwife .01328 .06159 .997 -.1595 .1861

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .06043 .05050 .698 -.0812 .2021Childhood Experts .12579 .11424 .750 -.1947 .4463Nurse/Midwife .07370 .07094 .782 -.1253 .2727

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.06536 .10869 .948 -.3702 .2395HomeEc Teachers -.12579 .11424 .750 -.4463 .1947Nurse/Midwife -.05208 .11956 .979 -.3875 .2833

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01328 .06159 .997 -.1861 .1595HomeEc Teachers -.07370 .07094 .782 -.2727 .1253Childhood Experts .05208 .11956 .979 -.2833 .3875

EITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .01431 .05269 .995 -.1335 .1621Childhood Experts -.06536 .11338 .954 -.3834 .2527Nurse/Midwife -.06883 .06426 .766 -.2491 .1114

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.01431 .05269 .995 -.1621 .1335Childhood Experts -.07966 .11917 .930 -.4140 .2546Nurse/Midwife -.08314 .07400 .738 -.2907 .1245

Childhood Experts Care-givers .06536 .11338 .954 -.2527 .3834

201

HomeEc Teachers .07966 .11917 .930 -.2546 .4140Nurse/Midwife -.00347 .12472 1.000 -.3533 .3464

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .06883 .06426 .766 -.1114 .2491HomeEc Teachers .08314 .07400 .738 -.1245 .2907Childhood Experts .00347 .12472 1.000 -.3464 .3533

EITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .00617 .05836 1.000 -.1575 .1699Childhood Experts -.05882 .12558 .974 -.4111 .2935Nurse/Midwife .02798 .07117 .985 -.1717 .2276

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.00617 .05836 1.000 -.1699 .1575Childhood Experts -.06499 .13200 .970 -.4353 .3053Nurse/Midwife .02182 .08197 .995 -.2081 .2517

Childhood Experts Care-givers .05882 .12558 .974 -.2935 .4111HomeEc Teachers .06499 .13200 .970 -.3053 .4353Nurse/Midwife .08681 .13814 .941 -.3007 .4743

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.02798 .07117 .985 -.2276 .1717HomeEc Teachers -.02182 .08197 .995 -.2517 .2081Childhood Experts -.08681 .13814 .941 -.4743 .3007

EITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .09187 .06223 .537 -.0827 .2664Childhood Experts -.17647 .13392 .629 -.5522 .1992Nurse/Midwife -.05494 .07590 .914 -.2679 .1580

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.09187 .06223 .537 -.2664 .0827Childhood Experts -.26834 .14077 .305 -.6632 .1265Nurse/Midwife -.14682 .08741 .421 -.3920 .0984

Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .13392 .629 -.1992 .5522HomeEc Teachers .26834 .14077 .305 -.1265 .6632Nurse/Midwife .12153 .14732 .878 -.2917 .5348

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .05494 .07590 .914 -.1580 .2679HomeEc Teachers .14682 .08741 .421 -.0984 .3920Childhood Experts -.12153 .14732 .878 -.5348 .2917

EITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02368 .05638 .981 -.1818 .1345

Childhood Experts .03922 .12134 .991 -.3012 .3796

Nurse/Midwife .06005 .06876 .858 -.1329 .2529

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02368 .05638 .981 -.1345 .1818

Childhood Experts .06289 .12754 .970 -.2949 .4207

Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07919 .773 -.1384 .3059

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.03922 .12134 .991 -.3796 .3012

HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12754 .970 -.4207 .2949

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13347 .999 -.3536 .3953

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06005 .06876 .858 -.2529 .1329

HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07919 .773 -.3059 .1384

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13347 .999 -.3953 .3536

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Hypothesis SixANOVA

202

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

FITEM1 Between Groups .305 3 .102 .425 .735

Within Groups 116.991 490 .239

Total 117.296 493

FITEM2 Between Groups .207 3 .069 .305 .821Within Groups 110.659 490 .226

Total 110.866 493

FITEM3 Between Groups .875 3 .292 1.285 .279Within Groups 111.238 490 .227

Total 112.113 493

FITEM4 Between Groups 1.268 3 .423 1.671 .172Within Groups 123.963 490 .253

Total 125.231 493

FITEM5 Between Groups .499 3 .166 .655 .580Within Groups 124.375 490 .254

Total 124.874 493

FITEM6 Between Groups 1.241 3 .414 1.895 .129Within Groups 106.937 490 .218

Total 108.178 493

FITEM7 Between Groups .493 3 .164 .743 .527Within Groups 108.381 490 .221

Total 108.874 493

FITEM8 Between Groups 2.866 3 .955 4.575 .007Within Groups 102.316 490 .209

Total 105.182 493

FITEM9 Between Groups .901 3 .300 1.241 .294Within Groups 118.597 490 .242

Total 119.498 493

FITEM10 Between Groups 1.896 3 .632 1.744 .157Within Groups 177.505 490 .362

Total 179.401 493

FITEM11 Between Groups 1.308 3 .436 1.431 .233Within Groups 149.299 490 .305

Total 150.607 493

FITEM12 Between Groups .715 3 .238 .460 .710Within Groups 253.843 490 .518

Total 254.559 493

FITEM13 Between Groups 3.890 3 1.297 5.692 .001Within Groups 111.608 490 .228

Total 115.498 493

203

FITEM14 Between Groups 4.382 3 1.461 4.907 .002

Within Groups 145.853 490 .298

Total 150.235 493

POST HOC Multiple ComparisonsScheffe

Dependent Variable (I) Status (J) Status

Mean Difference

(I-J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

FITEM1 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.04329 .05507 .892 -.1978 .1112

Childhood Experts .01961 .11851 .999 -.3128 .3521

Nurse/Midwife .04044 .06716 .948 -.1480 .2288

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .04329 .05507 .892 -.1112 .1978

Childhood Experts .06289 .12457 .968 -.2865 .4123

Nurse/Midwife .08373 .07735 .760 -.1333 .3007

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.01961 .11851 .999 -.3521 .3128

HomeEc Teachers -.06289 .12457 .968 -.4123 .2865

Nurse/Midwife .02083 .13036 .999 -.3449 .3865

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.04044 .06716 .948 -.2288 .1480

HomeEc Teachers -.08373 .07735 .760 -.3007 .1333

Childhood Experts -.02083 .13036 .999 -.3865 .3449FITEM2 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05356 .823 -.2013 .0992

Childhood Experts -.01961 .11526 .999 -.3429 .3037Nurse/Midwife -.00919 .06532 .999 -.1924 .1740

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05356 .823 -.0992 .2013Childhood Experts .03145 .12115 .995 -.3084 .3713Nurse/Midwife .04186 .07523 .958 -.1692 .2529

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01961 .11526 .999 -.3037 .3429HomeEc Teachers -.03145 .12115 .995 -.3713 .3084Nurse/Midwife .01042 .12679 1.000 -.3453 .3661

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00919 .06532 .999 -.1740 .1924HomeEc Teachers -.04186 .07523 .958 -.2529 .1692Childhood Experts -.01042 .12679 1.000 -.3661 .3453

FITEM3 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02516 .05370 .974 -.1758 .1255Childhood Experts .11111 .11556 .819 -.2131 .4353Nurse/Midwife -.10417 .06549 .471 -.2879 .0795

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02516 .05370 .974 -.1255 .1758Childhood Experts .13627 .12146 .739 -.2045 .4770Nurse/Midwife -.07901 .07542 .778 -.2906 .1326

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.11111 .11556 .819 -.4353 .2131HomeEc Teachers -.13627 .12146 .739 -.4770 .2045Nurse/Midwife -.21528 .12712 .413 -.5719 .1413

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .10417 .06549 .471 -.0795 .2879

204

HomeEc Teachers .07901 .07542 .778 -.1326 .2906Childhood Experts .21528 .12712 .413 -.1413 .5719

FITEM4 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.08324 .05669 .541 -.2423 .0758Childhood Experts .18301 .12199 .523 -.1592 .5252Nurse/Midwife -.01838 .06913 .995 -.2123 .1756

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .08324 .05669 .541 -.0758 .2423Childhood Experts .26625 .12822 .231 -.0935 .6259Nurse/Midwife .06486 .07962 .882 -.1585 .2882

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18301 .12199 .523 -.5252 .1592HomeEc Teachers -.26625 .12822 .231 -.6259 .0935Nurse/Midwife -.20139 .13419 .522 -.5778 .1751

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .01838 .06913 .995 -.1756 .2123HomeEc Teachers -.06486 .07962 .882 -.2882 .1585Childhood Experts .20139 .13419 .522 -.1751 .5778

FITEM5 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.02565 .05678 .977 -.1849 .1336Childhood Experts -.01307 .12219 1.000 -.3558 .3297Nurse/Midwife -.09641 .06925 .586 -.2907 .0979

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .02565 .05678 .977 -.1336 .1849Childhood Experts .01258 .12844 1.000 -.3477 .3729Nurse/Midwife -.07075 .07975 .853 -.2945 .1530

Childhood Experts Care-givers .01307 .12219 1.000 -.3297 .3558HomeEc Teachers -.01258 .12844 1.000 -.3729 .3477Nurse/Midwife -.08333 .13442 .943 -.4604 .2937

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .09641 .06925 .586 -.0979 .2907HomeEc Teachers .07075 .07975 .853 -.1530 .2945Childhood Experts .08333 .13442 .943 -.2937 .4604

FITEM6 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.05105 .05265 .816 -.1988 .0966Childhood Experts -.24183 .11330 .209 -.5597 .0760Nurse/Midwife -.07169 .06421 .742 -.2518 .1084

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .05105 .05265 .816 -.0966 .1988Childhood Experts -.19078 .11909 .464 -.5249 .1433Nurse/Midwife -.02064 .07395 .994 -.2281 .1868

Childhood Experts Care-givers .24183 .11330 .209 -.0760 .5597HomeEc Teachers .19078 .11909 .464 -.1433 .5249Nurse/Midwife .17014 .12464 .602 -.1795 .5198

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07169 .06421 .742 -.1084 .2518HomeEc Teachers .02064 .07395 .994 -.1868 .2281Childhood Experts -.17014 .12464 .602 -.5198 .1795

FITEM7 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .05710 .05300 .763 -.0916 .2058Childhood Experts -.09804 .11407 .864 -.4180 .2219Nurse/Midwife -.00776 .06464 1.000 -.1891 .1736

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.05710 .05300 .763 -.2058 .0916Childhood Experts -.15514 .11989 .643 -.4915 .1812Nurse/Midwife -.06486 .07445 .859 -.2737 .1440

Childhood Experts Care-givers .09804 .11407 .864 -.2219 .4180HomeEc Teachers .15514 .11989 .643 -.1812 .4915Nurse/Midwife .09028 .12548 .915 -.2617 .4423

205

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .00776 .06464 1.000 -.1736 .1891HomeEc Teachers .06486 .07445 .859 -.1440 .2737Childhood Experts -.09028 .12548 .915 -.4423 .2617

FITEM8 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.10618 .05150 .007 -.2506 .0383Childhood Experts -.31373* .11083 .077 -.6246 -.0028Nurse/Midwife .06127* .06281 .003 -.1149 .2375

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .10618 .05150 .237 -.0383 .2506Childhood Experts -.20755 .11649 .367 -.5343 .1192Nurse/Midwife .16745 .07234 .149 -.0355 .3704

Childhood Experts Care-givers .31373* .11083 .037 .0028 .6246HomeEc Teachers .20755 .11649 .367 -.1192 .5343Nurse/Midwife .37500* .12191 .015 .0330 .7170

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.06127* .06281 .003 -.2375 .1149HomeEc Teachers -.16745 .07234 .149 -.3704 .0355Childhood Experts -.37500* .12191 .005 -.7170 -.0330

FITEM9 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .08176 .05545 .538 -.0738 .2373Childhood Experts -.11111 .11932 .833 -.4458 .2236Nurse/Midwife -.02083 .06762 .992 -.2105 .1689

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.08176 .05545 .538 -.2373 .0738Childhood Experts -.19287 .12542 .501 -.5447 .1590Nurse/Midwife -.10259 .07788 .629 -.3211 .1159

Childhood Experts Care-givers .11111 .11932 .833 -.2236 .4458HomeEc Teachers .19287 .12542 .501 -.1590 .5447Nurse/Midwife .09028 .13126 .925 -.2779 .4585

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .02083 .06762 .992 -.1689 .2105HomeEc Teachers .10259 .07788 .629 -.1159 .3211Childhood Experts -.09028 .13126 .925 -.4585 .2779

FITEM10 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .15279 .06783 .168 -.0375 .3431Childhood Experts -.00654 .14598 1.000 -.4160 .4030Nurse/Midwife .01777 .08273 .997 -.2143 .2498

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.15279 .06783 .168 -.3431 .0375Childhood Experts -.15933 .15344 .782 -.5898 .2711Nurse/Midwife -.13502 .09528 .571 -.4023 .1323

Childhood Experts Care-givers .00654 .14598 1.000 -.4030 .4160HomeEc Teachers .15933 .15344 .782 -.2711 .5898Nurse/Midwife .02431 .16058 .999 -.4262 .4748

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.01777 .08273 .997 -.2498 .2143HomeEc Teachers .13502 .09528 .571 -.1323 .4023Childhood Experts -.02431 .16058 .999 -.4748 .4262

FITEM11 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .07806 .06221 .665 -.0965 .2526Childhood Experts .23529 .13388 .379 -.1403 .6109Nurse/Midwife .00613 .07587 1.000 -.2067 .2190

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.07806 .06221 .665 -.2526 .0965Childhood Experts .15723 .14072 .741 -.2375 .5520Nurse/Midwife -.07193 .08738 .878 -.3171 .1732

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.23529 .13388 .379 -.6109 .1403HomeEc Teachers -.15723 .14072 .741 -.5520 .2375

206

Nurse/Midwife -.22917 .14727 .490 -.6423 .1840Nurse/Midwife Care-givers -.00613 .07587 1.000 -.2190 .2067

HomeEc Teachers .07193 .08738 .878 -.1732 .3171Childhood Experts .22917 .14727 .490 -.1840 .6423

FITEM12 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers .02269 .08112 .994 -.2049 .2502Childhood Experts -.17647 .17457 .796 -.6662 .3132Nurse/Midwife -.04453 .09893 .977 -.3221 .2330

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers -.02269 .08112 .994 -.2502 .2049Childhood Experts -.19916 .18349 .758 -.7139 .3156Nurse/Midwife -.06722 .11394 .951 -.3868 .2524

Childhood Experts Care-givers .17647 .17457 .796 -.3132 .6662HomeEc Teachers .19916 .18349 .758 -.3156 .7139Nurse/Midwife .13194 .19203 .925 -.4067 .6706

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .04453 .09893 .977 -.2330 .3221HomeEc Teachers .06722 .11394 .951 -.2524 .3868Childhood Experts -.13194 .19203 .925 -.6706 .4067

FITEM13 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.18991* .05379 .006 -.3408 -.0390Childhood Experts .18954 .11575 .444 -.1352 .5143Nurse/Midwife -.07435 .06560 .733 -.2584 .1097

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .18991* .05379 .006 .0390 .3408Childhood Experts .37945* .12167 .022 .0382 .7208Nurse/Midwife .11557 .07555 .506 -.0964 .3275

Childhood Experts Care-givers -.18954 .11575 .444 -.5143 .1352HomeEc Teachers -.37945* .12167 .022 -.7208 -.0382Nurse/Midwife -.26389 .12733 .233 -.6211 .0933

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .07435 .06560 .733 -.1097 .2584HomeEc Teachers -.11557 .07555 .506 -.3275 .0964Childhood Experts .26389 .12733 .233 -.0933 .6211

FITEM14 Care-givers HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .06149 .169 -.3109 .0341

Childhood Experts .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712

Nurse/Midwife -.26042* .07499 .008 -.4708 -.0500

HomeEc Teachers Care-givers .13836 .06149 .169 -.0341 .3109

Childhood Experts .13836 .13909 .804 -.2518 .5285

Nurse/Midwife -.12205 .08637 .573 -.3643 .1202

Childhood Experts Care-givers .00000 .13232 1.000 -.3712 .3712

HomeEc Teachers -.13836 .13909 .804 -.5285 .2518

Nurse/Midwife -.26042 .14556 .363 -.6687 .1479

Nurse/Midwife Care-givers .26042* .07499 .008 .0500 .4708

HomeEc Teachers .12205 .08637 .573 -.1202 .3643

Childhood Experts .26042 .14556 .363 -.1479 .6687

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

207

APPENDIX J

EVIDENCE OF VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENT