studies on diversity of orchid flora in Southern Assam and their conservation

Chapter-3

Review of Literature

3.1 . Historical Baclcground 3.2. Work done Abroad 3.3. Worii done in India (General) 3.4. Contribution of Botanical Survey

of India 3.5. Work done by individuals / institutions 3.6. information on the orchid f iora

from the other s tates of India 3.7. North Eastern India w i t h special

references to Assam including • Southern Assam (Barak Valley)

3.8. Asymbiotic seed germinat io i i {In vitro) through tissue cu l ture te^hnlquo

(

' CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1. Historical Background:-

Theophrastus first used the Latin Word "Orchis" to some particular group of

plants and observed that the roots of these plants were used in the traditional

Pharmacopoeias of Greece and neighboring Asia minor as antidepressant and

stimulant.The term "Orchis" is now used to describe a particular European genus, and

the name of the entire family - Orchidaceae - is also derived from it.

Olof Swartz (1800) was the first to make a critical review of orchid literature and

to present a classification. He distinguished 25 genera and since he had access to

materials he even commented that many more new genera would be created in

future.He was the first to find the monandrous and diandrous condition in orchids.

L. C. Richard (1817) while working on European orchids introduced the special

terminology for orchids that we use today. Brown (1810), du Petit-Thouars (1809,

1822) and Blumn (1825) who studied tropical orchids in the field refined Swartz's

classification and added many new genera. John Lindly's contribution to the taxonomy

of orchids was great and unparalleled.He studied more materials than any botanist

before him. He was the first to divide orchid family into tribes (Lindley, 1830-1840).

Robert Dressier and Calaway Dodson (1960) presented a classification which for the

first time was made in accordance with the International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature (ICBN). Garay (1960) suggested division of the family into 5

subfamilies, a concept introduced for the first time.VermeuIen (1966) proposed 3

families under the order Orchidales. George Bentham (1881) published a new

classification of orchids for use in Bentham & Hooker's "Genera plantarum". Ernst

Pfitzer (1887) proposed his classification utilizing apart from pollinia characters,

vegetative features as well. Dressler's (1981) classification was a milestone in orchid

systematic.

Pamela Burns-Balogh & Vicki Funk (1986) were the first to attempt a large-scale

cladistic assessment of Orchidaceae. Dressler's (1993) revised classification was based

on new character information and significantly influenced by cladistic reasonning. The

most recent complete classification is by Szlachetko (1995) wherein the three family

scheme of Vermeulen is accepted.

29

3.2. Work done Abroad:-

Leon (1946) wrote the family Orchidaceae for the Flora of Cuba in Spanish.

Orchids of United States of America have been reported by D. S. Correll (1950).

Williams (1951) published on the Orchidaceae of Mexico. He later brought out an

enumeration of orchids of Central America, British Honduras and Panama (Williams,

1956). Along with Allen, Walliams also wrote the family Orchidaceae in Flora of

Panama (1946- 1949). Holttum (1957) brought out a large volumn on the orchids of

Malaya. Seidenfaden &. Smitinand (1959-1965) published a preliminary list on the

orchids of Thailand in 6 parts. Seidenfaden later also published several revesionary

papers on the Orchids of Thailand.

Although Orchid flora of some of the South American countries have been

published but a large area still remains untouched. Schweinfurth (1958-1959)

published the book "Orchids of Peru". Dunsterville & Garay (1959-1976) brought out

six volumns of illustrated work on the orchids of Venezeula. Schultez (1960) brought

out a fairly complete flora on the native orchids of Trinidad and Tobago. Nicholls

(1969) published a beautiful book on the "Orchids of Australia". Dockrill (1969) also

published a very good book on the "Australian indigenous orchids". Stewart &

Campbell (1970) brought out a book on the "Orhids of Tropical Africa". Mackawa

(1971) published a beautiful book with excellent painting on the wild Orchids of

Japan. Adams (1972) wrote an updated account of Orchidaceae for "Flora of Jamaica".

C. A. Luer (1972; 1975) published a book entitled "orchids of Florida". Hamar (1974)

published a good account of orchid flora of El. Salvador.

Lin (1975) published on the Native orchids of Taiwan in two volumes. Pabst &

Dungs (1975-1977) published the "Orchids of Brazil" in 2 volumns. Ortiz Valdivieso

(1976) brought out a volumne on the Orchids of Columbia in Spanish. Williamson

(1977) published a good book on the "Orchids of South Central Africa".Renz (1978)

published his treatise on the Orchids of Iran.

Banerji and Thapa (1978) reported the Orchids of Nepal, according to

Schlechter's system. They described 189 monandrous species in 54 genera. This work

gives a general outline of the orchids of the adjoining areas in India such as Sikkim

and North-Westem Himalayas and provides a brief introduction to orchid

30

classification. An exhaustive, annotated checklist of the orchids of Madagascar has

been published by Du Puy, Cribb, Bosser, Johan & Hermans (1999).

Huda (2007) - published an updated enumeration of the family Orchidaceae from

Bangladesh. He reported a total of 177 species and a variety under 70 genera to the

family Orchidaceae from Bangladesh.Out of which 116 are epiphytic and 60 are

terrestrial.

3.3. Work done in India (General):-

Due to its geographical position, so many degrees of latitude and the land often

rising from sea level to heights beyond the limits of vegetation, india harbours a varied

flora comprising both temperate and tropical species. The bordering regions harbor an

admixture of Chinese, Malayan and Sri-Lankan orchid species.

Van Rheede (1678-1693) described over 700 species of flowering plants from

Malabar in 12 volumes in his monumental work "Hortus Malabaricus" (1678-1693).

His work, represents the first impotant scientific account of Indian plants with plates,

which are faithfiil represenation of the plant described in vol. 11 & 12, a total of 16

orchid taxa have been described. Of these, some are drawn without flowers (e.g. Plates

6, 23 and 26 in vol.12), whereas the others represent Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt.

and McC, Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wt., Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay,

Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw^Dendrobium ovatum (Willd.) Kranz.,Eulophia

epidendraea (Koen.) Fisch., Geodorum densiflorum (Lamk.) Schltr., Liparis nervosa (

Thunb.) Lindl. Malaxis rheedii Sw., Pholidota pallida Lindl., Rhynchostylis retusa Bl.

and Vanda spathulata Spreng.Roxburgh (1832) recorded in his "Flora Indica" some 57

species of orchids in 8 genera and proposed many new taxa which were later

transferred to other genera. These collections were mainly from Sylhet district of

Assam. Lindley (1830-1840) published "Genera and species of Orchidaceae plants"

and utilized the vast collections made by J. D. Hooker and G.M. Thomson. He first

described 71 species in 21 genera (Lindly,1857), and later dealt with the genera

Dendrobium, Crytochilus, Acanthephippium, Anthogonium & 331 species belonging to

54 genera (Lindly,1858). During the British colonial period scientific study of orchids

was vigorously pursued by Robert Wight, William Griffith, Robert Pantling, Georage

King, J. D. Hooker and many others.

31

Wight (1832) made extensive collections of the flora of Madras Presidency &

together with G. A.Walker - Amott published his work. Subsequently, he published an

illustrated account of Indian plants. His icons (Wight, 1845-1853) contain invaluable

information, including a critical view on the affinities of orchid genera of India &

neighbouring countries.

Griffith (1851) treated the Orchidaceae at length, often providing a very good

account on the general morphology, methods of pollination and affinities of each

taxon. However, the treatment of all Vanilla spp. in a separate family Vanillaceae may

be considered as an anomaly. Altogether he described 147 species of orchids in 49

genera. Some of his described species now belong to the adjacent Asian countries.But

most of his species were recorded from the Khasi hills and its surroundings.

Descriptions of floral characters are very cute and he has provided a good number of

beautifijl illustrations. Both Latin and English languages have been used in the text.

Aitchison (1869) listed Epipactis veratrifolia, Spiranthes australis, Zeiaine

membranacea, and Z sulcata from Punjab and Sindh.

Working with the Indian flora, Drury (1869) listed 275 species of orchids in 74

genera discovered from Augusteer Hill (1500-1800 m) in Travancore Hills, a Lady's

slipper orchid was recorded subsequently and described as Cypripedium druryi Bedd.

[Now known as Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein].Later, Beddome (1874) provided

an excellent drawing and a very accurate description of this taxon. This endemic

species was found in abundance by Beddome on the top of Calicut Hills where it

bloomed during January.

Atkinson (1882) enumerated about 50 species of orchids in 33 genera from

Garhwal alone, whereas as many as 55 species in 35 genera were listed from the region

comprising Kumaon, Nepal & Tibet.

Veitch (1887-1894) has also described some Indian orchids. While a few of these

were illustrated, special emphasis was given to their horticultural aspects. Modes of

cultivation and temperature requirement and some other factors have also been

discussed.

Hooker ( 1888, 1890) who had vast experiences in the field, and had spent 4

years in Meghalaya, Sikkim, Nepal and Bengal collecting plants had undoubtedly

gained deep knowledge of Indian orchids. His collections included 117 genera and

32

1250 species in his account of the Orchidaceae in Vols. 5 «& 6. The drawings / painting

made on the spot in the field helped him to compile "Flora of British India" in Kew,

London. He has also provided description with illustrations of hundred orchids in "A

century of Indian Orchids" in the Annals of the Royal Botanical Garden, Calcutta

(1895).His illustrations on Indian plants were published in Himalayan Journal

(1854).The flora of British India facilitated the publication of many regional flora e.g.

" The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay" by T. Cooke (1901-1908), "Flora of the

Upper Gangetic Plains & the adjacent Siwaliks & Sub- Himalayan Tracts" by J. E.

Duthie ( 1903), Bengal plants by D. Prain ( 1903), Botany of Bihar and Orissa by H.

Haines ( 1924) & "Flora of Presidency of Madras" by J. S. Gamble, where the family

Orchidaceae has been treated along with many families.

After Hooker, the most important accounts of orchids from regions treatment of

this country were also published by G. King and R. Pantling (1898), "Orchids of

Sikkim Himalayas" with beautiful illustrations. In the years that followed, many

regional treatments of orchids appeared. Collett (1902) in his "Flora Simlensis"

described 38 species under 18 genera from Shimla and its neighbourhood, where key

characters and distributional details are provided for each taxon, illustrations are given

for some of the taxa only. The next important publication is of Grammie (1905), who

wrote on "The Orchids of Bombay Presidency".Cooke (1901-1908) provided an

accurate diagnosis and described 74 species in 31 genera from the erstwhile Presidency

of Bombay, which included Maharashtra, Gujrat, Sindh &. N. Kanara. He described the

endemic taxa. Eulophia ochreata & E. ramentacea.T>\\i\\\Q (1903) published an

illustrated account entitled "Orchids of North-Western Himalayas", In this work, 173

species belonging to 45 genera have been described. He has also provided a good

number of illustrations. The works of Hooker, King and Pantling and Duthie are

considered as the "Monumental treatments on Indian orchids".

While botanists of North-western India were seriously engaged in taxonomic work

in the early part of this century, practically no work was done for the southernmost

states of India. One expectation is the work of Rama Rao (1914) from Travancore who

enumerated some 171 species of orchids with medicinal value occuring.

Fyson (1914) published his work in 3 volumes; in his work, the Orchidaceae was

mentioned a little. He provided a few line drawings. Lateron, he brought out a 2-

33

volume work, one containing the text and the other with the illustrations (Fyson,

1932).In the refined version of his 1914 work, many of the former descriptions have

been rewritten, new generic keys constructed, and new localities were given for the

species. In all 58 species belonging to 24 genera were described. Of these, 46 are

illustrated. In the genus Sccolabium (p.581.), he has given two varieties i.e. S.filiforme

(Wt.) Lindl. as var. nilagirica and van pulneyemis .These belong to the present-day

SchoenorchisfiUformis (Wt.) Schltr.

Fischer (1921 & 1928) enumerated 42 species in 23 genera from the Annamalai

Hills. Taking a major task of completing J. S. Gamble's work on Flora of Presidency

of Madres he brought out a volume on the Orchidaceae (Fischer, 1928). It contains

excellent description of 199 species belonging to 60 genera from the eastwhile

Presidency of Madras. No comprehensive work has appeared since then. His new

species Rhynchostylis latifolia is con-specific with the earlier Saccolabium smeeanum

Reichb. f because of its strange admixture of characters.Bruhl (1926) published a book

named "Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim Himalayan" wherein 461 species belonging to

92 genera were described.

Blatter (1928) published an enumeration of the orchids collected from the High

Wavy Mountains of Madurai District, Tamil Nadu.This include some interesting new

species such as Odontochilus rotundifolius (now made into a new genus called

Aenhenrya), Eria pseudoclavicaulis and Disperis monophylla. Later, he co-authered

with C. McCann and published a series of papers including reports, on a number of

new orchid species (Blatter & McCann's, 1931,1932) in the Journal of Bombay

Natural History Society.

Mayuranathan (1929) described Eulophia epidendraea, Habenaria platyphylla,

H.viridiflora and Vanda tessellate in his work on the flowering plants of Madras with

short description.

3.4. Contribution of Botanical Survey of India:-

Orchid studies in the post-independent era have been mainly done by the scientists

of the Botanical Survey of India since 1956. This has resulted in the publication of

innumerable papers & some popular booklets (Hara,1966 ; Kataki, 1962, 1984a, 1976 ;

Panigrahi &. Joseph, 1966; Rao & Verma, 1969 ; Rao, 1979 ; Rao 8c Deori, 1980 ;

Arora, 1968; 1969a, b, c, d, 1972a, b; Rao & Hajra, 1974, 1984, 1987, 2001 ; Hajra et

34

al., 1983, 1984; De & Hajra 2001, 2004; Bhattacharjee, 1976 ; Nair 1966, 1978 ; Das

& Jain, 1978, 1979, 1980 ; Ansari, 1995).

Santapau (1953, 1957) listed about 19 species of orchids belonging to 7 genera

from Purandhar and suggested Habenaria hollandiana Sant. as a new name for H.

affmis Wt. non Don.

Subsequently, Santapau & Kapadia (1966) published the book entitled"Orchids of

Bombay" (Ph.D. thesis of Z. Kapadia).

Das & Jain (1980) published a book on "The revision of the Orchidaceae. Genus:

Coelogyne". Joseph (1982b) described an account of some 116 species in 49 genera

from the area. All the species are supported by illustrations. He also described one new

variety collected from the Nilgiris, viz., Thrixspermum muscaejlorum Rao and Joseph

var. nilagiricum Joseph and Vajravelu.

Jain &. Mahrotra (1984) have published a preliminary "Inventory of Orchidaceae

in India". They have listed 144 genera belonging to 925 species of orchids with

original citation, correct nomenclature and distribution in India with the mention about

their endemism in India.

Kataki et al, (1984b) published a plant conservation bulletin on the "Distribution

of Orchids of Sikkim &. North - East India" & described 690 species belonging to 128

genera from Sikkim and N.E. India.

Subsequently, Kataki (1986) wrote a book entitled "Orchids of Meghalaya". In

this book he has listed 280 species of orchids with their distribution, 84 colour

photographs with line drawings & Key to the genus & species for identification.

Kataki & Hynniewta (1986) also reported 238 species and 4 varieties under 59

genera from Nagaland.

Chawngthantluage (1996) reported 253 species in the book entitled "Orchids of

Mizoram".

Chowdhery & Pal (1997) published a checklist of Orchidaceae from Arunachal

Pradesh while Chowdhery (1998) published a book on the"Orchid Flora of Arunachal

Pradesh" in which 545 species belonging to 123 genera of Orchids known from

Arunachal Pradesh, key to genera and species along with the history of the genus,

deviation of its name, distribution, flowering and fruiting times etc are described.

35

Hynniewta et al, (2000) reported 241 species, 63 genera & 4 varieties in the work

entitled "Orchids of Nagaland".

3.5. Work done by individuals / institutions:-

Ghosh (1953) a famous Orchid grower in Darjeeling for the first time published a

popular book "Beautiful Indian Orchids" along with the methods of cultivation and

propagation under Indian conditions. He altogether described 150 species belonging to

27 genera of beautiful Indian orchids.

Tuyama (1975) published a book entitled "Orchids of Eastern Himalayas".

Saldanha and Nicholson (1976) enumerated 95 species in 45 genera from Hassan

District of Kamataka State. This fairly well - documented account includes one new

genus Smithsonia and four new species i.e. S. straminea, Eulophia emilianae,

Oberonia josephii and Phalaenopsis mysorensis. He also proposed the new

contribution Gastrochilus flabelliformis (Blatter & McCann) Saldanha based on

Saccobiumflabelliforme.

Three books on Indian flora appered in the year 1976.Dealing with the Delhi flora,

Maheshwari (1976) reported only one orchid species, viz., Zeiaine strateumatica (L.)

Schltr. from the area. Further, Srivastava (1976) reported 2 species of orchids, viz.

Oberonia falconeri and Zeuxine strateumatica. As a supplement to Duthie's work

(1911-1926), Raizada (1976) reported 7 species of orchids belonging to 4 genera, of

which Eulophia graminea was a new distributional record for the area.

Pradhan (1976 & 1979), a nurseryman trained in Jordel Laboratory on Orchid

culture, described a total of 810 Indian species of orchids in 130 genera. His work

seems to be the only exhaustive work on an all-India basis since the time of Hooker

(1888, 1890), althrough in noway comparable to the latter. Pradhan discussed orchid

cultivation and major orchid habitats of the country. Besides providing keys for easy

identification, a number of black and white and colour photographs were also

provided. This work is profusely illustrated by drawings as well, which are often

adapted from those of earlier workers.

Rao (1979) brought out a publication on orchids for popular use, which contains

descriptions of 180 native species in 50 genera in the form of a book "Orchids of

India". In this book he has also mentioned the commonly cultivated exotic species. A

36

rather general account of culture, classification and nomenclature is provided. Colour

plates and black and white photographs of the important species are also given.

Working with Nilgiri orchids Abraham & Vatsala (1981) described about 150

Southern Indian Orchids, providing line drawings of individual species in almost all

the cases. It gives the History of Orchidology, geographical distribution and ecology,

morphology, classification of Orchids, cytology and phylogeny, hybridization, seed

culture and meristem culture, disease and pests of Orchids etc.

Raizada et al, (1981) reported about 89 species in 35 genera from Mussoorie, in

Western Himalayas, as a sequel to the work of Duthie (1906) and included a fuller

description, distribution and flowering periods of the native orchids.

Rao and Razi (1981) described 62 species belonging to 31 genera from Mysore

District. New records for the area include Eria pauciflora Wt. and Cheirostylis

flabellata Wt. Arora et al., (1981) listed 4 species from South Canara District.

Yoganarasimhan et al, (1981) reported 38 species of orchids belonging to 26

genera from Chickmangalur District of Kamataka. New records for this area include

Dendrobium wightii Hawkes and Heller, Goodyera procera (Ker.- Gawl.) Hook, and

Saccolabium jerdonianum Wt. (now called Schoenorchis jerdoniana (Wt.) Garay.

However, the floral character in this report has been vaguely written.

Manilal and Sivarajan (1982) reported 10 species of orchids belonging to 9 genera

occurring wild in Calicut, with short description & notes on their ecology.

Seidenfaden and Arora (1982) enumerated the orchids of the North - Western

Himalayas. This work provides a fuller account of all the known orchids of the area

numbering about 250 species with 24 new records, whereas the classic work of Duthie

(1903) contained only 173 species.Two new species viz. Eria occidentalis Seidenf and

Flickingeria hesperis Seidenf are proposed.A new combination of Aorchis roborovskii

(Maxim.) Seidenf. based on Orchis roborovskii is suggested.

Vij et al, (1982b, c) recorded 54 species under 23 orchid genera from Shimla and

adjacent hills in the North - Western Himalayas, of which 6 species represented first

time records from the region.

He further (Vij et al, 1983) listed 112 orchid species from Nainital and adjacent

hills in the Central Himalayas, 15 of these species were classified as rare and

endangered due to habitat destruction.

37

Singh (1983) listed two species, viz., Aerides crispa and Zeuxine strateumatica

from Banswara, Rajasthan.

Mukherjee (1983) wrote a popular booklet on Orchids. He mentioned about 1250

species from India.

Deb (1983) has recorded some 33 species in 22 genera froni Tripura State, where

the largest genus seems to be Dendrobium represented by 6 spQcies.Pomatocalpa

mannii Reichb. f. is recorded by him for the first time from this State.

Seidenfaden (1983) described 73 species belonging to 36 genera from Tamil

Nadu, based on the collections made by K. M. Mathew and others. He has clarified

some of the taxonomic problems of South Indian orc\{\ds.Gastrochilus acaulis (Lindl.)

O. Ktze. and Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindl.,both Sri Lankan elements, are reported for

the first time fi-om India. Anoectochilus elatus Lindl. earlier known from the Western

Ghats, seems to be a new record for Eastern Ghats. He attributed the authority of

Dendrobium wightii to Balakrishnan; in fact, Hawkes and Heller (1957) had suggested

the same nomenclature for D. graminifolium Wt. a few years earlier.

Sharma et al. (1984) enumerated 173 species of orchids in 51 genera from the

whole of Karnataka State. However, no description is provided. Old names as

Saccolabium, Sarcanthus and Ephemerantha are still used.

Hedge (1984) published "Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh". In the book he has

listed 368 species of orchids with their morphology, distribution, cultivation,

classification, breeding, along with 34 black and white and 84 colour photographs.

Ghatak &. Devi (1986) wrote a book on the "Orchids of Manipur". As per the

report Manipur hosts as many as 250 species of orchids.

Somdeva and Naithani (1987) wrote a book entitled "Orchid Flora of the North

Western Himalaya". They re-examined all those specimens on which Duthie's original

flora was based and also checked all those which have been described as new since

then and many identification in Duthie's Flora have been changed and corrected, six

new species have been added. In total 240 species of the orchids are described in this

book.

Singh et al, (1990) published a book on the "Orchids of Mizoram". Rao (1991a)

described 63 species in the form of a book entitled "Post independence additions to the

orchid flora of india".

38

Pangtey et ah, (1991) published a book entitled"Orchids of Kumaun Himalayas",

where he described a total of 61 genera spreaded over 192 species with variety & Sub-

families.The nomenclature, phytography, flowering time, distribution have been

reported in the book.

Kumar and Manilal (1994) brought out a "Catalogue of Indian Orchids". This

catalogue provides altogether 1141 species of orchids in 166 genera including a new

genus Seiden-fadeniella and many other novelties. Of these, 657 species in 86 genera

are epiphytes & 484 species in 82 genera are terrestrial and are estimated to occur

within the present boundaries of India. The book contains 17 line drawings including 4

maps &. colour photographs of 64 species of Indian Orchids.

Sundriyal & Sharma (1995) edited a book on the "Cultivation of Medicinal plants

and Orchids in Sikkim Himalaya". This book is the outcome of the proceeding of the

"Workshop on cultivation of Medicinal plants & Orchids of Sikkim" held in Sikkim

which had deliberations on specific themes of Orchids, which includes Orchid Wealth,

commercial Orchid growing. Orchid cooperative Societies, Status, Cultivation &

Propagration of Orchids.

Maheswari et al, (1995) edited a book on "Orchids in India". This book contains

13 papers on Orchids & it includes census of Indian Orchids, especially, North East

India with special references to Arunachal Pradesh.

Sharma (1996) published a book on "Orchids of India: Commercialization and

Conservation".This book gives us the idea for in vivo and in vitro conservation of

orchids.

Bose & Bhattacharjee (1999, revised edition) described 834 species in 127 genera

and outlined the cultural procedures for many of them. Photographs were provided for

some of the species. Several species and their synonyms are described separately under

different taxonomic identities.For example, Pecteilis gigantea (J. E. Sm.) Rafin is

repeatedly described under three names as Platanthera susannae, Pecteilis susannae

and Habenaria susannae. The same is the case with Nervilia, species of which are also

treated under the genus Pogonia.

39

Hedge (2001b) edited a book on "Orchids: Conservation, Culture, Farming &

Trade". This book is the outcome of the proceedings of workshop & Orchid show on

the "International festival of Orchids" held in Itanagar, in which deliberations were

done on the specific themes - Diversity, ethnobotanical interest, conservation,

micropropagation, post-harvest technology, commercial export potential etc. A total of

31 full papers and 11 abstracts with recommendations are included in the book.

Augustine et ah, (2001) have written a book entitled "Orchids of India: II;

Biodiversity and Status of Bulbophyllum Thou". This book provided the present status

and Biodiversity of Bulbophyllum Thou, and allied genera of India in general and

Northeast in particular with keys to these genera, sections and species.A total of 80

species of Bulbophyllum Thou. & allied genera are included in the book.

Pathak et al, (2001) edited a book entitled"Orchids Science &. Commerce".This

book contains 32 papers on Orchids.

Barua (2001) published a book on the "Orchid Flora of Kamrup District, Assam

(with illustrations)". This book has explored orchid species of three major Districts viz.

Barpeta, Nalbari & Kamrup District of the Lower Brahmaputra Valley including the

Manas Wildlife Sanctuary. It has detailed the subject in some major aspects as the

embryological, ethnobotany, distribution, phytogeography and phenological

characteristics of the taxa and the key characters of Orchids of the districts.

Misra (2004) published a book entitled "Orchids of Orissa".In this book he

provided details on the morphological description, geography, distribution, habitats &

growth habits of 130 species of orchids with flowering and fruiting period, taxonomic

notes, field notes & distribution of the species in Orissa, India and outside India.

Phukan (2006) reported the Genus Micropera Lindl.(Orchidaceae) in India. Misra

(2007) published a book entitled "Orchids of India". This book provided details on the

history, ecology, morphology, evolution, flowering period, behavior and systematic

elaborates of the orchid family with a key to the subfamilies in India. The generic

classification provides subdivision of the subfamilies into tribes and subtribes

providing under each genus, the number of species in the world and India have also

been provided. A key to the 185 genera in India followed with the brief generic

description is provided. A new species under a new genus has been established.

40

Enumeration lists 1331 orchid taxa recorded to-date in India within the three major

geographical regions.

3.6. Information on the orchid flora from-f^other states of India:-

The pioneering studies by Lindley, Hooker.King &. Pantling, Duthie and many

others in the late 19 and early 20 th centuries served a great purpose of putting India

in the world map as an emerging country with a lot of potential for the studies on

orchids.

Floristically very different from the mainland flora, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

present an interesting orchid flora as revealed in many papers by Balakrishnan and his

associates (1976 & 1979). Mathew (1999) reported extended distribution of

Dendrobium macrostachyum Lindl. on the Mount Harrier hills in South Andamans in

the Bay of Bengal. Diwakar, et a/.,(2005) has described Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham.

ex J. Sm.) P. F. Hunt from Kalpong Hydro Electric Project site, North Adaman.

In Andra Pradesh, Some of the papers and enumerations have been described by

Rao (1958, 1964). Ellis (1990) brought out the Flora of Nallamalais wherein

Orchidaceae was briefly treated (15 spp. and 5 genera). Singh et al, (2004) reported

Dendrobium crumenatum as an ornamental significant orchid on this state.

Orchid flora of the Bihar state was observed mainly from the early works by

Hains (1924) and Mooney (1950).

Maheshwari's (1976) book on "Delhi flora" contains only one species Zeuxine

strateumatica (L.) Schlf

Shah (1978) in his Flora of Gujrat state treated Orchidaceae very briefly giving

key characters of 26 species in 10 genera.

Vij & Varma (2005) reported a new species Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr.-

from Harayana.

Vij et al, (1982) reported 54 species in 23 genera as occurring in Shimla and

adjacent hills in the North - Western Himalayas & brough out their specificity.

Chowdhery & Wadhwa (1984) listed 52 spp. in 23 genera from Himachal Pradesh.

Subsequently, Vij and Verma (2007a, b) reported Gastrochilus D.Don & Peristylus

comtricus (Lindl.) Lindl.- as new record from this state.

Blatter (1928) in his book "Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir" included 17 species of

orchids in 7 genera. District flora project operated at Jammu may through some light

41

on the number of species available in the state. Dhar & Kachroo (1983) in the "Alpine

flora of Kashmir Himalayas" treated Orchidaceae very briefly & described one species

each from 7 genera such as Cephalanthera, Corollorhiza, Cypripediumbing,

Dactylorrhiza, Goodyera, Gymnadenia and Spiranthes.

Saldanha & Nicholson (1976) brought out the Orchidaceae of Hassan District

describing 95 spp. in 41 genera, while Sharma et ai, (1984) listed 173 species

belonging to 51 genera. Rao (1998) described 67 species from Kodagu District. Hedge

(2007a), reported 283 species spreaded over 79 genera in Uttar kannda district,

Kamataka & their conservation.Rao (2007) recorded some important ethnobotanical

data on the wild orchids with medicinal value as practiced by the tribals of Kudermukh

National Park in Kamataka. Hedge (2007) reported an interesting OTchid-Gastrochilus

dalzellianus (Sant.) Sant. &. Kapadia from Uttara Kannada district, Kamataka.

The first Indian orchids to be familiarized to the outside world were from Kerala

by Rheede (1678-1693) through his celebrated book "Hortus Malabaricus". The British

Collectors of the 19'*' century provided maerials to J.D.Hooker, who described many

novelties from Kerala (Hooker, 1888,1890).Fischer (1928) included many collections

from Travancore and Malabar in Gamble's Flora. Sathish Kumar studied the taxonomy

of orchids of Kerala under the guidance of Prof. Manilal in 1991.A current estimate is

that, altogether 252 species, 3 subspecies and a solitary variety of orchid belonging to

79 genera are available in the state of Kerala (Kumar &. Manilal, 2004).Subsequently,

Kumar & Sequiera (1999) has collected & described Liparis walakkademis Muktesh

& Stephen - a new species from Kerala.

Tiwari & Maheswari (1963) described the important species of the state of

Madhya Pradesh. Indications are that the states orchid flora is rich and diverse with

many potential species.

Dalzell & Gibson (1861), Graham (1893), Geammie (1905), Blatter & McCann

(1931, 1932) and Santapau & Kapadia (1966) worked on the orchids of the state of

Maharshtra. The last work is particularly significant as it contains very detailed and

accurate description of species.

In Orissa, Hains (1924) in his book entitled "Botany of Bihar and Orissa" partially

covered the state and reported many orchids. Misra (1980, 1981, 1986, 1988, 1997) in

a series of papers reported many discoveries, new to science and new to orissa.Misra

42

(2006), recorded 36 orchid species from Niyamgiri hill ranges in Orissa. Out of these,

23 are from epiphytic habitat and 13 are terrestrial.

Studies on the orchids of Punjab have been done by Prof. S. P. Vij in his Orchid

laboratory. Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh. The laboratory is

actively involved in assessing the in vitro regeneration potential of a variety of

Himalayan orchids besides analyzing cytological fidelity of the regenerants. Studies on

mycorrhiza, developmental biology and systematic of north Indian orchids are also

being conducted. Additionally, efforts are made to standardize techniques for synthetic

seed production.Several species including Acampe papillosa, Aerides multiflora,

Cymbidium aloifolium, C. pendulum, Dactylorhiza hatageria, Epipactis veratrifolia,

Eulophia dabia, Gastrodia orobanchoides, Goodyera biflora, G.repens, Habenaria

clavigera, Hedgeworthii, H.intermedia,H.latilabris,H.pectinata, Herminium lanceum,

Liparis ovate, Malaxis acuminate,M.muscifera,Pholidota articulata, Zeuxine

strateumatica and some commercially significant hybrids have been added to the live

collections of the orchidarium. Nair (1966, 1978) listed the orchids of Punjab plains.

In Rajasthan, Singh (1983) reported only 2 species viz. Aerides crispa & Zexixine

strateumatica from Banswara.

In Tamil nadu, Fischer (1921) reported 42 species of orchids in 23 genera from

Anamalai.Richard (1841) published a lengthy paper on the orchids of Nilgiris which

included several novelties. This was based on the materials collected and sent by

George Samuel Perrottet, while Joseph (1982b) illustrated an account on the orchids of

Nilgiris. Joseph & Ansari (1989) presented a list of orchids reported to occur in Tamil

Nadu.This included 192 species in 60 genera.

Gupta (1968) described the orchids found in Nainital. Arora (1969a, b, c, d;

1972a, b,1980), Deva (1978) and Deva & Naithani (1986) worked on the Orchid flora

of Western Himalaya. Raizada (1776) brought out a supplement to Duthie's work.

Raizada et al, (1981) reported 89 species of orchids in 35 genera from Western

Himalayas. Seidenfaden & Arora (1982) enumerating all the orchids of North Western

Himalaya included 250 species with 24 new records and 2 new species i.e. Eria

occidentalis Seidenf and Flickingeria hesperis Seidenf Hajra & Kothari (1983)

reported the occurrence of Acampa rigida & Vandopsis undulata in Pithoragarh district

of Uttar Pradesh.

43

In West Bengal, Griffith (1845) described much novelty of orchids from Howarh

Botanic Garden itself including the genus Didymoplexis. Mathex (1966) provided a list

of plants including orchids from Kurseong. Mukherjee (1972) published a list of

orchids found in the plains of North Bengal. Krishna & Das (1975) reported 5 species

as new to the State from northern districts of West Bengal. Guha Bakshi (1984)

reported 6 species from Murshidabad District. Darjeeling campus is a collaboration of

"National centre for Orchids" has been created for protection, cultivation and

conservation of orchid germplasm. Over 160 species of orchids have been collected

and maintained at the campus. The collected species represented various genera

Q.g.Cymbidium, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Eria, Calanthe, Paphiopedilum &

Bulbophyllum etc.

3.7. North Eastern India with special references to Assam including Southern Assam (Barak valley):-

North East region comprised states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. The region is endowed with

diverse climatic conditions and area covered under varied topography starting from

plains to snow covered mountains. The physiography spread from the tropical to

temperate climate, experiences varied agro ecological conditions. The vast area with

undulated topography with varied climatic conditions permits cultivation of variety of

floricultural crops. The region has for long been recognized as God's gift to the

country in view of the wealth of ornamental plants. The availability of native flora

wealth in this region has considerable potential for floriculture development.Till date

very less concerted efforts has been made to exploit the tremendous potential that

exists. Unscrupulous collection of plants from forests and their clandestine trading in

the country and aborad resulted in tremendous erosion of the natural wealth.

Prominently the region is rich with large number of species of orchids, however till

recent past very little attention has been paid in using the wealth for their commercial

exploitation.

Curiously enough Orchid wealth of Assam has not received the detailed

botanical attention.it deserves. Till date a detailed account has not been brought out on

the orchids of erstwhile Assam. Earlier collections made by the distinguished plant

explorers / collectors are still lodged either at the eastern circle of Botanical Survey of

India, Shillong or in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta. Noteworthy

44

contributions were made to enrich the knowledge of orchid flora of Assam along with

other floristic elements by the personals like Buchanan- Hamilton, Francis Jenkins, W.

Griffith, N. Wallich, Mcclelland, Masters, Kennan, Gustav Mann, G. Watt, C.B.

Clarke, Peel, Collect, G. A. Gammie and a few others. Most of these collections were

referred to by Sir J. D. Hooker (1988, 1890) in his Flora of British India, Vols. 5 & 6.

The localities they referred to are mentioned as Upper Assam, Lower Assam, Assam,

Assam Plains, Brahmaputra Valley and Surma Valley.

The establishment of the Botanical Survey of India on 13* February, 1890 under

the leadership of G. King as the first Director, activated the exploration work in the

whole of India including Assam. The plant explores like Meebold, Carter & Carter,

made collections during the early part of 20"' Century. Later at the initiative of Sir

Archdale Earle, the chief Commissioner of Assam, forest officer U. N. Kanjilal (1906-

1916) himself started collecting plants from the vast expanses of erstwhile Assam and

also engaged all the forest staff members spreaded over Assam for collections of plant

specimens with a view to publishing the Flora of Assam. Other plant collectors during

the period are Kingdon Ward, N. L. Bor, S. R. Sharma, G. K. Deka, S. Chowdhury, A.

S. Rao, G. Panigrahi, S. K. Jain, D. B. Deb, P. K. Hajra, S. K. Kataki and several

others who helped to enhance our knowledge of the orchid flora of Assam.However

few researcher of Botanical Survey of India, Shillong Viz. Kataki & Panigarhi (1963),

Rao & Hajra (1974a), Jain & Hajra (1976), Borthakur & Hajra (1976), Rao & Deori

(1976), Barua &. Barua (1997) have made contributions to the orchid flora of Assam at

large.

However, a perusal of literature has revealed that during the second half of the

twentieth century, several workers namely Rao and Panigrahi (1959 & 1961), Barua &

Deori (1988) published reports on the orchids fi-om different specific sites of the state

but no systematic taxonomical works were done.Baruah (1978) for the first time made

a systematic taxonomical study of orchids of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam and

recorded about 114 species and 4 varieties under 50 genera for his Ph. D. work. Later

on, Barua (2001) published the first ever district flora of Kamrup district of Assam &

recorded 62 species and 3 varieties under 31 genera, before publication in his book, he

gave a new report on the Bulbophyllum forrestii Siedenf. of India (Barua & Barua,

1991). Baruah (1992) got his Ph. D. in 1992 on ornamental plants with particular

45

references to Landscape of Assam. Basumatary (2004) recorded 46 species of orchids

under 26 genera from Chirang Reserve Forest under Haltuagaon Forest Division of

Kolcrajhar District for his Ph. D. work. Gogoi (2005) recorded 35 species including 7

that belong to genus Dendrobium in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park & Biosphere

Reserve Forest. Sharma et al, (2006) reported 287 specific & intraspecific taxa

belonging to 88 genera in Assam while Dey et al, (2007) reported a list of 21 orchid

species from Manas National Park, out of which 16 were epiphytes & 5 terrestrial.

The floristic studies of Assam {semu stricto) were initiated by Prof.

S. Chowdhury. He has stimulated the Research work on Orchids of Assam in

particular. He has made a notable contribution towards the knowledge of Orchids.He

has published a number paper's in National and international journals individually

during the year i.e. 1982, 1987 1988, 1990, 1993, 1993a, 1998 and with associates

during 1968, 1971, 1976, 1991 & 2002. A good number of new records and new

species of Orchids are described including Dendrobium assamicum Chowdhury,

Eulophia kamarupa Chowdhury, Zewcine debrajiana Chowdhury and also Zeiixine

assamica Iswar Barua & Kuntala Barua. Prof Chowdhury has published a book

entitled "Assam's Flora" (2005) including detailed information regarding the Orchids

of Assam & their present status.

After separation from the erstwhile Assam, the entire sister states of northeast

India, paid their sincere efforts to publish the orchid flora of their states and during the

subsequent years, orchid flora of all the neighboring states of Assam have been

published (Singh, 2001). There are altogether sixteen (16) reserve forests within the

territory of Barak Valley (old Cachar district, which has been divided into 3 districts

i.e. Cachar, Karimganj & Hailakandi). They are having well distributed hillocks, river

system and forests, varying habitats ranging from tropical and subtropical regions and

suitable climatic factors.Old Cachar district (presently Barak Valley) is one of the

richest orchid growing areas of our country (Hunter, 1982).But no systematic

taxonomic effort were made to inventorize the whole orchid flora of Southern Assam

(Barak Valley), except a few contributions i.e. Mazumdar et al, (2002), Bhattacharjee

et al, (2005, 2006, 2007 & 2009a, b, c). Deb Roy (2000) worked for his Ph.D. on the

Genetical variation studies of the five selected orchids of Cachar district of Assam.

46

Detailed study on the various aspects on orciiids of Southern Assam (Baralc Valley) is

lacking and therefore has been taken up in the present work.

For North Eastern Region of India, Arunachal Pradesh is the "Hot spot" of the

Orchid diversity.Study on the Orchid diversity of Arunachal Pradesh was initiated by

Dr. S. N. Hedge. He has intiated the Research work on Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh

in particular with the involvement of "Tippi Orchid Research Centre". He has made a

notable contribution towards the knowledge of various aspects like flora, cultivation,

trade & commercialization of Orchids from Arunachal Pradesh and has published a

number of papers in the National and international journals i.e. (1980, 1980a, 1983.

1981a, 1981b, 1984, 1987, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1990a, 1991,199 la, 1993, 1993a,

1994, 1995, 1995b, 1996,1996a, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001a, 2001b,200Ic, with Roa,

1982, 1982a, 1982b, 1982c, 1983,1983a, 1984b, 1984c, 1985a, 1985b, 1985d, 1985e,

with others 1988, 1989, 1992, 1997 & 2001).A.N. Rao, another orchidologist also

contributed excellent works, published a number of papers in National and

international journals i.e. 1977, 1983, 1986,1988, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 1990, 1991,

1991a, 199 lb, 1992,1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1994, 1994a, 1995, 1997,2001,2004,2004a

with others 1991c, 1991d, 2001a. A good number of new records and new species of

Orchids are described including Epipogium sessanum Hegde et Rao, Herminium

longilobatum Hegde et Rao, Clesisostoma tricallosum Hegde et Rao, Biermannia

jainiana Hegde et Nageswara Rao, Gastrodia arunachalensis Hegde et Rao,

Bulbophyllum sarcophyllum var. minor (King & Pantl.) Hegde et Rao, Eria lohitemis

Nageswara Rao, Haridasan & Hegde, Eria jengingensis Hegde and Porpax

Seidenfadenii Nageswara Rao. Hedge (1984) published a book entitled "Orchids of

Arunachal Pradesh" with detailed information regarding the orchids of Arunachal

Pradesh & their ex-situ & in-situ conservation. Rao & Deori (1980) described orchids

of West Kameng District while Deori et al., (2006) has reported Dendrobium

arunachalanse sp. nov.- a new species from the state.

Hooker (1890) described 49 species in 24 genera as occurring in Nagaland.

Hynniewta (1986) summarized his findings and reported 238 species and 4 varieties of

orchids belong to 59 genera from Nagaland. Clarke (1889) made a small collection of

orchids from Kohima while Phukan & Odyuo (2006) reported the new addition to

orchid f\ora-Cleiststoma duplicilobum (J. J. Sm.) Garay from Nagaland. Deb et al.

47

(2003, 2006) recorded six new additional orchid species with diversity from this state.

Deb et al., 2007) has reported Epipogium indicum Chowdhery - a new addition to

orchid flora of Nagaland."

Despite frequented by many pionner collectors like- Watt (1881-82), Clarke

(1952), Meebold (1906-1907), Kingdon-Ward (1952) who explored orchids from

Manipur. Mukherjee (1953) who explored Manipur along with Kingdon-Ward in his

last trip brought out an enumeration of orchids of Ukhurul district. Deb (1961) made

large collections during his long stint in Manipur as a teacher. Sathish Kumar made a

flash survey of Manipur in 1966 and made interesting collections including novelties

and new records. A total of 195 species in 64 genera has been reported from Manipur

by him.Mao (1999) reported 64 species of orchids belonging to 27 genera from

Senapati district and surrounding hills.

Deb (1983) reported 33 species of orchids in 22 genera from Tripura.

A large tract of the Meghalaya state was botanically explored by Hooker,

Thomson and many British naturalists in the 19th century, when it was part of

erstwhile Assam (Upper Assam). With the establishment of Eastern Circle of Botanical

Survey of India at Shillong collection activity was rejuvenated. Rao (1971) studied the

orchids of Khasia and Jaintia Hills. Trias pusilla- A new species of orchid from Khasi

& Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya. Kataki (1986) published the orchid flora of the State,

where 324 species were dscribed.Balakrishnan (1983) published the "Flora of Jowai"

wherein 145 species of orchids in 50 genera were described while Deori et al., (2006)

has recorded Dendrobium aurantiacum Reichb. f from Jowai (Jaintia hills).

Scientists of Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle made stray collections from

Mizoram. Singh et al, (1990) provided a conspectus of orchids of Mizoram.

Chawngthanlluanga (1996) published a book on the "Orchids of Mizoram, Vol-1".

Pioneering studies were done by Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), a great

botanist of all times, who visited Sikkim during 1848 -1849 and made elaborate notes

on the plant wealth, culture and tradition and collected seeds of all the promising

plants. He made a vast collection of plants including orchids which were later studied

and utilized for his "Flora of British India". Hooker reported many novelties from

Sikkim- Bulbophyllum kingie J. D. Hook., B. thomsonii J. D. Hook., Coelogyne

treutleri J. D. Hook.[now called Epigeneium treutleri (J.D.Hook.)Ormerod],

48

Habenaria pachycaulon J. D. Hook., Liparis gamblei J.D.Hook., Zeuxine longifolia

(Benth.) J. D. Hook., etc. Dr. George King & Robert Pantling's (1898) classic book

"Orchids of Sikkim Himalaya" depicts descriptions and illustrations of 448 species in

91 genera. This includes many new genera like Didiciea, Biermannia, Risleya and

several new species. The book is 112 years old, still the best available publication till

today. Prof Paulus Johannes Bruhl (1926) published a small guide to the orchids of

Sikkim. In this book, he proposed the genus Cleisocentron.KfiQX the publication of the

three important works, collection activities and studies on Sikkim orchids subsided by

J.C.White,W.W.Smith, G.H.Cave, K.Biswas and many others occasionally contributed

to our knowledge on Sikkim plants. Rao (1963) briefly mentioned a few species from

the state, while Mehra & Vij (1974) published an account of ecological adaptations

and distribution pattern of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayan orchids. National

Research Centre for Orchids (NRC) is located at Pakyong, East Sikkim. The main aim

of this Centre is collection, characterization, evalution, improvement through

systematic breeding, production of quality / commercial / varieties and hybrids of

superior qualities of orchids for National & International trade. Centre already

deposited 450 species belonging to 98 genera collected from the North Eastern Region,

Darjeeling district of West Bengal and others parts of India. Among the orchid traits

Cymbidium, Cattleya, Paphiopedilum, Dendrobium, Vanda, Phalaenopsis, Oncidium

are commercially important genera. In addition, hybrids of Cymbidium (60), Aranda

(2) and Vanda (1) have also been procured & maintained.

3.8. Asymbiotic seed germination {in vitro) through tissue culture technique:-

Presently many economically important and spectacular orchid species of the

N. E. India are facing the danger of extinction owing to lack of public awareness,

reckless destruction of habitat for other developmental programmes, over exploitation

and illicit trade of highly ornamental species. Chandha (1992) reported that the USA

alone imports nearly 50,000 plants of Lady's Slipper orchids annually; the number is

increasing every year and nearly 70% of these plants are illegally exported from

tropical countries like Thailand, India etc. Now most of the orchid species of the N. E.

India may be categorized as the 'threatened species'.Some of the states have

established orchid sanctuaries in the N. E. region e.g. Sikkim at Singtam and Deorali

and Arunachal Pradesh at Sessa and Dirang. Therefore, the urgent need for rapid

49

multiplication and conservation of orchid species of this region has been felt by the

plant scientists.

Orchid seeds are light (between 0.3-14 ^g, Burgeff, 1936), microscopic in

size and produce 1,300 - 4, 00, 000 seeds per capsule (Rolfe and Hurst, 1909).The

seeds contain an undifferentiated embryo possessing little or no stored food

materials.Only a very few of these (0.2% - 0.3%) non-endospermous seeds germinate

in nature (Singh, 1992).Bernard (1899) and Burgeff (1909) observed that mycorrhizal

association of fungus leads to germination of seeds in nature. But the requirements for

the germinating seeds can be met culturing them in nutrient solution (Knudson, 1922)

However, many seeds during maturation accumulate inhibitors of germination

(Burgeff, 1954; Withner, 1955). On the other hand, a very high percentage of seed

germination could be achieved asymbiotically in flasks or test tubes. Asymbiotic

techniques of orchid seed culture are usefial in tracing the seedling development from

the undifferentiated embryos.Seed culture can be applied not only to several artificial

and natural hybrids, but also to certain desirable species and forms, which are not

available in quantity. Seedling production in vitro and further development is also an

effective means of saving many orchid species from extinction. Using different

nutrients and cultural conditions, seed germination in large number of orchid species

has been accomplished. However, the methods and procedures for in vitro germination

of one species are not always applicable to others and might vary from one to other

(Arditti, 1982).Therefore, many investigators have used immature seeds from unripe

pods for germination in aseptic cuhure (Withner, 1955; Ito 1955; Nimoto and Sagawa,

1961; Rao and Avadhani, 1964; Teo and Teo, 1976; Mitra et ai, 1976; Vij et al.,

1981; Bopaiah and Jorapur, 1986; Vij etal, 1986).

Many orchid species were propagated in the N. E. India by using seeds.In North

Eastern Hill University, Sharma and Tandon (1986, 1987, 1990);Kumaria and Tandon

(1991,); Kumaria (1991); Sharma (1993) ; Sharma and Chauhan (1995). In Gauhati

University, Roy and Sarma (1992); Hazarika and Sarma (1995); Sarma (1998); Sarma and

Sarma (1997a, b); Kaur and Sarma (1995, 1996, 1997 a, b); Kalita and Sarma (1996);

Bazarbaruah and Sarma (1997) and in Assam Agricultural University Devi et al., (1990)

propagated many endangered and rare orchid species in N. E. India.

50