Chapter 5: Constructing Arguments

Andrea Ferragotti, Teddyann Murao, Gage Nelson, Ingrid Beha

Present and support in a way that is persuasive

Adopt a style and designThe rhetorical situation

– People have different expectations for a persuasive argument

Goals for arguments

Hope to gain somethingAdhere to the conventions of academic writing

Define your topic, develop ideas

Consider audience when creating your argument

Having a good sense of your audience will help you decide:

What decision to make

What examples and evidence to use

Defining your termsAvoid defining a word by using the same term or another term that is equally complexTry to define key terms in your own wordsDefinition helps control an argument by eliminating misunderstandings

Structuring an argumentBasic principles of argumentation: help you organize your argument effectivelyClassical arrangement

Introduction: urge audience to consider the caseStatement of background: narrate the key eventsProposition: divides the part of argument focused on information on reasoning and outlines major points that will followProof: confirm your case; discuss reasons why you have taken your position and cite evidenceRefutation: show what is wrong with the arguments of your opponentsConclusion: summarize important points

Structuring an argumentRogerian argument: emphasizing concessions rather than refutations and placing concessions early

Introduction: state problem that you hope to resolve

Summary of opposing views: state views of opposing audience to show that you are capable of listening

Statement of understanding: offering a kind of concession and recognize conditions that you share views of opponents

Statement of your position: your views on your argument

Statement of contexts: statement of contexts to describe situations that you hope your own views would be honored

Statement of benefits: conclude your argument by appealing to the self-interest of people; show readers how they would benefit from accepting your position

Inductive reasoningArrange evidence so it leads readers to the same conclusion you have reached

Consider specific kinds of evidence that affect your readers

Decide how much evidence is enough

Interpret and analyze evidence for your audience

Organizing an argument inductively offers a great deal of flexibility

Deductive reasoning

Start with generalization and works to a conclusion.Opposite of inductive reasoning which starts with observation and ends with a conclusion.You start with the generalization (called premise), takes a lot of thought to make a good premise.Steps to explore topic and make general outline of argument:

Identifying your conclusionFind out what you believe in the argument/where you stand

Examining your reasons carefully Not all reasons can fit to everyone

Formulate your premise Make sure the argument fits with the conclusion.

Using the Toulmin modelIn an argument, you tend to use logic informally. This helps construct the argument.State your claim clearly and offer persuasive reasons (data)Warrant: The assumption that connects the claim and the data.

Fundamental value/belief that is shared by writer and audience.

Has no specific pattern for organization; must find way to organize that will best help the topic you’re trying to argue. 

Using Language Effectively

Consider your audience as you generate evidence and its expectations for evidence.Consider the rhetorical situation in which you are making your argument.Provocative language may be warrantedWord choice and tone is everything

You are presenting at a science convention. During your presentation, you would not say anything along the lines of:

Evolution only exists in Pokemon

Dinosaurs never existed

God created the world in 7 days

Consider these questions as you construct your argument and develop your supporting evidence:

What claims am I making that will need supporting evidence?Where can I find such evidence?What expectations will my audience have for the evidence I present?Have I included sufficient evidence for my audience?Does the kind of evidence I have included (factual, firsthand experience, philosophical reasoning, expert testimony) make sense for the claims I am making?

Ask yourself:

Is my overall tone likely to offend my intended audience? If so, what specifically about my tone might be offensive? How can I revise to avoid that problem?Will my audience understand the key terms I have used? Can I use figurative language in any way to enhance my argument?

KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE!