Chapter 8Language and Thought

19th Century focus on the mind Introspection

Behaviorist focus on overt responses incomplete Empirical study of cognition – 1956 conference

Simon and Newell – problem solving Chomsky – new model of language Miller – memory

The Cognitive Revolution

Properties of Language Symbolic Semantic Generative Structured

Language: Turning Thoughts into Words

Phonemes = smallest speech units 100 possible, English – about 40

Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes

Semantics = meaning of words and word combinations Objects and actions to which words refer

Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences Different rules for different languages

The Hierarchical Structure of Language

Figure 8.1An analysis of a simple English sentence. As this example shows, verbal language has a hierarchical structure. At the base of the hierarchy are the phonemes, which are units of vocal sound that do not, in themselves, have meaning. The smallest units of meaning in a language are morphemes, which include not only root words but such meaning-carrying units as the past tense suffix ed and the plural s. Complex rules of syntax govern how the words constructed from morphemes may be combined into phrases, and phrases into meaningful statements, or sentences.

Initial vocalizations similar across languages Crying, cooing, babbling

6 months – babbling sounds begin to resemble surrounding language

1 year – first word similar cross-culturally – words for parents receptive vs. expressive language

Language Development: Milestones

18-24 months – vocabulary spurt fast mapping over and underextensions

End of second year – combine words Telegraphic speech Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)

End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense Overregularization

Language Development: Milestones Continued

Figure 8.2The vocabulary spurt. Children typically acquire their first 10–15 words very slowly, but they soon go through a vocabulary spurt—a period during which they rapidly acquire many new words. The vocabulary spurt usually begins at around 18–24 months, but children vary, as these graphs of three toddlers’ vocabulary growth show. (Adapted from Goldfield & Reznick, 1990)

Research findings: Smaller vocabularies in one language, combined

vocabularies average Higher scores for middle-class bilingual subjects on

cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, selective attention, and metalinguistic awareness

Slight disadvantage in terms of language processing speed

Second languages more easily acquired early in life Greater acculturation facilitates acquisition

Bilingualism: Learning More Than One Language

Dolphins, sea lions, parrots, chimpanzees Vocal apparatus issue

American Sign Language Allen and Beatrice Gardner (1969)

Chimpanzee - Washoe160 word vocabulary

Sue Savage-Rumbaugh Bonobo chimpanzee - Kanzi

SymbolsReceptive language – 72% of 660 requests

Can Animals Develop Language?

Behaviorist Skinner

learning of specific verbal responses Nativist

Chomskylearning the rules of languageLanguage Acquisition Device (LAD)

Interactionist Cognitive and Social communication

theories

Theories of Language Acquisition

LaunchVideo

Figure 8.5Interactionist theories of language acquisition. The interactionist view is that nature and nurture are both important to language acquisition. Maturation is thought to drive language development directly and to influence it indirectly by fostering cognitive development. Meanwhile, verbal exchanges between parents and others are also thought to play a critical role in molding language skills. The complex interrelations depicted here shed some light on why there is room for extensive debate about the crucial factors in language acquisition.

Greeno (1978) – three basic classes Problems of inducing structure

Series completion and analogy problems Problems of arrangement

String problem and AnagramsOften solved through insight

Problems of transformation Hobbits and orcs problem Water jar problem

Problem Solving: Types of Problems

Figure 8.6Six standard problems used in studies of problem solving. Try solving the problems and identifying which class each belongs to before reading further. The problems can be classified as follows. The analogy problems and series completion problems are problems of inducing structure. The solutions for the analogy problems are Buy and Patient. The solutions for the series completion problems are 4 and E.

(continued) The string problem and the anagram problems are problems of arrangement. To solve the string problem, attach the screwdriver to one string and set it swinging as a pendulum. Hold the other string and catch the swinging screwdriver. Then you need only untie the screwdriver and tie the strings together. The solutions for the anagram problems are WATER and JOKER. The hobbits and orcs problem and the water jar problem are problems of transformation. The solutions for these problems are outlined in Figures 8.7 and 8.8.

Figure 8.7Solution to the hobbits and orcs problem. This problem is difficult because it is necessary to temporarily work “away” from the goal, which frustrates a straightforward approach.

Figure 8.8The method for solving the water jar problem. The formula is B – A – 2C.

Well defined vs ill defined problems Barriers to effective problem solving:

Irrelevant information Functional fixedness Mental Set Unnecessary Constraints

Effective Problem Solving

Figure 8.10The nine-dot problem. Without lifting your pencil from the paper, draw no more than four lines that will cross through all nine dots. For possible solutions, see Figure 8.14.

Figure 8.11The matchstick problem. Move two matches to form four equal squares. For possible solutions, see Figure 8.15.

Figure 8.14Two solutions to the nine-dot problem. The key to solving the problem is to recognize that nothing in the problem statement forbids going outside the imaginary boundary surrounding the dots.

Algorithms Systematic trial-and-error Guaranteed solution

Heuristics Shortcuts No guaranteed solution

Forming subgoalsWorking backwardSearching for analogiesChanging the representation of a problem

Approaches to Problem Solving

Figure 8.16Representing the bird and train problem. The typical inclination is to envision this problem spatially, as shown here. However, this representation makes the problem much more difficult than it really is.

Field dependence – relying on external frames of reference Focus on the total context Field independence – relying on internal frames of reference Focus on specific features Western cultures inspire field independence Cultural influence based in ecological demands

Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving

Simon (1957) – theory of bounded rationality Making Choices Additive strategies

Compensatory decision modelsNoncompensatory decision models

Risky decision makingExpected valueSubjective utilitySubjective probability

Decision Making: Evaluating Alternatives and Making Choices

The availability heuristic The representativeness heuristic The tendency to ignore base rates The conjunction fallacy The alternative outcomes effect

Heuristics in Judging Probabilities

The gambler’s fallacy The law of small numbers Overestimating the improbable Confirmation bias and belief perseverance The overconfidence effect Framing

Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions

Figure 8.21Confirmation bias and belief perseverance. Confirmation bias is a two-pronged process in which people react favorably to information that supports their beliefs and unfavorably to information that is inconsistent with their beliefs. The latter process leads to belief perseverance—the tendency to cling to beliefs in spite of exposure to contradictory evidence.