chapter 7. the nervous system allows the body to detect, interpret and respond to stimuli. ◦ a...
TRANSCRIPT
The Nervous System
Chapter 7
The nervous system allows the body to detect, interpret and respond to stimuli.
◦ A stimulus is any change in the external or internal environment.
Overview
Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input · To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the
body using sensory receptors
2. Integration· To process and interpret sensory input
3. Motor output
· To produce a response, if needed, that activates muscles or glands (effectors)
Functions of the Nervous System
Organization of the Nervous System
• Two main divisions:• Central nervous system
(CNS)
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
Organization of the Nervous System
Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue is made up of neuroglial (supporting ) cells and neurons.
• Neuroglial cells outnumber neurons.
• Neuroglial cells do not conduct impulses; neurons do.
• Neuroglial cells generally support, insulate and protect delicate neurons.
• Neuroglial cells are capable of dividing; neurons are not.
Supporting Cells
Neurons
• Neurons = nerve cells
• Specialized to transmit messages (impulses)
• Major regions of neurons:
• Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
• Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
• Dendrites – carry impulses towards the cell body
• Axon – carries impulse away from the cell body
Neurons
Neurons
· Myelin sheath – fatty material surrounding axons produced by Schwann cells
· Insulates axons
· Speeds up transmission
Classification of Neurons
· Sensory (afferent) neurons
· Carry impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS
· Motor (efferent) neurons
· Carry impulses from the CNS to muscles or glands (effectors)
· Interneurons (associative neurons)
· Connect sensory and motor neurons
Classification of Neurons
The Nerve Impulse
· The plasma membrane at rest is polarized (resting potential)
· Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell
· Active transport by the sodium-potassium pump maintains this polarity
Starting the Nerve Impulse
• A stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane
• Sodium ions (Na+) rush inside the membrane
• This initiates an impulse (action potential) in the neuron
Continuing the Nerve Impulse
· The impulse continues to move toward the cell body
· Potassium ions rush out of the neuron which repolarizes the membrane
· The sodium-potassium pump then establishes the original polarity
The Threshold
· A minimum stimulus (threshold) is needed to start an impulse
· If the threshold is met, a nerve impulse starts, and continues over the entire axon (all or none response)
· Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath
Neuron to Neuron Communication
• Neurons do not touch each other because of a gap called the synapse.
• Impulses cross the synapse with the help of chemicals called neurotransmitters.
• Neurotransmitters released from the axon terminal diffuse across the synapse
• The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter
• An action potential (impulse) is started
Neuron to Neuron Communication
The Central Nervous System
· Brain and spinal cord
Regions of the Brain
· Cerebral hemispheres
· Diencephalon
· Brain stem
· Cerebellum
Cerebrum◦ Voluntary activities (motor initiation), intelligence,
learning, judgment, sensory interpretation◦ Two hemispheres connected by the corpus
callosum Right hemisphere controls the left side of the body
and visa-versa◦ Deep folds and grooves increase surface area
Gray matter – outer layer of dense nerve cell bodies White matter – inner layer of myelinated nerve fibers
Cerebrum
Lobes of the Cerebrum
· Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
· Surface lobes of the cerebrum
· Frontal lobe
· Parietal lobe
· Occipital lobe
· Temporal lobe
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
· Primary sensory area (postcentral gyrus)– receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
· Primary motor area (precentral gyrus)– sends impulses to skeletal muscles
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum· Cerebral areas involved in special senses
· Broca’s area – speech
· Gustatory area - taste
· Visual area - sight
· Auditory area - hearing
· Olfactory area – smell
· Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
· Speech/language region
· Language comprehension region
· General interpretation area
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum
· Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
· Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
· http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=F7Yw26zHoEw
Cerebellum
· Sits on top of the brain stem· Enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres· Made of three parts
· Thalamus – sensory relay station
· Hypothalamus – controls hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, temperature, coordinates with endocrine system
· Epithalamus – pineal gland and choroid plexus (forms cerebrospinal fluid)
Diencephalon
• Attaches to the spinal cord
• Controls vital functions – blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting
• Parts of the brain stem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
Brain Stem
Scalp and skin Skull and vertebral column Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Blood-brain barrier
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Figure 7.17a
Superiorsagittal sinus
Subduralspace
Subarachnoidspace
Skin of scalp
Periosteal
Bone of skull
MeningealDuramater
Arachnoid materPia mater
Arachnoid villus
Bloodvessel
Falx cerebri(in longitudinal
fissure only)
Periosteum
(a)
Figure 7.17b
Skull
Scalp
Superiorsagittal sinusDura mater
Transversesinus
Temporalbone
Occipital lobeTentoriumcerebelli
Arachnoid materover medulla
oblongata(b)
Cerebellum
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Similar to blood plasma composition Formed by the choroid plexus
◦ Choroid plexuses–capillaries in the ventricles of the brain
Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles,
and central canal of the spinal cord
Figure 7.18a
Septumpellucidum
Inferiorhorn
Lateralaperture
Lateral ventricle
Anterior horn
Interventricularforamen
Third ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
Central canal
(a) Anterior view
Figure 7.18b
Lateral ventricle
Anterior horn
Interventricularforamen
Third ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
Central canal
Posteriorhorn
Inferior horn
Medianaperture
Lateralaperture
(b) Left lateral view
Blood-Brain Barrier
Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
Excludes many potentially harmful substances
Useless as a barrier against some substances◦ Fats and fat soluble molecules◦ Respiratory gases◦ Alcohol◦ Nicotine◦ Anesthesia
Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI)· Concussion
· Slight or mild brain injury· Bleeding & tearing of nerve fibers · Recovery likely with some memory loss
· Contusion· A more severe TBI· Nervous tissue destruction occurs· Nervous tissue does not regenerate
· Cerebral edema· Swelling from the inflammatory response· May compress and kill brain tissue
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
· Commonly called a stroke
· The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain
· Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies
· Loss of some functions or death may result
Alzheimer’s Disease
· Progressive degenerative brain disease· Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age· Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein
deposits and twisted fibers within neurons· Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion
and ultimately, hallucinations and death
PNS: Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck
Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to thoracic and abdominal cavities
Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
PNS: Cranial Nerves
I Olfactory nerve—sensory for smell II Optic nerve—sensory for vision III Oculomotor nerve—motor fibers to eye muscles IV Trochlear—motor fiber to one eye muscle V Trigeminal nerve—sensory for the face; motor fibers to
chewing muscles VI Abducens nerve—motor fibers to eye muscles VII Facial nerve—sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve—sensory for balance and hearing IX Glossopharyngeal nerve—sensory for taste; motor fibers to
the pharynx X Vagus nerves—sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx,
and viscera XI Accessory nerve—motor fibers to neck and upper back XII Hypoglossal nerve—motor fibers to tongue
Figure 7.24
I Olfactory II Optic
III Oculomotor
IV TrochlearVI Abducens
V Trigeminal V Trigeminal
VII Facial
Vestibularbranch
Cochlearbranch
VIII Vestibulocochlear
X Vagus
IX GlossopharyngealXI AccessoryXII Hypoglossal
PNS: Cranial Nerves Device
Oh – Olfactory Oh – Optic Oh – Oculomotor To – Trochlear Touch – Trigeminal And – Abducens Feel – Facial Very – Vestibulocochlear Green – Glossopharyngeal Vegetables – Vagus Ah – Accessory Ha – Hypoglossal
Spinal Cord
• Extension of brain stem• Controls reflexes• Surrounded by meninges (membranes)• Central canal is filled with spinal fluid• Protected by vertebrae.• Gray matter – mostly cell bodies• White matter – myelinated cell fibers
Spinal Cord
· Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12
· Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves)
· Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions
Spinal Cord
· Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
The Reflex Arc
· Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
· Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to a spinal cord interneuron, to an effector
· No brain involvement
Peripheral Nervous System
· Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system
· A nerve consists of neuron fibers bundled by connective tissue
· There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
· Somatic nerves control voluntary functions and autonomic nerves control involuntary functions
A nerve has layers of connective tissue.
The endoneurium is a delicate connective tissue wrapping around each fiber.The perineurium is a coarser wrapping around a bundle of fibers (fascicle).The epineuriun is a tough connective tissue wrapping around all the fascicles.
Nerves may contain just sensory neurons, just motor neurons, or both (mixed).
PNS: Spinal Nerves
There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae.
Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
Named for the region from which they arise
PNS: Spinal Nerve Plexuses
Plexus–networks of nerves serving motor and sensory needs of the limbs
Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
Four plexuses:◦ Cervical◦ Brachial◦ Lumbar◦ Sacral
Cervicalnerves
Thoracicnerves
Lumbarnerves
Sacralnerves
Ventral rami formcervical plexus
(C1 – C5)
Ventral rami formbrachial plexus
(C5 – C8; T1)
No plexusformed
(intercostalnerves)(T1 – T12)
Ventral rami formlumbar plexus
(L1 – L4)
Ventral rami formsacral plexus
(L4 – L5; S1 – S4)
(a)
C1
T1
L1
2345678
23456
789
1011
12
2
3
4
5
S1
234
Figure 7.25a
PNS: Autonomic Nervous System
Motor subdivision of the PNS◦ Consists only of motor nerves
Also known as the involuntary nervous system◦ Regulates activities of cardiac and smooth
muscles and glands Two subdivisions
◦ Sympathetic division◦ Parasympathetic division
PNS: Autonomic Functioning
Sympathetic—“fight or flight”◦ Response to unusual stimulus◦ Takes over to increase activities◦ Remember as the “E” division
Exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites◦ Conserves energy◦ Maintains daily necessary body functions◦ Remember as the “D” division
digestion, defecation, and diuresis
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems