chapter 2 literature review-i solar powered reverse...

Literature review- I

Hiren D. Raval 15 PhD Thesis

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW-I

Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis and Thermal

Energy Recovery from Photovoltaic Panel

2.1 Introduction

There are about 26 countries that lack access to pure water resources to sustain economic

and agricultural developments, and about one billion people have been deprived of pure

drinking water. Middle East, India are Africa are among those regions where fresh water

scarcity has severely affected agricultural capability and public life. Moreover, the demand

for pure water will dramatically increases according to the world statistics forecasting 40–

50% population growth over the next 50 years [1, 2].

Many researchers have installed experimental facilities to power reverse osmosis plants

with solar photovoltaic technology. However, the cost of producing fresh water from

seawater by such a process is very high- reported to be 6.52 $/cubic meter of fresh water

over the 20- year life time of the equipment [3]. In comparison, the cost of producing fresh

water from seawater by conventional Reverse Osmosis had been close to 0.5 $/ Cubic

meter [1]. A prototype photovoltaic-powered reverse-osmosis system without batteries has

been reported where the rate of production of fresh water varies throughout the day

depending on the solar insolation. The system, designed to operate from seawater and a

Clark pump brine-stream energy recovery mechanism achieved a specific energy

consumption of less than 4 kWh/m3 over a wide range of operation [4].



Many researchers attempted to study renewable energy powered desalination. The solar

thermal-powered reverse osmosis desalination system was coupled to a solar power cycle

based on a Rankine cycle with toluene, hexamethyl disiloxane and octamethyl

cyclotetrasiloxane as working fluids and two different models of parabolic trough

collectors [5]. A solar-powered trans-critical CO2 (carbon dioxide) power cycle for reverse

osmosis desalination based on the recovery of cryogenic energy of LNG (liquefied natural

gas) has been studied [6]. The findings showed that the CO2 turbine inlet pressure reach an

optimal value and the daily exergy efficiency decreased with increase in condenser

temperature, and increased with an increase in mass flow rate of oil and natural gas turbine

inlet pressure.

A hybrid wind/solar powered desalination system based on reverse osmosis has been

modelled and simulated [7]. A solar photovoltaic and solar thermal powered reverse

osmosis (RO) desalination plant has been constructed and optimized for brackish water

desalination [8]. Desalination of brackish water was evaluated as a viable option to cope

with water scarcity and deficit in Jordan [9]. A prototype photovoltaic-powered reverse-

osmosis system has been constructed at CREST, Loughborough, UK. It has been attempted

to optimize the desalination plant of seawater by a PV powered Reverse Osmosis to run for

8 hours during summer and 7 hours during winter while, the plant operation was adjusted

to changing energy production of PV generator. [10]. The novel solar powered direct

osmosis desalination process has been demonstrated [11]. The life cycle Greenhouse Gas

(GHG) emissions of a Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant has been

assessed and found that GHG emissions reduction of ∼90% can be achieved by opting for

renewable energy [12].

Thus, many researchers attempted to study solar powered reverse osmosis and its

application for seawater and brackish water desalination. However, the potential of tapping

thermal energy from solar photovoltaic panel is attractive and can be coupled with

desalination. This doctoral thesis demonstrates the improvement in overall energy

efficiency by this approach.

2.2 Solar powered desalination systems: Looking at the wide availability and

modular, scalable nature, solar energy is one of the most appropriate sources of energy for



desalting water in many parts of the world. The only major problem with solar energy is it

scattered form and consequent requirement of the large surface area to produce the sizable

amount of power.

Nature desalinates water using solar thermal energy as the water from sea gets evaporated

into clouds and clouds again precipitates back into water. With the same principle, solar

stills have been designed like small tubs fitted to life boats that can convert seawater into

drinkable water since world-war-II. Solar heat makes the feed water evaporate. The vapour

is condensed on the glazed surface and collected in a reservoir, using appropriate ducts.

The system, though enormously simple could not be applied on a large scale due to the

enormous surface requirement, high initial investment and vulnerability to adverse

meteorological conditions.

Solar stills are attractive for domestic purposes, especially in the areas having no access to

the electric grid. An improved version of solar still with enhanced efficiency needs more

complex design and constructional/operational standards. Generally, such systems are of

very low capacity.

2.2.1 Solar powered reverse osmosis

Some countries are endowed with very good solar radiation intensity. Solar powered

reverse osmosis can become a very pragmatic solution in these countries. Table 2.1

indicates the annual horizontal solar energy available and relative peak value in the

countries with very high solar insolation [13].

TABLE 2.1: Horizontal solar energy available and peak radiation value in different

countries

Country

Annual solar energy

(KWH/m2)

Peak radiation (W/m2)

Libya 2010 1040

Syria 1910 1040

Malta 1900 1040

Egypt 2050 1030

Jordan 2050 1020

Israel 1930 1010



Tunisia 1750 980

Morocco 1860 960

Algeria 1840 950

Yemen 2170 940

Saudi Arabia 2160 940

Oman 2140 930

United Arab Emirates 1980 910

India 1883 900

Powering the reverse osmosis by solar energy is a promising area of development with a

potential to significantly reduce the dependence on fossil fuel and improve its

sustainability by reducing its operational cost. Despite a steady decline in the power

consumption of pressure-driven membrane processes, power consumption is still a major

cost-component of the water produced by Reverse Osmosis [14].

Several solar powered reverse osmosis plants have been installed to test the technical

feasibility of the process since late 1970s [15]. The research was conducted majorly in the

countries with ample solar radiation intensity i.e. Middle-east, North Africa, south Europe

and Australia.

2.2.2 Classification of solar powered RO:

Depending on the type of technology used in the solar sub-unit, three principal

technological solutions were investigated for solar powered RO membrane desalination:

1. Solar thermal powered RO

2. Photovoltaic powered reverse osmosis (PV-RO)

3. Hybrid solar desalination where power from one or more additional sources is

utilized.

1. Solar thermal powered RO: Solar thermal collectors have the working fluid

that absorbs solar radiation- e.g. oil, water, refrigerant transfers thermal energy

to a thermodynamic cycle for the generation of the mechanical or electrical

power required by the reverse osmosis. The recent interest in concentrating

solar power can be linked to solar thermal powered RO.



Experimental units used collectors (non-concentrating) e.g. flat plate collectors,

solar ponds etc. Solar ponds are water bodies in which the bottom water layer

can store thermal energy and temperature may reach upto 85oC [16]. Mixing

between bottom and top layer of the pond prevents salinity gradient.

Experimental results on the coupling of solar ponds with RO desalination were

reported [17].

Flat plate collectors comprises of a transparent flat front plate, an absorbing rear

plate and an insulating zone (with the channels in which the heating fluid

flows), and they can reach temperatures of upto 90oC [18]. RO desalination

devices were constructed in Egypt and France to conduct experiments [19].

As compared to non-concentrating collectors, concentrating devices function at

higher conversion efficiencies because they operate at higher working

temperatures with the use of reflecting surfaces to focus the incoming solar

radiation on a receiver. The receiver absorbs the thermal radiation with

minimum heat losses and transfers it to working fluid. Four mainstream

concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies are:

1. Linear Fresnel reflector

2. Parabolic trough collector

3. Parabolic dish system

4. Solar power tower

Figure 2.1 shows the schematic presentation of all 4 concentrated solar power

technologies.



FIGURE 2.1: Concentrated solar power systems

Recently, concentrated solar thermoelectric was also described by Zhang et. al

[20]. Parabolic trough collector has been widely implemented concentrated

solar power technology.



TABLE 2.2: Solar thermal driven Reverse Osmosis desalination systems

System

(Country)

Specific

energy

consumptio

n

KWH/m3

Feed

Type

Collector

Type

Pump

Drive

Production

m3/day

Year Source

Cadarache

France

0.7 BW Flat plate Mechanical 15 1978 21

El Hamrawein

Egypt

1.0 BW Flate

Plate

Mechanical 45 1981 22

El Paso, Los

Banos USA

1.0, 1.0 BW,

BW

Solar pond Mechanical 45, 45 1981,

1987

23

VARI-RO

USA

2.4, 2.1, 2.1 SW Dish

stirling,

Parabolic

trough,

Thermal

dish

Electrical,

mechanical,

mechanical

0.93, 0.85,

1.19

1999 24

Univ. of Athens

Greece

2.5 SW Evacuated

tube

Mechanical 2.8 2005 25

Univ. de La

Laguna

Spain

1.8 SW Parabolic

trough

Mechanical 1346 2007 26

BW: Brackish water, SW: Sea water

The table 2.2 shows that many researchers have attempted to experiments with solar

powered reverse osmosis although the capacities of plants are small. The specific energy

consumption ranges from 0.7 to 1 KWH per cubic meter for brackish water reverse

osmosis and 1.8 to 2.4 KWH per cubic meter for seawater reverse osmosis. The collector

type also varies widely i.e. flat plate, solar pond, dish stirling, thermal dish, evacuated tube

and parabolic trough.



2. Photovoltaic powered Reverse Osmosis:

Photovoltaic powered reverse osmosis is more widely studied and employed in practice

where, the solar-driven RO desalination systems is powered by arrays of photovoltaic (PV)

modules. Its wide use is probably because of robustness of photovoltaic technology.

Photovoltaic is the fastest growing technology in solar energy area. In PV–RO

desalination, the direct current (DC) electrical energy generated in the solar cells by silicon

or other semi-conductors is used directly.

Despite the R & D efforts and improvements of recent years, the conversion efficiencies of

photovoltaic modules remain low, rarely exceeding 16% [27]. In addition to such low

efficiencies, the lower retail price of photovoltaic modules make it a key factor in the

economic feasibility of PV–RO desalination [28].

The table 2.3 and 2.4 demonstrates the key data on PV powered seawater and brackish

water RO plants across the world.

TABLE 2.3 Photovoltaic powered Seawater RO membrane systems

Location

and Country

Feed TDS

(mg/l)

Pump

Drive

Production

m3/day

Year PV

Capacity

Cost

US$/m3

Source

Jeddah

Saudi Arabia

42800 DC 3.22 1981 8 6.5 29

Vancouver

Canada

33000 DC 0.86 1983 0.48 9.0 30

Doha

Qatar

35000 AC 1.45 1984 11.2 3 31

University of

Bahrain

35000 DC 0.2 1994 0.11 2.8 32

Chbeika

Centre Mar

40000 AC 12 1998 26.3 35.9 33

Pozo

Izquierdo

35500 AC 1.24 2000 4.8 9.6 34, 35



ESP

Massawa

ERI

40000 AC 3.9 2002 2.4 10.6 36, 37

Chania

Crete Greece

40000 AC 12 2004 31.2 8.3 38

Agri

University

Athens

Greece

30000 DC 0.35 2006 0.85 9.8 39

Abudhabi

UAE

45000 AC 20 2008 11.25 7.3 40

TABLE 2.4: Photovoltaic powered Brackish water reverse osmosis membrane

systems

Location and

Country

PV

Capacity

Feed

TDS

(mg/l)

Pump

Drive

Production

m3/day

Cost

(US$/m3)

Year Source

Concepcion del

oro

2.5 3000 DC 0.71 12.8 1978 41

Giza Egypt 7.0 1600 AC 6.0 11.6 1980 42

El Hamrawein

Egypt

19.84 4400 AC 53 11.6 1986 43

Fredericksted

Virginia

19.84 4400 AC 75.7 11.6 1986 44

Gillen Bore

Australia

4.16 1600 AC 1.2 11.6 1996 45

Heelat Ar rakah

Oman

3.25 1010 AC 5.0 6.5 1999 46

Coite Pedreiras 1.1 1200 DC/AC 6.0 12.8 2000 47



Brazil

White cliffs

Australia

0.26 3500 DC 0.06 9.0 2003 48

Nicosia Cyprus 10 3480 AC 50.4 2.3 2005 49

Baja California 25 4000 AC 11.5 9.8 2005 50

Aqaba

Jordan

16.8 4000 AC 58 9.8 2005 51

Pine Hill

Australia

0.6 5300 DC 1.1 3.7 2008 52

As shown in tables above, PV-RO technology has been implanted for both seawater and

brackish water reverse osmosis. Although, many plants have been installed, there is no

standard design approach e.g. battery storage, energy inverters and other features are quite

open.

The major limitation in using PV technology for desalination of water is the high cost of

PV modules. However, the cost-decline in PV owing to the research in the area will make

PV powered RO more prominent as compared to its other renewable energy counterparts.

The hybrid systems with photovoltaic panel cooling combines the solar thermal energy

capture with solar photovoltaic power generation and such systems can operate with higher

concentration i.e. reflectors as the cooling system is in place.

2.3 General design approaches

General design approaches are shown below:

2.3.1 Pre-treatment unit: Conventional RO pre-treatment includes sand filter, active

carbon filter and cartridge filter. Sand filter and active carbon filter may be combined as

dual media filter for process intensification. The robust pretreatment unit is required to

ensure that no suspended solids enter reverse osmosis membrane element and no active

chlorine pass through the reverse osmosis membrane element which may destroy the

polyamide membrane. Active carbon filter takes care of removal of odor and free chlorine



if present in water. Ultrafiltration (UF) may also be employed as pretreatment to Reverse

osmosis [53].

UF pretreatment involves higher initial cost as compare to conventional pre-treatment.

However, it removes micro-organisms efficiently and delivers higher quality feed water to

reverse osmosis. Thus, it may reduce RO membrane cleaning and replacement costs.

Chemical pre-treatment with anti-scalants cab be implemented to reduce the risk of

membrane surface scaling or the plant may operate at low recovery rates to prolong

membrane viability [54].

2.3.2 Solar sub unit (PV modules): Multi-crystalline and mono-crystalline PV cells are

widely used. Module orientation e.g. fixed or adjustable has been considered as the

important factor in determining electrical power output. Solar tracking of PV modules can

increase the overall power output. Alawaji et al. estimated that tilt angle variation

utilization can increase the permeate flow from 15 to 17 m3/day [55].

The higher initial investment cost to install the tracking system limits its application.

Maximum power tracker circuits or similar optimizers are generally installed to maintain

system operation that achieves maximum power while maintaining the high efficiency

under conditions of low irradiance.

2.3.3 Pumping unit: The pumps that convey feed water from ground water-well or

seawater intake to RO pre-treatment may be powered either by the arrays of PV module or

any other power source. Solar pumps have been considered more reliable for application in

remote locations.

2.3.4 High pressure pump and motor: Positive displacement pumps are used because of

their higher energy efficiencies at low flow rate as compared to centrifugal pumps.

Progressive cavity pumps, rotary positive displacement pumps, reciprocating piston pumps

and diaphragm pumps have been used [56].



A reciprocating pump named as Clark pump was specifically developed for energy

recovery in small reverse osmosis systems, used in several PV-RO applications in

combination with reciprocating plunger pumps [57]. Pump motors are powered by direct

current or alternating current.

Specific energy consumption as low as 1.4 KWH/m3 was reported for rotary vane pump,

Dankoff solar pump, progressive cavity pumps and custom designed mono-pumps for

influent TDS ranging 2000 - 5000 mg/l [52, 58].

2.3.5 Reverse Osmosis membrane: Spiral wound, thin film composite RO membranes are

the standard choice for PV-RO desalination systems. The common design feature was

single pass, where the feed water is passed only once through the membrane system.

Concentrate recirculation was adopted in some cases to increase the recovery [45, 48, 55].

They are generally designed to operate at low pressure in order to achieve higher energy

efficiencies. Nanofiltration membrane was suggested as a cost effective solution in some

conditions as it operates at lower pressure [48]. The limitation of nano-filtration is it can

handle only a limited total dissolved solids concentration in water.

In addition to the fundamental components of PV-RO plant, some other elements

pertaining to solar energy utilization are also important.

2.3.6 AC/DC inverter: Desalination plants that use AC induction motors for high pressure

pumps require inverters to convert DC current produced by PV panel into AC current. The

application of DC motors eliminates the need of inverter but generally involves a higher

initial investment. Systems with DC motors are more reliable compared to systems with

inverters, whose failures are related to inverter overheating [33].

2.3.7 Electrical storage: Batteries can be included in the system to balance the electrical

output of the PV module during day time and facilitate the extended operation during night

time and overcast days. Although electrical storage enables steady plant operation and may

increase the overall productivity, it entails the series of drawbacks:

1. Installation and replacement add significantly to the investment cost of the plant

2. Batteries imply additional losses of electricity and reduce system efficiency

3. When all auxiliary components such as wiring and charge controller are considered,

the inclusion of battery makes the system more complicated



4. The absence of careful maintenance reduces the battery life

Battery less PV-RO systems are based on the idea that water storage is often more

efficient and cost effective as compared to electricity storage. Such systems operate

either at fixed or variable capacity. In the fixed capacity systems, the desalination

plant operates only for the fixed time duration in the day particularly when the

intensity of solar radiation is the highest.

2.4 Challenges for solar powered reverse osmosis

The challenges for renewable energy powered desalination include:

1. Higher capital investment as compared to conventional electricity powered

desalination plant

2. Lower reliability in terms of availability

3. Larger footprint of the plant

If the energy consumption of reverse osmosis can be reduced, all of the above challenges

can be addressed e.g. if the energy requirement is decreased, the capital cost of the

renewable energy powered RO will decline.

2.5 Making renewable energy powered desalination attractive

Life cycle green-house gas emission of a coal based thermal power plant is 1001 g CO2/

KWH whereas the same for solar PV is 46 g CO2/KWH [59]. Considering the specific

power consumption of 4 KWH per cubic meter of water produced and approximately 10%

of global desalination capacity being converted to solar powered desalination i.e. 7840

million liters per day [60], close to 29,950 tons of CO2 will be saved from getting emitted

in world’s environment, each day. This justifies the research on renewable energy powered

desalination.

Renewable energy powered desalination seems very attractive on prima facie; however, the

high capital cost of renewable energy generation and lower reliability in terms of

consistency are the major impediments in its implementation. To make the renewable

energy powered desalination attractive, the energy requirement for desalination should be

minimized and the options of using low grade energy i.e. waste heat can be explored.



The options for reducing the power consumption by reverse osmosis have been explored

world over. There has been thrust on developing the technology of nano-composite

membrane that reduces the energy consumption by imparting nano-material in the barrier

layer of TFC membrane. There has also been thrust in perfecting the technology of

recovering the energy from the concentrate stream by using different types of energy

recovery devices e.g. pressure exchangers. However, there is a little focus on very easy

option of reducing the energy consumption by increasing the feed water temperature. The

feed water temperature can be increased by any low grade heat source. Increased

temperature of feed water improves the product water flow rate to a substantial extent with

slight decline membrane selectivity. This will be particularly useful for brackish water

reverse osmosis where the re-mineralization of product water can be avoided by slightly

lower selectivity of the membrane and improved flow rate results in decrease of energy

consumption to a greater extent. The synergy can be achieved when the high flux

membrane is used with high temperature feed water to significantly reduce the power

consumption.

The specific energy consumption can be reduced by the following methods from the first

principle [61].

1. Increasing ϒ = AtotalLp∆πo/Qf ………………………..(2.1)

2. Increasing number of stages

3. Using energy recovery device

In equation (2.1), hydraulic permeability is given by,

Lp = CLP • exp (-EaLP

/RT) [62] ……………………… (2.2)

Where Lp = hydraulic permeability

CLP = Constant

EaLP

= Activation energy represents the per mole difference in enthalpy of a

molecule which is necessary to overcome the transport barriers during its passage

across the membrane

T = Temperature

Substituting (2.2) in (2.1)

ϒ = Atotal CLP • exp (-EaLP

/RT) ∆πo / Qf …….. (2.3)



Therefore, T has to increase for increasing ϒ. Hydraulic permeability increases at higher

temperature which in turn results in improved ϒ. Similarly, increasing number of stages

and using energy recovery devices will also reduce the specific energy consumption for

reverse osmosis.

It is reported that low-grade thermal energy can be capitalized to power desalination

processes by coupling an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) with seawater reverse osmosis

(RO) to decrease the environmental impact as well as cost associated with the use

conventional sources [63].

2.5.1 Membrane modification

The necessity to increase the permeability of reverse osmosis membrane has been

recognized and many researchers have attempted to make modification in polyamide layer

either by surface modification or by imparting nanomaterial for better water flux and lower

fouling. They have been discussed in detail in chapter 3.

2.5.2 Efforts to increase the photovoltaic efficiency by cooling

Low efficiency of 5-17% is the major impediment to solar photovoltaic’ s wide popularity

as the sustainable source of renewable energy. More than 80% of the solar radiation

absorbed by photovoltaic panel gets converted to waste heat that cannot be utilized and

decreases the efficiency further on the other hand. This heat is generated in two ways:

Firstly, the power corresponding to VI= I 2R, when the current I pass through resistance R

of the solar cell. Secondly, the thermal energy that manifests the variation in the electrical

energy generated out of the electron–hole pairs and absorbed photons. Cell temperature is

very important parameter for performance of PV cells in a panel [64, 65]. If the

temperature of solar PV panel increases, its efficiency to convert solar radiation into

electric current decreases. This is because of negative temperature co-efficient of

photovoltaic cell with temperature. Temperature dependence of photovoltaic performance

and energy conversion in solar PV panels are investigated by many researchers. Thus, the

solar photovoltaic panel produces more thermal energy than the electrical energy.

Tonui and Tripanagnostopoulos attempted cooling of solar PV panel by air for

performance improvement of solar PV/T collector with natural flow operation. The study

showed that the fins improve efficiency of heat transfer by air cooling [66].



It is demonstrated that the desiccant cooling system was relevant to hot and humid climate.

The system equipped with single-glazed standard air and hybrid photovoltaic thermal

collector has been studied [67]. A system where liquid coolant with the heat exchanger

system housed within the photovoltaic module to exclude the unwanted solar radiation was

studied. It was found that it can control the temperature and avoid overheating of the cells

[68]. It is demonstrated that the dielectric liquid can control the cell temperature when it is

exposed on both sides of the cell under concentrated solar radiation [69]. It is studied that a

profile can be made that can ensure the equal degree of illumination of solar cells [70].

It is demonstrated that liquid immersion cooling can eliminate the thermal resistance of

back side cooling to improve cell performance [71]. Tanaka showed that the use of a gel

layer or shallow liquid layer surrounding solar cells can trap the radiation and also wet the

cell surface to improve its efficiency [72-74]. Carcangiu and co-workers patented an

immersed liquid photovoltaic panel where the panel with a liquid-tight chamber was used

to house solar cells immersed in a circulating poly-dimethylsilicone liquid [75].

Ignacio and co-workers showed that the curved, optically transparent covers can enhance

the concentrating effect of the immersion dielectric liquid [76]. Falbel patented a

surrounding reflective surface for a solar cell that reflects the light rays not absorbed by the

solar cell back [77]. The solid refractive medium was also attempted [78]. The solar

photovoltaic panel were immersed in water with super-concentrators having outwardly

disposed liquid imaging lenses [79].

Liquid immersion offers several advantages e.g. the direct contact between cells and their

surrounding liquid decreases the thermal resistance, moreover; the optical and surface

wetting ensures that dirt is not deposited over the panel and it is especially suited for cells

with high concentration of solar radiation. Eliminating the thermal resistance of the contact

wall between solar cell and fluid, the cells can be effectively cooled down for a desirable

sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency [80].

Leaf structures of plants have developed a series of adaptations, which allow them to limit

their temperature to 40 – 45˚C in full sunlight, even if water evaporation is suppressed.

This is accomplished by several strategies such as limitation of leaf size, optimization of

aerodynamics in wind, limitation of absorbed solar energy only to the useful fraction of

radiation and by efficient thermal emission. An attempt to mimic the same was done to



understand how they control temperature when exposed to sun [81]. Air cooling of

photovoltaic panel with computational fluid dynamics modelling has been attempted [82].

It has been reported that the thin film of water above the solar photovoltaic panel can

improve the photovoltaic panel performance. However, the comparison with the modelled

data is missing and the energy efficiency derived out of the system has not been worked

out [83]. Although the researcher attempted to improve the PV panel efficiency by direct

cooling with water; the application of recovered energy has not been investigated [84].

The heat transfer solution to analyse the solar photovoltaic panel heat transfer is shown in

Appendix-I.

2.6 Concluding remarks

Solar powered reverse osmosis has been the most practiced desalination among its other

renewable energy counterparts. Solar thermal powered desalination and solar PV powered

desalination are two options when the water has to be desalinated by solar power.

Photovoltaic powered desalination is the most attractive option owing to its simplicity and

decreasing cost because of research and development.

Despite the extensive research on heat transfer from solar PV panel, modelling and

experimental validation of solar panel heat transfer with water cooling from top surface

with overall energy perspective remains the research gap and the present work addresses

the same. In addition to that, the membrane morphological changes for higher

hydrophilicity and lower energy consumption will make the solar powered reverse osmosis

an attractive solution. The present work also demonstrates that the membrane surface can

be made more hydrophilic in order to achieve higher productivity and thus, lower the

energy consumption.

The combined approach of utilizing the captured thermal energy from solar photovoltaic

for Reverse Osmosis and making morphological changes in membrane can make the solar

powered reverse osmosis frugal from energy point of view and thus attractive.

References

1. S. Jamaly, N.N. Darwish, I. Ahmed, S.W. Hasan (2014) A short review on reverse osmosis

pretreatment technologies, Desalination, Volume 354, pp. 30-38, ISSN 0011-9164



2. M.A. Shannon, P.W. Bohn, M. Elimelech, J.G. Georgiadis, B.J. Marinas, A.M. Mayes (2008)

Science and technology for water purification in the coming decades Nature, Volume 452, pp. 301–

310, ISSN 0028-0836.

3. Zaher Al Suleimani, V.Rajendran Nair (2000) Desalination by solar-powered reverse osmosis in a

remote area of the Sultanate of Oman, Applied Energy Volume 65(1–4), pp. 367-380, ISSN 0306-

2619.

4. Murray Thomson, David Infield (2005) Laboratory demonstration of a photovoltaic-powered

seawater reverse-osmosis system without batteries, Desalination, Volume 183(1–3), pp. 105-111,

ISSN 0011-9164.

5. Agustín M. Delgado-Torres, Lourdes García-Rodríguez, Vicente J. Romero-Ternero, (2007)

Preliminary design of a solar thermal-powered seawater reverse osmosis system, Desalination,

Volume 216 (1–3), pp. 292-305, ISSN 0011-9164.

6. Guanghui Xia, Qingxuan Sun, Xu Cao, Jiangfeng Wang, Yizhao Yu, Laisheng Wang (2014),

Thermodynamic analysis and optimization of a solar-powered transcritical CO2 (carbon dioxide)

power cycle for reverse osmosis desalination based on the recovery of cryogenic energy of LNG

(liquefied natural gas), Energy, Volume 66, pp. 643-653, ISSN 0360-5442.

7. Esmail M.A. Mokheimer, Ahmet Z. Sahin, Abdullah Al-Sharafi, Ahmad I. Ali (2013)

Modelling and optimization of hybrid wind–solar-powered reverse osmosis water desalination

system in Saudi Arabia, Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 75, pp. 86-97, ISSN 0196-

8904.

8. M. Khayet, M. Essalhi, C. Armenta-Déu, C. Cojocaru, N. Hilal (2010) Optimization of solar-

powered reverse osmosis desalination pilot plant using response surface methodology, Desalination,

Volume 261 (3), 31, pp. 284-292, ISSN 0011-9164.

9. Eyad S. Hrayshat (2008), Brackish water desalination by a standalone reverse osmosis desalination

unit powered by photovoltaic solar energy, Renewable Energy, Volume 33 (8), pp. 1784-1790,

ISSN 0960-1481.

10. Tomas Espino, Baltasar Peeate, Gonzalo Piernavieja, Dirk Heroldb, Apostel Neskakisb (2003)

Optimised desalination of seawater by a PV powered reverse osmosis plant for a decentralised

coastal water supply, Desalination, Volume 156, pp. 349-350, ISSN 0011-9164.

11. Rashid A. Khaydarov, Renat R. Khaydarov (2007) Solar powered direct osmosis desalination,

Desalination Volume 217 (1–3), pp. 225-232, ISSN 0011-9164.

12. Maedeh P. Shahabi, Adam McHugh, Martin Anda, Goen Ho (2014) Environmental life cycle

assessment of seawater reverse osmosis desalination plant powered by renewable energy,

Renewable Energy, Volume 67, pp. 53-58, ISSN 0960-1481.

13. G. Fiorenza, V.K. Sharma, G. Braccio (2003) Techno-economic evaluation of a solar powered

water desalination plant, Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 44(14), pp. 2217-2240,

ISSN 0196-8904.

14. K. Betts (2004) Desalination, desalination everywhere, Environmental science and technology,

Volume 38(13), pp. 246A-247A, ISSN 0013-936X.

15. G. Petersen, S. Fries, J.Mohn and A. Muller (1979) Wind and solar powered reverse osmosis

desalination units: Description of two demonstration projects, Ges. fur kernenergieverwertung in

schiffbau u. schiffahrt.



16. Huanmin Lu, John C. Walton, Andrew H.P. (2001) Swift Desalination coupled with salinity-

gradient solar ponds, Desalination, Volume 136, pp. 13-23, ISSN 0011-9164.

17. L. Garcia Rodriguez and A.M. Delgado-Torres (2007) Solar powered ranking cycles for fresh water

production, Desalination, Volume 212, pp. 319-327, ISSN 0011-9164.

18. E.E. Delyannis (1987) Status of solar assisted desalination: A review. Desalination, Volume 67, pp.

3-19, ISSN 0011-9164.

19. J.J. Libert, A. Maurel (1981) Desalination and renewable energies: A few recent developments,

Desalination, Volume 39, pp. 363-372, ISSN 0011-9164.

20. H.L. Zhang, J. Baeyens, J. Degreve, G. Caceres (2013) Concentrated solar power plants: review and

design methodology, Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, Volume 22, pp. 466-481, ISSN

1364-0321.

21. Maurel (1979) Dessalement et energies nouvelles, Desalination, Volume 31, pp. 489–499, ISSN

0011-9164.

22. J.J. Libert, A. Maurel (1979) Desalination and renewable energies: A few recent developments,

Desalination, Volume 31, pp. 489-499, ISSN 0011-9164.

23. L. García-Rodríguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres (2007) Solar-powered Rankine cycles for fresh water

production, Desalination, Volume 212, pp. 319–327m ISSN 0011-9164.

24. W.D. Childs, A.E. Dabiri, H.A. Al hinai, H.A. Abdullah (1999) VARI-RO Solar powered desalting

technologies, Desalination, Volume 125, pp. 155-166, ISSN 0011-9164.

25. D. Manolakos, G. Papadakis, E.S. Mohamed, S. Kyritsis and K. Bouzianas (2005) Design of an

autonomous low-temperature solar Rankine cycle system for reverse osmosis desalination,

Desalination, Volume 183, pp. 73–80, ISSN 0011-9164.

26. A.M. Delgado-Torres, L. García-Rodríguez and V.J. RomeroTernero (2007) Preliminary design of a

solar thermal-powered seawater reverse osmosis system, Desalination, Volume 216, pp. 292–305,

ISSN 0011-9164.

27. Goetzberger, C. Hebling, H.W. Schock (2003) Photovoltaic materials, history, status and outlook,

Materials Science and engineering. R, Volume 40(1), pp. 1–46, ISSN 0927-796X.

28. Solarbuzz. Price Survey, July 2008 https://technology.ihs.com/Research-by-Market/450473/power-

energy [Accessed on 06.01.2016]

29. W.W. Boesch (1982) World’s first solar powered reverse osmosis desalination plant, Desalination,

Volume 41, pp. 233–237, ISSN 0011-9164.

30. B.G. Keefer, R.D. Hembree and F.C. Schrack (1985) Optimized matching of solar photovoltaic

power with reverse osmosis desalination, Desalination, Volume 54, pp. 89–103, ISSN 0011-9164.

31. European Commission- Desalination guide using renewable energies (1998) THERMIE – DG XVII,

European Commission Report, Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, Greece, p. 31.

32. H. Al-Qahtani (1996) Feasibility of utilizing solar energy to power reverse osmosis domestic unit to

desalinate water in the state of Bahrain, Renewable Energy, Volume 8, pp. 500–504, ISSN 0960-

1481.

33. E. Tzen, D. Theofilloyianakos, Z. Kologios (2008) Autonomous reverse osmosis units driven by RE

sources experiences and lessons learned, Desalination, Volume 221, pp. 29–36, ISSN 0011-9164.



34. D. Herold, A. Neskakis (2001) A small PV-driven reverse osmosis desalination plant on the island

of Gran Canaria, Desalination, Volume 137, pp. 285–292, ISSN 0011-9164.

35. D. Herold, V. Horstmann, A. Neskakis, J. Plettner-Marliani, G. Piernavieja and R. Calero (1998)

Small scale photovoltaic desalination for rutal water supply- demonstration plant in Gran canaria,

Renewable energy, Volume 14, pp. 293-298, ISSN 0960-1481.

36. M. Thomson, D. Infield (2003) A photovoltaic-powered seawater reverse-osmosis system without

batteries, Desalination, Volume 153, pp. 1–8, ISSN 0011-9164.

37. M. Thomson, M. Miranada, J. Gwillim, A. Rowbottom and I. Draisey Batteryless photovoltaic

reverse-osmosis desalination system, Report ETSU S/P2/00305/REP, Harwell Laboratory, Energy

technology support unit, UK.

38. E.S. Mohamed and G. Papadakis (2004) Design, simulation and economic analysis of a stand-alone

reverse osmosis desalination unit powered by wind turbines and photovoltaics, Desalination,

Volume 164, pp. 87–97, ISSN 0011-9164.

39. E.S. Mohamed, G. Papadakis, E. Mathioulakis and V. Belessiotis (2008) A direct coupled

photovoltaic seawater reverse osmosis desalination system toward battery based systems: A

technical and economical experimental comparative study, Desalination, Volume 221, pp. 17–22,

ISSN 0011-9164.

40. A.M. Helal, S.A. Al-Malek, E.S. Al-Katheeri (2008) Economic feasibility of alternative designs of a

PV–RO desalination unit for remote areas in the United Arab Emirates, Desalination, Volume 221,

pp.1–16, ISSN 0011-9164.

41. G. Petersen, S. Fries, J. Mohn and A. Muller (1981) Wind and solar powered reverse osmosis

desalination units: Design, start up, operating experience, Desalination, Volume 39, pp. 125–135,

ISSN 0011-9164.

42. M. Rayan, B. Djebedjian and I. Khaled (2004) Evaluation of the effectiveness and performance of

desalination equipment in Egypt, Eighth International Water Technology Conference, Alexandria,

Egypt.

43. NREA, New and Renewable Energy Authority, Egypt http://www.nrea.gov.eg [Accessed on

06.01.2016]

44. O. Headley (1997) Renewable energy technologies in the Caribbean, Solar Energy, Volume 59, pp.

1–9, ISSN 0038-092X.

45. D.G. Harrison, G.E. Ho and K. Mathew (1996) Desalination using renewable energy in Australia,

Renewable Energy, Volume 8, pp. 509–513, ISSN 0960-1481.

46. Al Malki, M. Al Amri and H. Al Jabri (1998) Experimental study of using renewable energy in the

rural areas of Oman, Renewable Energy, Volume 14, pp. 319–324, ISSN 0960-1481.

47. P.C.M. de Carvalho, D.B. Riffel, C. Freire and F.F.D. Montenegro (2004) The Brazilian experience

with a photovoltaic powered reverse osmosis plant, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and

Applications, Volume 12(5), pp. 373–385, ISSN 1099-159X.

48. B. S. Richards, A.I. Schafer (2003) Photovoltaic powered desalination system for remote Australian

communities, Renewable energy, 28 (13), pp. 2013-2022, ISSN 0960-1481.

49. ADU-RES research project (2005) Autonomous desalination units using RES. Final report WP2.

50. Y. Kunczynski (2003) Development and optimization of 1000-5000 GPD solar power SWRO, IDA

world congress on Desalination and Water Reuse, Bahamas.



51. K. Touryan, M. Kabariti, R. Semiat, F. Kawash and G. Bianchi (2006) Solar Powered Desalination

and Pumping Unit for Brackish Water, USAID Project No. M20–076, Final Report.

52. B.S. Richards, D.P.S. Capão, A.I. Schäfer (2008) Renewable energy powered membrane

technology. 2. The effect of energy fluctuations on performance of a photovoltaic hybrid membrane

system, Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 42(12), pp. 4563–4569, ISSN 0013-936X.

53. B.S. Richards and A.I. Schäfer (2003) Photovoltaic-powered desalination system for remote

Australian communities, Renewable Energy, Volume 28(13), pp. 2013–2022, ISSN 0960-1481.

54. Al Malki, M. Al Amri and H. Al Jabri (1998) Experimental study of using renewable energy in the

rural areas of Oman, Renewable Energy, Volume 14, pp. 319–324, ISSN 0960-1481.

55. S. Alawaji, M.S. Smiai, S. Rafique and B. Stafford (1995) PV-powered water pumping and

desalination plant for remote areas in Saudi Arabia, Applied energy, Volume 52, pp. 283–289, ISSN

0306-2619.

56. G. Petersen, S. Fries, J. Mohn and A. Muller (1981) Wind and solar powered reverse osmosis

desalination units: Design, start up, operating experience, Desalination, Volume 39, pp. 125–135,

ISSN 0011-9164.

57. M. Thomson, D. Infield (2003) A photovoltaic-powered seawater reverse-osmosis system without

batteries, Desalination, Volume 153, pp. 1–8, ISSN 0011-9164.

58. S. Cheah (2004) Photovoltaic reverse osmosis desalination system, Desalination and Water

Purification Research and Development Report No. 104, U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of

Reclamation.

59. Moomaw, W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen (2011), Annex II:

Methodology. In IPCC: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change

Mitigation, p. 10

60. http://www.globalwaterintel.com/desalination-industry-enjoys-growth-spurt-scarcity-starts-bite/

[Accessed on 06.01.2016]

61. Mingheng Li (2011), Reducing specific energy consumption in Reverse Osmosis water desalination:

An analysis from the first principles, Desalination, Volume 276, pp. 128–135, ISSN 0011-9164.

62. Annett Hertel, Ernst Steudle (1997), The function of water channels in Chara: The temperature

dependence of water and solute flows provides evidence for composite membrane transport and for

a slippage of small organic solutes across water channels Planta, Volume 202, pp. 324-335, ISSN

0032-935.

63. Donghan Geng, Yuhong Du, Ruiliang Yang (2016) Performance analysis of an organic Rankine

cycle for a reverse osmosis desalination system using zeotropic mixtures, Desalination, Volume

381, pp. 38-46, ISSN 0011-9164

64. Cheknane, B. Benyoucef, and A. Chaker (2006) Performance of concentrator solar cells with

passive cooling, Semiconductor science and technology, Volume 21, pp. 144–147, ISSN 0268-1242.

65. E. Cuce, T. Bali, and S. A. Sekucoglu (2011) Effects of passive cooling on performance of silicon

photovoltaic cells, International journal of low carbon technology, Volume 6, p. 299, ISSN 1748-

1325.

66. J. K. Tonui and Y. Tripanagnostopoulos (2008) Performance improvement of PV/T solar collectors

with natural air flow operation, Solar energy, Volume 82(1), pp. 1-12, ISSN 0038-092X.



67. M. Beccali, P. Finocchiaro, and B. Nocke (2009) Energy and economic assessment of desiccant

cooling systems coupled with single glazed air and hybrid PV/thermal solar collectors for

applications in hot and humid climate, Solar energy, Volume 83(10), p. 1828, ISSN 0038-092X.

68. S. Maiti, K. Vyas, P. K. Ghosh (2010) Performance of a silicon photovoltaic module under

enhanced illumination and selective filtration of incoming radiation with simultaneous cooling,

Solar energy, Volume 84, p. 1439, ISSN 0038-092X.

69. X. Han, Y. Wang, and L. Zhu (2013) The performance and long-term stability of silicon

concentrator solar cells immersed in dielectric liquids, Energy Conversion and Management,

Volume 66, p. 189, ISSN 0196-8904.

70. Akbarzadeh and T. Wadowski (1996) Heat pipe-based cooling systems for photovoltaic cells under

concentrated solar radiation, Applied thermal engineering, Volume 16(1), p. 81, ISSN 1359-4311.

71. L. Zhu, R. F. Boehm, Y. Wang, C. Halford, and Y. Sun (2011) Water immersion cooling of PV cells

in a high concentration system, Solar Energy Materials and Solar cells, Volume 95, p. 538, ISSN

0927-0248.

72. K. Tanaka (2003) Solar energy converter using a solar cell in a shallow liquid layer, U.S. patent

658,334,9B2.

73. K. Tanaka (2003) Solar energy converter using optical concentration through a liquid, U.S. patent

2003/005957A1.

74. K. Tanaka (2007) Solar energy converter using a solar cell in a shallow liquid-gel layer, U.S. patent

724,488,8B1.

75. G. Carcangiu, M. Sardo, I. Carcangiu, and R. Sardo (2008) Photovoltaic panel and solar-panel unit

made using photovoltaic panels of the same sort, U.S. patent 2008/0092876A1.

76. H. Ignacio, S. P. Gabriel, D. D. Cesar, and V. P. Marta (2008) Photovoltaic concentrator with a

high efficiency immersed into a reflective optical dielectric liquid, patent 2302656.

77. G. Falbel (2000) Immersed photovoltaic solar power system, U.S. patent 6,035,319.

78. M. Cherney, M. Stiles, and N. Williams (2004) Solar collector for solar energy systems, U.S. patent

670,005,4B2.

79. W. J. Mook, Jr. (2006) Solar panels with liquid super-concentrators exhibiting wide fields of view,

U.S. patent 2006/0185713 A1.

80. T. Y. Wang (2001) Liquid immersion method for solar photovoltaic electricity generation and the

device, patent CN1302089A.

81. M. Zeahr, D. Friedrich, T. Y. Kloth, G. Goldmann, and H. Tributsch (2010) Bionic photovoltaic

panels bio-inspired by green leaves, Journal of bionic engineering, Volume 3, p. 284, ISSN 1672-

6529.

82. H. G. Teo, P. S. Lee, and M. N. A. Hawlader (2012) An active cooling system for photovoltaic

modules, Applied energy, Volume 90, p. 309, ISSN 0306-2619.

83. Kordzadeh (2010) The effects of nominal power of array and system head on the operation of

photovoltaic water pumping set with array surface covered by a film of water, Renewable Energy,

Volume 35, p. 1098, ISSN 0960-1481.

84. S. Odeh and M. Behnia (2009) Improving photovoltaic module efficiency using water cooling, Heat

transfer engineering, Volume 30(6), p. 499, ISSN 1521-0537.

chapter 2 literature review-i solar powered reverse...

Documents