chapter five educational psychology: developing learners 6th edition jeanne ellis ormrod individual...

Chapter Five

Educational Psychology: Developing Learners6th edition

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Individual Differences & Special Educational Needs

Individual Differences

Variability in abilities and characteristics among students at a particular age

Students with special needs: Students different enough from their peers to require specially adapted materials and practice

Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

All rights reserved.

Keeping Individual Differences in Perspective

Labels assist teachers in selecting appropriate instructional strategies. The difficulty of labeling is:

Labels can be misused and misunderstood. Labels do not define a person.

Differences originate from different sources. Most differences are the result of both heredity

and the environment




The Issue of Intelligence

What does it mean to be intelligent?

Is it one ability or many?

Can it be quantified?

How can it be accurately measured if we can’t even properly define it?




Intelligence

Ability to modify and adjust behaviors to accomplish tasks successfully

Involves many different mental processes May vary in nature depending on one’s

culture




Intelligence…

Is adaptive Can be related to learning ability Involves the use of prior knowledge to

analyze and understand new situations Involves many different mental processes Is evident in different arenas Is culture specific




Limitations of Intelligence Tests

Different kinds of intelligence tests may yield different scores.

Students’ performance is affected by many temporary factors, such as general health, mood, fatigue, etc.

Test items typically reflect skills valued in mainstream Western culture.

Unfamiliarity with the content or types of tasks in particular test items may yield poor performance.

Students with limited English proficiency are at a disadvantage.

Some students may not be motivated to perform at their best and so may obtain scores that underestimate their abilities.




Theories of Intelligence

Spearman’s g (1927) Theory that ntelligence is a single entity, a

general factor that influences one’s ability to learn in a wide variety of contexts

Information-Processing Theorists Believe that g reflects the speed and efficiency

with which people can process information, learning tasks, and problems




Theories of Intelligence

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences An individual has at least 8 different

intelligences that are relatively independent. Each intelligence may be controlled by

different parts of the brain. Different intelligences may manifest

themselves differently in different cultures. Acceptance of Gardner’s idea is fairly

controversial.




Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic Logical-

Mathematical Spatial Musical

Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic




Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory




Distributed Intelligence

Distributed intelligence is the idea that intelligent behavior depends on people’s physical and social support systems.

People can “distribute” their intelligence in three ways: They can use objects, such as technology. They can represent and think about situations they

encounter in a symbolic manner, such as in the use of diagrams and charts.

They can work with others to explore ideas and solve problems.




Measuring Intelligence

Intelligence Tests General measure of current cognitive

functioning, often used in a predictive manner Provide an IQ score

A comparison of a person’s performance with that of others in the same age group

Score of 100 indicates average performance




IQ Score Distribution




IQ and Achievement

Performance on intelligence tests is correlated with school achievement.

Important points to remember: Intelligence does not necessarily cause

achievement. The relationship between IQ scores and

achievement is not perfect; there are always exceptions to the rule.

IQ scores simply reflect a student’s performance on a particular test at a particular time.




Nature, Nurture, & Group Differences in Intelligence Intelligence has a heritable component.

Identical twins have more similar IQ scores than fraternal twins.

Adopted children are more similar in IQ scores to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents.

Intelligence has an environmental component. E.g., quality of nutrition in childhood impacts IQ scores. Movement from an impoverished to stimulating environment

can provide gains of up to 15 points on intelligence tests. Differences in scores between ethnicities and genders are

due largely to differences in experiences.




Cognitive Styles and Dispositions

Individual differences in the way that students approach classroom tasks and think about classroom topics

Frequently referred to as learning styles Several productive dispositions identified by

researchers: Stimulation seeking Need for cognition Critical thinking Open-mindedness




Educating Students with Special Needs

in the General Education Classroom More than two-thirds of American students

with special needs are in general ed classrooms for part or all of the day. Federal legislation mandates inclusion to the

greatest extent possible. Public Law 94-142: Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) IDEA grants educational rights to people with

cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth to age 21.




IDEA

Guarantees the following: A free and appropriate education Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation Education in the least-restrictive environment Individualized education program Due process




Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties Learning Disabilities students:

Comprise the largest single category of students with special needs

Have average or above average IQ but specific deficiencies

May have difficulty sustaining attention Have poor reading skills Have ineffective learning/memory strategies Have difficulty with tasks involving abstract reasoning Have low motivation/poor self-concept Have poor motor skills (not always) Have poor social skills (not always)




Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

Strategies for adapting instruction for students with learning disabilities include: Minimizing potentially distracting stimuli Using multiple methods of presentation Analyzing students’ errors for clues about

processing difficulties Teaching learning and memory strategies Providing study aids




Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD) Children with ADHD have the following

characteristics: Inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsive

behavior Cognitive processing difficulties Poor school achievement Exceptional imagination and creativity Difficulty interpreting and reasoning about social

situations Few friendships





Strategies for adapting instruction for students with ADHD include: Giving the most challenging academic

subjects and tasks in the morning Teaching attention-maintaining strategies Providing outlets for excessive energy Helping them establish routines Teaching and encouraging appropriate

classroom behaviors




Speech and communication disorders are characterized by impairments in spoken language and/or comprehension that interfere with classroom performance.

Students with speech and communication disorders have the following characteristics: Difficulty with speaking, particularly in public Poor reading/writing skills






Strategies for adapting instruction for students with speech and communication disorders include: Encouraging regular oral communication Asking for clarification when a message is unclear Providing a supportive environment for public speaking Listening patiently so that students have adequate time

to express themselves




Students with Social or Behavioral Problems

Behaviors that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance Difficulty interacting in socially acceptable ways Difficulty maintaining satisfactory interpersonal

relationships Low self-esteem Frequent absences Inability to recognize the severity of problem




Students with Social or Behavioral Problems

Strategies for adapting instruction for students with social or behavioral problems include: Being alert for problems at home (e.g., abuse) Making classroom events/topics relevant Showing a personal interest in student Being alert for suicidal signs TEACHING interpersonal skills Being clear about expectations Identifying problems early




Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism is a disability characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and a strong need for a predictable environment.

Students with autism often have: Strong visual-spatial thinking skills Impaired social cognition Echolalia Strong attachments to certain inanimate objects Abnormal movements




Mental Retardation

Disability characterized by significantly below-average general intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior

Different than Learning Disabled—below- average IQ (70 or below)

Require adapted instruction Often provided with vocational skills




Students with Physical/Sensory challenges

Includes illnesses or physical impairments such as deafness, blindness, etc.

Learning ability usually perfectly normal Often given fewer opportunities to interact with peers Possibly low self-esteem, insecurity, embarrassment,

etc.




Students with Physical/Sensory Challenges

Adapting instruction for students with physical and/or sensory challenges: Be sensitive Learn about physical condition of student Educate classmates about condition Refer to text for specific recommendations for

each type of deficit




Giftedness

There seems to be no universal agreement on what constitutes a gifted child. Creativity and imaginative thinking are

characteristics. Some “gifted” children excel in many areas,

some in specific areas. IQ of 130 or higher can be used as an

identifier.




Giftedness

Common characteristics of the gifted child include: Learn with little effort Highly motivated

Terman’s longitudinal study found gifted children to be “well-rounded,” emotionally stable, with good health, lower rates of delinquency, etc.




Giftedness: The Problems

Students may feel impatient with peers who are not as smart as they.

Gifted students report frequent boredom and frustration at school.

Adjustment problems are evident in the extremely gifted.




Giftedness

Adapting instruction for the gifted student includes: Providing individualized tests and assignments Forming study groups of students with similar

interests and abilities Teaching complex cognitive skills within the context of

specific subject areas Providing opportunities for independent study Encouraging students to set high goals Seeking outside resources




Individual Differences: The Big Picture General strategies for accommodating students’ differing

abilities and disabilities within the general classroom include: Obtaining as much information as possible about each

student Individualizing instruction for nondisabled students as well

as for those with disabilities Being flexible in approaches to instruction Holding the same expectations for students with disabilities

as for other students Identifying and teaching important prerequisite skills Consulting and collaborating with specialists Including students in planning and decision making Promoting interaction between all students Being alert to identify students who may qualify for special

servicesJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition



chapter five educational psychology: developing learners 6th edition jeanne ellis ormrod individual...

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