Chapter 24The Beginning of the Twentieth-Century Crisis:

War and Revolution

Europe in 1914

Europe in 1914

1. The Three Emperors' League, created by Bismarck in 1873 to counter any threat from France, consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The failure of Germany to support Russia at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 resulted in Russian withdrawal from the league. Fearful of an anti-German alliance featuring France, Russia, and Austria, Bismarck made a defensive alliance with Austria in 1879. Each would support the other in the event of an attack by Russia. In 1882 the alliance was enlarged with the addition of Italy which had conflicting ambitions with France over North Africa. This Triple Alliance provided protection against France. Although the alliance had only a five year term, it was regularly renewed.

2. The Three Emperors’ League was reconstituted in 1881 when Russia returned but collapsed in 1886 over the Austrian-Russian rivalry in the Balkans. In 1887 Germany and Russia pledged in the Reinsurance Treaty to remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third power.

3. In 1890 Emperor William II (1888-1918) dismissed Bismarck and personally took over direction of foreign policy. His decision to drop the Reinsurance Treaty led Russia to conclude a military alliance with France in 1894.

4. France signed the Entente Cordiale with Britain in 1904 out of fear that Britain and Germany had resolved their differences. This agreement had no military provisions and was intended to resolve the colonial differences of the two states. Britain and France were successful in achieving this.

5. Britain was somewhat encouraged by the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1905 since both left Russia weakened. Nevertheless, there was concern that Russia could drift back toward Germany. Thus, in 1907 Britain concluded an agreement with Russia similar to the one signed with France. Again the differences, especially those in Asia, were resolved.

6. Having settled their sources of friction, Britain, France, and Russia were tied together in an informal yet powerful association, the Triple Entente.

Questions:1. Why was it important for Bismarck to bring together Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary into an alliance?2. Why did Britain resolve its differences with France and Russia?3. Why did France need a European ally?

Europe in 1914

1. The Three Emperors' League, created by Bismarck in 1873 to counter any threat from France, consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The failure of Germany to support Russia at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 resulted in Russian withdrawal from the league. Fearful of an anti-German alliance featuring France, Russia, and Austria, Bismarck made a defensive alliance with Austria in 1879. Each would support the other in the event of an attack by Russia. In 1882 the alliance was enlarged with the addition of Italy which had conflicting ambitions with France over North Africa. This Triple Alliance provided protection against France. Although the alliance had only a five year term, it was regularly renewed.

2. The Three Emperors’ League was reconstituted in 1881 when Russia returned but collapsed in 1886 over the Austrian-Russian rivalry in the Balkans. In 1887 Germany and Russia pledged in the Reinsurance Treaty to remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third power.

3. In 1890 Emperor William II (1888-1918) dismissed Bismarck and personally took over direction of foreign policy. His decision to drop the Reinsurance Treaty led Russia to conclude a military alliance with France in 1894.

4. France signed the Entente Cordiale with Britain in 1904 out of fear that Britain and Germany had resolved their differences. This agreement had no military provisions and was intended to resolve the colonial differences of the two states. Britain and France were successful in achieving this.

5. Britain was somewhat encouraged by the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1905 since both left Russia weakened. Nevertheless, there was concern that Russia could drift back toward Germany. Thus, in 1907 Britain concluded an agreement with Russia similar to the one signed with France. Again the differences, especially those in Asia, were resolved.

6. Having settled their sources of friction, Britain, France, and Russia were tied together in an informal yet powerful association, the Triple Entente.

Questions:1. Why was it important for Bismarck to bring together Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary into an alliance?2. Why did Britain resolve its differences with France and Russia?3. Why did France need a European ally?

The Road to World War I

Nationalism and Internal DissentDiplomacy based on brinkmanshipSocialist labor movements create fear

MilitarismConscriptionInfluence of military leaders

The Outbreak of War: Summer of 1914SerbiaAssassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand andSophia, June 28, 1914Russian mobilizationSchlieffen Plan

World War I, 1914-1918

World War I, 1914-1918

Facing a two front war in which Austria was to hold off Russia, it was necessary that the 1905 Schlieffen Plan adopted by Germany be successful. Since the plan called for troop movement through neutral Belgium to attack Paris, it was essential that German troops be permitted to cross. When Belgium refused, Germany invaded thereby invoking an 1839 treaty with Britain that guaranteed Belgian neutrality. Stiff resistance, however, slowed the German attack. French and British forces staged an orderly retreat to about twenty miles outside of Paris at the Marne River where they struck on September 6, 1914, at a gap in the German lines. After four days the Germans fell back.

2. Stalemate followed the battle of the Marne as each side began to dig trenches to protect itself. By November there was an unbroken line of parallel trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The unconventional trench warfare caught the generals on both sides unprepared since they were trained for wars of movement and maneuver. Without imagination, their only plan was to throw masses of men against enemy lines to force a breakthrough. The tactic resulted in slaughter. In 1916, the Germans initiated a campaign to capture the French fortress of Verdun 125 miles east of Paris. After ten months, the losses totaled 700,000 men for both sides. To take pressure off Verdun, in July the British launched an attack along the Somme River. Fighting through October, the battle of the Somme cost British and French forces 600,000 soldiers to gain 125 square miles. The German losses were 500,000.

3. When hostilities began, Russia pushed into eastern Germany and Austria but was stopped at Tannenberg in August 1914 where an entire 1. Russian army was captured. At Masurian Lakes two weeks later Russia suffered another defeat and heavy losses. A third failed offensive against the Austrians in June 1916 featured a German counter-offensive resulting in Russian losses of one million men. Lenin's desire to pull Russia out of the war led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed March 3, 1918. By its terms Poland, Finland, and the Baltic states were placed under the control of Austria and Germany. The Ukraine became independent. To Germany's ally Turkey was ceded part of the Transcaucasia. The losses amounted to 26 percent of Russia's total population, 27 percent of its arable land, 26 percent of the railway system, 33 percent of its manufacturing industries, 73 percent of the iron industry, and 75 percent of Russia's coal fields. (G. Vernadsky in Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, third ed., p. 529)

4. Germany began a spring offensive in March 1918 and pushed within thirty-five miles of Paris but were stopped in July in the second battle on the Marne. An Allied counter-offensive now pressed on into Germany. On November 9, 1918, Emperor William II abdicated.

Question: 1. How important was the Russian failure to defeat the Germans?

World War I, 1914-1918

Facing a two front war in which Austria was to hold off Russia, it was necessary that the 1905 Schlieffen Plan adopted by Germany be successful. Since the plan called for troop movement through neutral Belgium to attack Paris, it was essential that German troops be permitted to cross. When Belgium refused, Germany invaded thereby invoking an 1839 treaty with Britain that guaranteed Belgian neutrality. Stiff resistance, however, slowed the German attack. French and British forces staged an orderly retreat to about twenty miles outside of Paris at the Marne River where they struck on September 6, 1914, at a gap in the German lines. After four days the Germans fell back.

2. Stalemate followed the battle of the Marne as each side began to dig trenches to protect itself. By November there was an unbroken line of parallel trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland. The unconventional trench warfare caught the generals on both sides unprepared since they were trained for wars of movement and maneuver. Without imagination, their only plan was to throw masses of men against enemy lines to force a breakthrough. The tactic resulted in slaughter. In 1916, the Germans initiated a campaign to capture the French fortress of Verdun 125 miles east of Paris. After ten months, the losses totaled 700,000 men for both sides. To take pressure off Verdun, in July the British launched an attack along the Somme River. Fighting through October, the battle of the Somme cost British and French forces 600,000 soldiers to gain 125 square miles. The German losses were 500,000.

3. When hostilities began, Russia pushed into eastern Germany and Austria but was stopped at Tannenberg in August 1914 where an entire 1. Russian army was captured. At Masurian Lakes two weeks later Russia suffered another defeat and heavy losses. A third failed offensive against the Austrians in June 1916 featured a German counter-offensive resulting in Russian losses of one million men. Lenin's desire to pull Russia out of the war led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed March 3, 1918. By its terms Poland, Finland, and the Baltic states were placed under the control of Austria and Germany. The Ukraine became independent. To Germany's ally Turkey was ceded part of the Transcaucasia. The losses amounted to 26 percent of Russia's total population, 27 percent of its arable land, 26 percent of the railway system, 33 percent of its manufacturing industries, 73 percent of the iron industry, and 75 percent of Russia's coal fields. (G. Vernadsky in Nicholas V. Riasanovsky, A History of Russia, third ed., p. 529)

4. Germany began a spring offensive in March 1918 and pushed within thirty-five miles of Paris but were stopped in July in the second battle on the Marne. An Allied counter-offensive now pressed on into Germany. On November 9, 1918, Emperor William II abdicated.

Question: 1. How important was the Russian failure to defeat the Germans?

The Great War

Illusions and Stalemate, 1914-1915 Failure of the Schlieffen Plan

First Battle of the Marne, September 6-10, 1914 Russian failures

Battle of Tannenberg, August 30, 1914Battle of Masurian Lakes, September 15, 1914Driven out of Galicia and Serbia

The Great Slaughter, 1916-1917Trench warfareBattle of Verdun, 1916, 700,000 killed

Widening the WarBattle of Gallipoli, April 1915Italy enters the war, May 1915, against Austria-

HungaryBulgaria enters the war, September 1915, on the side

of the Central PowersMiddle East

Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935Sinking of the Lusitania, May 7, 1915United States enters the war, April 6, 1917Bolshevik Revolution, 1917

The Home Front: The Impact of Total War Extension of government power

PoliticsEconomicsInternal dissentPropagandaNew roles for women

The Last Year of the War Last German offensive, March 21-July 18, 1918 Allied counterattack, Second Battle of the Marne, July 18,

1918 William II abdicated, November 9, 1918 Armistice, November 11, 1918

Territorial Changes in Europeand the Middle East after World War I

Territorial Changes in Europe and the Middle East after World War I

1. France, seeking lasting security, wanted to create a buffer state between itself and Germany in the Rhineland. This was opposed by Woodrow Wilson and David LLoyd George who believed it would be a violation of the principle of national self-determination. The French gave up the demand in return for a defensive alliance with Britain and the United States. Nevertheless, France did gain the return of Alsace and Lorraine as was specified in point eight of the Fourteen Points. Also, German land west of the Rhine River (the Rhineland) was to be demilitarized to serve as a barrier between France and Germany.

2. Northern Schleswig was surrendered to Denmark.

3. To compensate for German destruction of France's coal resources during the war, the coal mines of the rich Saar Basin were ceded to France to be exploited for fifteen years (after which the German government could buy them back). The region was placed under the administration of the League of Nations until 1935 at which time a plebiscite was to be held to determine whether the area was to remain under the League, be returned to Germany, or be awarded to France.

4. Most of the German territories of Posen and West Prussia were surrendered to independent Poland. This would give the Poles access to Danzig (modern Gdansk) on the Baltic Sea by a corridor which would cut through Germany, separating East Prussia from the rest of the German states. Danzig was placed under the administration of the League.

5. The Treaty of St. Germain (1919), which settled the war with Austria, forced several concessions. Austria had to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. All of the states were ceded parts of Austria. To Italy, Austria had to surrender Trieste, the south Tyrol, and the Istrian Peninsula.

6. The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) settled the war with Bulgaria and it had to cede lands to Romania, Yugoslavia, and Greece. The Treaty of Trianon Palace (1920) required Hungary as a former belligerent to surrender Slovakia to Czechoslovakia, Transylvania to Romania, and Croatia-Slovenia to Yugoslavia. The Treaty of Sevres (1920) required among other things for Turkey to give up European territory to Greece. This was abrogated in 1922 when Turkish nationalists under Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) seized the lands.

7. By 1922 the Bolsheviks had ended the civil war in Russia and had stabilized their frontier boundaries by making cessions of Russian territory to Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and Romania. Significantly, the peace settlement made Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania independent.

8. The disappearance of the old Ottoman Empire resulted in Palestine and Iraq being placed under the control of Britain while Syria and Lebanon were turned over to the French as mandates under the League of Nations.

Questions:1. How was the settlement of 1919 unsatisfactory?2. What could be the possible implications of ethnic Germans being placed under newly created governments, thus becoming minorities?

Territorial Changes in Europe and the Middle East after World War I

1. France, seeking lasting security, wanted to create a buffer state between itself and Germany in the Rhineland. This was opposed by Woodrow Wilson and David LLoyd George who believed it would be a violation of the principle of national self-determination. The French gave up the demand in return for a defensive alliance with Britain and the United States. Nevertheless, France did gain the return of Alsace and Lorraine as was specified in point eight of the Fourteen Points. Also, German land west of the Rhine River (the Rhineland) was to be demilitarized to serve as a barrier between France and Germany.

2. Northern Schleswig was surrendered to Denmark.

3. To compensate for German destruction of France's coal resources during the war, the coal mines of the rich Saar Basin were ceded to France to be exploited for fifteen years (after which the German government could buy them back). The region was placed under the administration of the League of Nations until 1935 at which time a plebiscite was to be held to determine whether the area was to remain under the League, be returned to Germany, or be awarded to France.

4. Most of the German territories of Posen and West Prussia were surrendered to independent Poland. This would give the Poles access to Danzig (modern Gdansk) on the Baltic Sea by a corridor which would cut through Germany, separating East Prussia from the rest of the German states. Danzig was placed under the administration of the League.

5. The Treaty of St. Germain (1919), which settled the war with Austria, forced several concessions. Austria had to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. All of the states were ceded parts of Austria. To Italy, Austria had to surrender Trieste, the south Tyrol, and the Istrian Peninsula.

6. The Treaty of Neuilly (1919) settled the war with Bulgaria and it had to cede lands to Romania, Yugoslavia, and Greece. The Treaty of Trianon Palace (1920) required Hungary as a former belligerent to surrender Slovakia to Czechoslovakia, Transylvania to Romania, and Croatia-Slovenia to Yugoslavia. The Treaty of Sevres (1920) required among other things for Turkey to give up European territory to Greece. This was abrogated in 1922 when Turkish nationalists under Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) seized the lands.

7. By 1922 the Bolsheviks had ended the civil war in Russia and had stabilized their frontier boundaries by making cessions of Russian territory to Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, and Romania. Significantly, the peace settlement made Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania independent.

8. The disappearance of the old Ottoman Empire resulted in Palestine and Iraq being placed under the control of Britain while Syria and Lebanon were turned over to the French as mandates under the League of Nations.

Questions:1. How was the settlement of 1919 unsatisfactory?2. What could be the possible implications of ethnic Germans being placed under newly created governments, thus becoming minorities?

The Peace Settlement Palace of Versailles, January 1919, 27 Allied nations Woodrow Wilson, Fourteen Points Georges Clemenceau of France concerned with his

nations security Lloyd George determined to punish Germany Five separate treaties, the most important being the

Treaty of Versailles with Germany Territorial changes in Europe Dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire

Mandates United States Senate rejects the Versailles Peace Treaty

Uncertain Peace and the Search for Stability Weaknesses of the League of Nations Allied Reparations Commission, April 1921 French occupation of the Ruhr valley Liberal-socialist governments of Britain and France Dawes Plan, August 1924 Treaty of Locarno, 1925 Kellogg-Briand pact, 1926 Disarmament

The Great Depression Problems in domestic economies International financial crisis Crash of the American stock market, October 1929 Reaction to economic decline

United States New Deal

Britain John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946)

France Popular Front

Germany Weimar Republic

The Russian Revolution Revolution of 1905

Tsar Nicholas II Actions in Petrograd, March 1917

Women Provisional Government

Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970) Bolsheviks

V.I. Lenin (1870-1824)Collapse of Provisional Government, November 6-7,

1917 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 3, 1918

Civil war, 1918-1921Bolshevik army

Leon TrotskyWhite armyRed Terror

New Economic Policy (NEP)Modified capitalismDeath of Lenin, 1924

Joseph Stalin (1879-1953)