CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A brief review of literature related to various aspects of the present

investigation, which throws light upon research studies in India and aboard are

discussed below:

Studies on various chemical compositions of wild herbs, spices, fruits

and leafy vegetables used as food sources were analyzed by different countries.

Achinewhu et al.,( 1995) characterized and determined chemical composition

of 30 wild fruits, nuts, herbs, spices and leafy vegetables found in

Nigeria.Some of them were not only used for food, but for medicine in minor

aliments by natives. Results of total carbohydrate content ranged from 34.6-

71.9% for spices and herbs, 11.3-76.1% for fruits and nuts, and 24.6-51.4% for

leafy vegetable. The wild fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables are high in ascorbic

acid (vitamin C) content that ranged from 18-113mg per 100g dry sample for

fruits and nuts, and 23-232 mg per100g sample for leafy vegetables.

A survey of study and utilization of wild fruits in Yunnan province

indicated that there are 600 species and varieties belonging to 43 families and

79 genera that are good for eating while others are useful for processing

(Liang-Mingqing, 1995).

19

Herzog et al.,(1994) analysed eleven wild fruit species (Aframomum

alboviolaceum, Annona senegalensis, Dialium guineense, Landolphia hirsute,

Landolphia owariensis, Lantana camara, Napoleonaea vogelii,

Pseudospondias microcarpa, Salacia owabiensis, Sarcocephalus latifolius,

Vitex doniana) consumed in Cote d’ Ivoire and concluded that ,although the

diet is based essentially on agricultural crops, wild fruits make an important

contribution by providing rare nutrients and are an important source of

variation and of complementation especially with regard to vitamins and

minerals.However, as a result of the changes sweeping through African

societies, wild fruits are in danger of disappearing.

Ascorbic acid and mineral contents were determined in the mesocarps of

14 wild fruits of Nigeria (Eromosele et al., 1991). Ziziphus spina(Christi),

Sclerocarya birrea, Haematostaphis berteri [H.barteri], Ximenia americana,

Adansonia digitala, Annona senegalensis, Butyrospermum parkii [ Vitellaria

paradox], Zizyphus [zizyphus] mauritiana, Phoenix dactylifera[date], Balanites

aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica [tamarind], Deterium [Detarium]

microcarpum, Vitex doniana and Dialium guineense .The concentrations of

ascorbic acid in samples were in the range 1.28 to 403.3g per 100mg FW.

Sclerocarya birrea and Adansonia digitata had 403.3 and 337.0 mg ascorbic

acid per 100g respectively. These 2 fruits are used as sweeteners for many local

foods and as curdling agents for milk. Zizyphus mauritiana contained the

20

highest concentration of Mg, at 227.0 mg per 100g and Fe were in the range

1.07- 6.30mg per 100g, which are 2-5 times higher than the concentrations in

oranges (0.2 mg/ 100g) and mangoes (0.4 mg/100g).

Saka and Msonthi, (1994) had analysed the moisture, protein, fat, crude

fibre, ash, minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, P,K and Na), and total carbohydrate contents

of the edible portion of 16 wild fruits. Trichilia emetic, Strychnos spinosa,

Azanza garckeana [Thespesia sp.], Ximenia caffra and Parinari curatellifolia

gave the highest levels of protein (17.0%), fat (31.2%, fibre (45.3%), ash

(11.2%) and carbohydrate (88.2%). The highest contents of Ca, Mg, Fe, P, K,

and Na were found for Adansonia digitata (1156mg/g), Syzygium guieneese

(2247 mg/g), Syzygium guieneese (758mg/g), Trichilia emetic (3164mg/g),

Ximenia caffra (791mg/g) and Flacourtia indica (589 mg/g) respectively.

The dry matter content, acidity and total ascorbic acid content of the

edible portion of 22 wild fruits species were analysed by Saka et al., (1992).

The highest and lowest dry matter contents were 91.6% (Bauhinia thonningii)

and 11.9% (Garcinia huillensis), the highest and lowest pH values were

6.01(B. petersiana) and 2.18 (Vangueria infausta), respectively. The highest

ascorbic acid contents occurred in Adansonia digitata (179.1mg/100g fw) and

B.thonningii (70.6mg/100g FW). The ascorbic acid content of the other species

ranged from 6.2 (Diospyros kirkii) to 39.8mg/100g FW (Annona senegalensis).

21

Campbell, (1987) had revealed the importance of wild edible fruits of

Zimbabwe used in most of the households. Fruit use occured mainly in the

periods of seasonal food stress even though these seasons may not be the

periods of maximum fruit abundance and there is significant trade in wild fruit.

Biologically active compounds could contribute to health promotion on

a large scale. Therefore it is getting more important to know how much of these

are consume from fruits. Fruits contain valuable inner-constant materials like

acids, sugar, phenolic compounds, mineral elements and other compounds with

antioxidant capacity. Experiments were done on strawberry, raspberry, red and

black currant, blackberry and elderberry cultivars from fresh fruits and show

that in point of several minerals elements ther are differences between species

in most cases ( Szenthe et al., 2006).

Five different coloured sweet peppers (Capsicum annum cv.Signal),

White, green, yellow, orange and red were analysed for total carotenoids,

alpha- tocopherol, sugar (glucose, fructose and sucrose), organic acids (citric

and ascorbic acids) and antioxidant properties. The mature fruits, ‘Signal Red’,

'Signal Orange’ and ‘Signal Yellow’ contained higher carotenoids, alpha-

tocopherol, sugars and organic acids than the immature fruits, Signal Green and

Signal White. Among the matured fruits, Signal Red was the highest in total

carotenoids (9.15 mg/100g of fresh weight) while Signal Orange was the

highest in alpha-tocopherol (5.40 mg/100Gfw). Signal Red and Orange

22

contained the most sugars and organic acids. The suppression of 2, 2 azobis (2,

4-dimethylvaleronitrile) (AMVN)-induced oxidation of methyl linoleate by the

acetone extracts from the coloured sweet peppers resulted as follows: Signal

Red Signal orange Signal yellow < Signal green ~ Signal white.The order of 1,

1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities of the

acetone extracts was similar to that of suppression of methyl linoleate

oxidation( Matsufuji et al., 2007).

There is wide awareness on the importance of antioxidants in cell

protection against free radicals constantly produced by the cell

metabolism.Ferreyra et al., (2007), carried out the antioxidant capacity and

content of the main accepted antioxidants- ascorbic acid, dehydroascorbic

acid,total phenols and anthocyanins on 10 growth stages of the strawberry

cultivar "Selva”. Antioxidant capacity in the small green stage was 27 mmol

DPPH/100g fress tissue, keeping noticeably high values in the large-green one.

Towards the white stage, antioxidant capacity reduced, to remain mostly

constant. The antioxidant capacity was higher in those stages where cell

division was more important and this parameter correlated mostly with the

contents of total phenols and ascorbic acid.

Remberg, (2006), studied the antioxidant activity in fruits and berries

with effects of cultivars and postharvest condition in Norwegian fruits and

berries on quality-related criteria. The quality-related components measured in

23

both berries (including blueberry, red raspberry and black currant) and apple

were: soluble solids, titratable acidity, sugar/acid ratio, pH, colour, firmness, L-

ascorbic acid (vitamin C), antioxidant activity (Ferric reducing ability of

plasma and oxygen radical absorbance capacity assays) and phenolic

compounds (chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, procyanidin B1 and B2, phloridzin,

quercetin 3-galactoside and cyaniding 3-galactoside).

The main N storage forms were arginine and proteins. Arginine –N

accumulated predominantly in the roots and decreased in all woody tissues

during the spring and recovered its previous levels during dormancy. Protein-N

in the bark and root cortex also decreased during spring and recovered during

dormancy (Munoz et al., 1993).

Food potentials of some selected plant species with edible fruits of the

lowland rainforest ecosystem of southwest Nigeria on chemical analysis show

that all the selected fruits contained adequate level of food nutrients required

for normal body functioning. Their protein values were discovered to be high

(above 100g/kg dry matter). All the fruits are potentially good as cheap source

of protein and other essential nutrients for the rural sector of the economy that

are facing food crisis today. Conservation strategies were recommended for the

species to avert the extinction threat on them as a result of increased pressure

on this lowland rainforest ecosystem that will make them sustainable

(Adekunle and Oyerinde, 2004).

24

Tardio et al.,(2006) complies and evaluates the ethnobotanical data

currently available on wild plants traditionally used for human consumption in

Spain.A total of 419 plant species belonging to 67 families was recorded. A list

of species, plant parts used, localization and method of consumption and

harvesting time was revealed and many wild food plants have also been used

for medicinal purpose. Until recently, many wild plants were used as dietary

supplements. However, most of this knowledge survives only in the memory of

the elderly and will probably disappear in a few decades.

A systematical procedure on traditional usage of wild, edible,

vitaminous, and aromatic plants in the nutrition of human population in Bosina

and Herzegovina detected 308 plants belonging to 73 plant families that are

being used as delicious vegetables, fruits, peer and species, in either fresh, raw

or dried condition. The majority of identified, wild edible plants may satisfy the

daily human need for elementary nutrition material, particularly those of

vitamin C and A, and for some minerals, according to the regulations of World

Health Organization (Redzic, 2006).

Attempt was made to highlight the genetic resources and importance of

wild fruits in subtropical Trans- Giri, Himachal Pradesh, India describing 28

species of wild fruit – bearing plants that have diverse uses belonging to 22

genera and 19 families found to grow in the area. Among the species, four were

recorded as endangered (Prunus persica, Prunus armeniaca, Morus alba,

25

Berberis aristata) four were vulnerable (Murraya koenigii, Myrica esculenta,

Punica granatum, Emblica officinalis, and four were rare (Phoenix sylvestris,

Pyrus serotina, Cornus capitata, Artocarpus lakoocha in the area (Vidya and

Chauhan, 2005).

Bist and Sharma,(2005) explored a germplasm and collection in Gharsa

and Nagar valleys of Kullu district and Lahaul areas of Lahaul Spiti district of

Himachal Pradesh, India. During this exploration, 20 superior selections of

wild fruits were made. The genetic resources collected were wild pomegranate

(4 accessions), walnut (4 accessions), wild peach (3 accession), wild apricot (4

accession), wild persimmon (2 accessions), prunes (2 accession) and peach×

almond natural hybrid (1 accession).

Fruits of indigenous wild fruit species play an important role in the diet

of people in the savanna belt, especially during famines and food shortages.

They are well adapted to the local environment but of low-to- medium market

quality and productivity. The availability of land and water resources in a

diversity of climatic zones provides Sudan with a vast potential to produce

many tropical subtropical fruits (Gebauer and Osman, 2004).

Protein concentration and activities of the enzymes in the extracts of

ripe Uapaca kirkiana, Zizphus mauritiana, Tamarindus indica and Berchemia

discolor fruits of Zimbabwe were determined. The protein concentration in the

26

enzyme extracts ranged from 0.822.17 to 1.970.13 mg/ml .Optimum pH of the

enzyme ranged from 4.5 to 5 and optimum temperature from 25 to 37 degrees

C (Muchuweti et al., 2005).

Several wild fruits have a twin value of food and medicine and the

economically weaker section of the Meena tribe were found to be largely

dependent upon the wild plants (Meenaskhi et al., 2003)

Pulps of 28 wild fruits from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, were

analysed for their total soluble solids (TSS), acidity,ascorbic acid .The data

showed that Diospyros pyrrhocarpa (22%), Artocarpus integrifolia(21%) and

Annona reticulate (21%) had high TSS. The fruits showed a wide range of

acidity and a low value (0.06%) was recorded in Gnetum gnemon and

Muntingia calabura (0.16%). The highest total sugar were recorded in Annona

reticulate (18.18%), D. pyrrhocarpa (18.18%) and M.calabura (14.28%).

Majority of these fruits were rich in ascorbic acid and the highest value was

recorded in Artocarpus integrifolia (176mg per 100g), (Singh et al., 2001)

Zizyhpus mauritiana Lam. is a wild fruit tree, which is widespread in the

Sahel region of Africa. Its fruits are traditionally harvested from wild stands

and make up a sizeable part of the income of many rural households; they are

eaten either fresh or dried. They have a high content of sugar, vitamin C,

27

calcium and iron. These fruit represent a very important nutritional contribution

for populations of arid zones (Danthu et al., 2002).

According to Ravi, (1999) wild pomegranate fruits are a potential source

of anardana (dried aril). This species may have commercial potential due to the

abundance of wild fruits and the fact that it is well adapted to adverse soil

conditions and could be grown on wastelands. Well-ripened wild pomegranates

from Kodapani, Jammu and Kashmir, India, were sampled and data on the

physicochemical characteristics of the fruits are tabulated and compared with

those of Punica granatum cultivar Kandhari. The wild pomegranate had high

acidity (6.41% compared with 1.02% for Kandhari).

Ko et al., (1998) tabulated data on the carbohydrate composition of the

fruit pulp of 58 species collected in Hong Kong.

The fruits of Pyrus pashia, Cornus capitata, Berberis asiatica, B.

aristata, B. lycium, B. chitria and B. osmastonii, which are eaten raw by local

Himalayan people were analysed and the highest contents of crude protein

(10.56%), K (1.86%) and Ca (0.78%) were recorded in the ripe fruits of

B.asiatica, C.capitata fruits contained the most crude fibre (13.92%) and

soluble carbohydrate (47.86%). Fruits of B.aristata contained the most

moisture (48.15%) and Mg (0.73%), B.chitria the most crude fat (8.02%),

28

B.osmastonii the most ascorbic acid (8.3 mg per g) and organic matter

(95.05%) and B. lycium the most P (0.33%) (Rawat et al., 1994).

Joya and Barua (2002) prepared a value based product-jelly from

indigenous carambola fruit (Averrhoa carambola) to evaluate its quality

changes during storage. The jelly was stored for 6 months at room temperature

and the quality parameters were evaluated at monthly interval. An increasing

trend was observed in percent reducing sugars and percent total sugars. The

ascorbic acid, percent non-reducing sugar and percent acidity showed

decreasing trend during extended storage.

An experiment was conducted to assess the quality of pomegranate

cultivars (Eichakdana, Jalore seedless, Ganesh, Khog, Muskut seedless and

Basin seedless) and their crosses (Eichakdana × Jalore seedless, Jalore seedless

× Ganesh, Khog × Jalore seedless, Ganesh × khog, Muskut seedless × Ganesh

and Khog × Ganesh), grown under Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India) conditions. Data

were collected for fruit moisture, acidity, ascorbic acid, sugar content. Khog ×

Ganesh gave the highest ascorbic acid content (29.41mg/100g).Basin seedless

gave the highest moisture content (82.2%) and acidity (2.91%). Eichakdana ×

Jalore seedless and Muskut seedless × Ganesh gave the highest reducing sugar

(14.86%) and total sugar (15.46%) contents (Dheeraj and Meena, 2003).

29

Kannan and Thirumaran, (2003) also studied the physico-chemical

changes during ripening of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.) fruits on the plant

and in storage which revealed that the fruit ripening had significant effects on

the physicochemical characteristics of ber fruits.

Fruit characteristics were evaluated during 1998-2000 in 12 pawpaw

cultivars (Co-1, Co-2, Co-3, Co-4, Co-5, Co-6, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Delicious,

Pusa Giant,Pusa Majesty, Coorg Honey Dew and Honey Dew) grown in

Jharnapani, Nagaland, India by Naresh and Anamika (2002) that result Honey

Dew fruits were characterized by greatest total sugar (12.450%), reducing

sugar (11.570%) and non-reducing sugar (0.880%) contents, acidity (0.100%).

And Co-5 fruits had the highest ascorbic acid content (71.860 mg/100g).

Wu et al., (2003) analysed sugar and acid contents in a group of 22

peach and 85 nectarine genotypes, which were grouped into 75 white-flesh and

32 yellow–flesh genotypes.

A field experiment was conducted in Hisar, Haryana, India during 1998-

99 to determine the response of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) cv.Umran to foliar

applications of urea (1.2 and 3%), zinc sulfate (0.25, 0.5, and 1%), potassium

sulfate (0.5,1 and 1.5%), borax (0.25, 0.5 and 1%), NAA (10, 20 and 40 ppm)

and ascorbic acid (10, 25 and 50ppm). The highest total soluble sugars and

lowest acidity was recorded in ber sprayed with 1.5% potassium sulfate.

30

Spraying with 50ppm ascorbic acid resulted in the highest ascorbic acid content

and soluble and total proteins, and lowest reducing sugar content. (Rajpal et al.,

2002).

A study was conducted in 1994 in Rajasthan, India, to determine the

effect of various nitrogen rates (0, 350, 500, 740g/plant) on the quality

characters of pomegranate fruit. TSS was not affected by the N rates. The TSS

was highest in the control fruits (17.6%) and was slightly lower in the fruits

treated with 250, 500, and 750 g N (17.5, 17.4 and 17.4%, respectively). The

pH and acidity of the juice increased significantly with the increasing N rates

upto 750g/plant. Sugar (total, reducing and non-reducing) increased linearly as

the N rate increased upto 500g/plant. The reducing sugar percentage was quite

high, as this fraction constituted ~ 92-95% of total sugars. N at 500g/plant

recorded the maximum sugar content. (Prasad and Mali, 2003).

Prunus davidiana (Carr.), a wild species with poor fruit quality that is

related to peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch], is used as a source of resistance

to pests and diseases in peach breeding programs. Two genotype of

P.davidiana were studied for fruit biochemical composition and compared to

three genotypes of P.persica (Summergrand, Bailey and Pamirskij), and two P.

persica × P. davidiana hybrids. Fruit of P. davidiana clones had higher malic

acid, neochlorogenic and cryptochlorogenic acid and lower sucrose

concentrations than fruit of all P. persica genotype, even poor-quality Bailey.

31

Differences in biochemical composition could be related to sensory evaluation.

P. persica × P. davidiana hybrids had intermediate values between their

parents for neochlorogenic acid concentration. They were similar to the

P.persica parent for total soluble sugar, malic acid and citric acid, amino acid

and catechin concentrations, indicating possible rapid progress for fruit quality

in a breeding program (Moing et al., 2003).

Waseem et al., (2002) determine the physical and chemical

characteristics of fruits of litchi cultivars Purbi, Bedana, Bombai, Serai and

Gola, picked from the upper and lower half portions of trees growing under the

agro-climatic conditions of Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan. Among the cultivars,

Purbi recorded the highest pH (40.6), vitamin C content (56.19mg/100g pulp),

total sugars (10.95%), reducing sugar content (6.58%) and total soluble solids

(13.48%). Bedana and Bombai recorded the highest total acidity (1.99%) and

non-reducing sugar content (4.50%), respectively. Differences in the values for

total acidity; total soluble; total sugars and vitamin C, reducing sugar and non-

reducing sugar content of fruits from the lower and upper half was higher

compared to thar of fruits from the upper half. On the other hand, pH of fruits

from the upper half was higher than that of fruits from the lower half of the

tree.

Field and pot experiments were conducted at Agricultural College and

Research Institute, Killikulam situated in Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu

32

State, India, during November 1999-March 2000 to study the possibility of

substitution of N with organic N source, viz., farmyard manure (FYM),

perssmud, fish meal, pig manure and poultry manure to get superior quality

fruits of tomato (var. PKM-1). Urea was taken for comparison. Application of

organic N sources at both levels increased pH, TSS, titratable acidity, reducing

and non-reducing sugar, crude protein and ascorbic acid content of tomato over

no mature (control). Among the different organic N sources, application of

recommended dose of N in the form of poultry manure recorded higher pH,

TSS, titratable acidity, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar, crude protein and

ascorbic acid content in tomato fruits in both the experiments (Prabakaran and

Pitchai, 2002).

Pre-harvest foliar spray of Zinc (0.2, 0.4 and 0.6%), boron(0.05, 0.10

and 0.15%) and their combination significantly increased the physicochemical

characteristics of pineapple fruits namely, fruit weight, fruit growth, fruit

volume, pulp weight juice content including TSS,reducing sugar, non–reducing

sugar, total sugar, acidity, ascorbic acid and TSS acid ratio. Spraying with

0.6% zinc or its combination with boron at 0.15% significantly influenced the

fruit size (Kar et al., 2002).

Rudreshappa et al., (2000) conducted experiment in Dharwad,

Karnataka, India, in 1997 and 1998 to evaluate the performance of seven

Zizyphus mauritiana cultivars (Kadaka, Chhuhar, Salnaur-2, Dandan, Salnaur-

33

6, Jogia-Mundia, and Umran). Jolgia- Munda produced the tallest plants

(5.60m) while Salnaur-6 showed the highest number of primaries (82.08). The

highest yield (137.65 and 118.45 quintals/ha) and total fruit soluble sugar

content (22.15 and 19.81%) were recorded for Dandan and Umran.

Liu et al., (2000) discusses the difference in N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe,

Mn, Cu, soluble sugar contents of sweet persimmon (Diospyros kaki) fruits

during fruit development.

Berry quality ,coloration and sugar accumulation pattern were examined

in 6 cultivars of grape (Vitis labruscana) during ripening.Considerable drops of

berry firmness (<10N) and titratable acidity (0.5%) were found at the ripening

stage.Total levels of anthocyanin content among the cultivars were different,

the concentration of anthocyanin sharply increased coinciding with the sugar

accumulation in berries showing high correlation (r = 0.956, p<0.01) with

maturity index (brix/acid) regardless of cultivars. Correlations between colour

index for red grape (CIRG) and sugar/acid ratio were found in cultivars

including ‘Camphell Early’ (r = 0.802, p < 0.05), ‘Kyoho’ (r =0.853, p< 0.01),

and Heukguseul’ (r = 0.832, p < 0.05). Sugar analysis of extractable juice by

HPLC revealed that cultivars such as ‘Delaware’, ‘Campbell Early’, ‘Kyoho’,

‘Heukguseul’, and ‘MBA’ belonged to reducing sugar accululating group at

maturity and ‘Sheidan’ showed sucrose accumulation one. The rapid

accumulation of glucose at ripening resulted in the increase of glucose/fructose

34

ratio. These characteristic patterns of sugar accumulation may have a potential

for the development as objective ripening index. (Matsumoto et al., 2007)

Titratable acidity, and pulp, sugar, ascorbic acid and beta- carotene

contents were evaluated in fruits of wild cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica)

sampled from major wholesale markets Sana’a and Taiz cities in Yemen during

the summer of 2000. Mean values of pulp yields and chemical components did

not significantly vary among fruit samples obtained from wholesale market in

both the cities. The pulp yields of fruits obtained from wholesale markets were

~ 62%. The total and reducing sugar contents were ~ 9 and 8% respectively.

Ascorbic acid and beta- carotene were present in moderate levels having

14.70mg/100g and 334.00 mg/100g, respectively (Ghaleb et al., 2003)

Rumee and Kartik (2006) carried out experiment in Jorhat, Assam,

India, during 2000-01 to study the performance of 3 commercial banana

cultivars namely Jahaji (AAA), Barjahaji (AAA) and Malbhog (AAB) under

different input conditions. Nine treatment combinations consisting of 3

cultivars were imposed. The quality characters were significantly affected by

both cultivars and input levels. The highest total soluble solids (TSS, 21.90%),

reducing sugar (10.03%), total sugar (19.50%) and TSS: acidity ratios (77.59)

were recorded under high level, but the reverse trend was observed in the case

of titratable acidity. Though Malbhog had the highest TSS (21.77%), titratable

acidity (0.40%) and reducing sugar (10.16%), it had the lowest TSS: acidity

35

ratio. Jahaji had the highest TSS: acidity ratio (77.39). Jahaji performed best

for producing quality fruits under high input level.

Chatterjee et al., (2005) determined the physico- chemical characters of

13 mango hybrids grown in the agro-climatic condition of Sabour, Bhagalpur,

Bhiar, India. The highest stone/pulp ratio (4.63) was observed in Langra. The

highest (25.00%) total soluble solid (TSS) was recorded in Amrapali and the

lowest (18.43%) in Neelgoa. The maximum acidity (0.265%) was obtained in

Neelashan and the minimum (0.170%) in Prabhashankar. The highest ascorbic

acid (42.82g/100g) was recorded in Langra and the lowest (19.13g/100g) in

Alfali. Reducing sugar was highest (6.77%) in Sunder Lanra and the lowest

(4.15%) in Mahmud Bahar. Amarpali was superior to all hybrids than the

control in terms of non-reducing sugar (13.99%). The highest total sugar

content (19.86%) was recorded in Amarpali and the lowest (13.93%) in

Mahmud Bahar.

Yadav et al., (2005) evaluated fruit quality in 10 Zizyphus mauritiana

cultivars. Fruit pH varied from 4.1(Mundia Murehra) to 5.2 (Chuhhara).

Generally, higher concentration of total soluble solids (TSS) was recorded for

Safed Rohtak (20.2%). The total sugar (10.03%), reducing sugar (3.62%) and

non reducing sugar (6.41%) contents were highest in Chuhhara. Seb was

superior in terms of taste, flavor, general appearance, flesh colour and texture.

Pulp pH was negatively correlated with sugar content. TSS was negatively

36

correlated with reducing sugar content. Total sugar, reducing sugar and

nonreducing contents were positively correlated.

Mokbel (2005) extracted tissues from Buntan (Citrus grandis Osbeck)

with hexane, ethyl acetate (EtOAc), n-butanol and methanol (MeOH). The

highest concentration of antioxidant activity of the n-butanol extracts as

evaluated using 2, 2,-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH). After column

chromatographic (CC) separation of this crude extract with silica gel column,

three fractions (Fr. A, B and Fr. C) of the crude extract were obtained from the

eluents of CH2C12: EtOAc: MeOH (0:9:1, 0:7-5:1 and 0:1:1), gradually.

Among them, Fr.B and Fr.C showed better antioxidant activity by using DPPH

antioxidant assay. Those fractions were further purified by preparative

TLC(PTLC) and the main constituents were find to be glycoside,

monosaccharide and glycosides exhibited exceptional DPPH free radical

scavenging and beta- carotene methods, whereas the identified sucrose, glucose

and fructose possess less antioxidant activity.

Ramesh (2005) evaluated fruit quality during 2000 and 2001 in 4

cultivars (Allision, Abbot, Bruno and Monty) of Chinese gooseberry (Actinida

deliciosa) grown in Tadong, Sikkim, India. Bruno recorded the greatest fruit

length (6.88cm), weight (71.69g), volume (78.78 cm3), juice content

(18.20ml), reducing sugar content (7.02%), and sugar/acid ratio (6.32). Fruit

diameter and nonreducing sugar content were greatest in Allison (4.00 cm and

37

1.22%, respectively), whereas fruit firmness was greater in Allison, Abbott and

Monty (7.00, 7.41 and 8.00 kg/cm2). The highest fruit ascorbic acid content

was recorded for Monty (121.31 mg/100g), whereas the highest total sugar

contents were registered for Allison (7.65%) and Bruno (7.87%). Specific

gravity did not significantly vary among the cultivars (0.95-1.02).

Ripe fruits from litchi (Litchi chinensis) cultivars GTL-48, Rose Scented

and Shahi were analysed for various physicochemical parameters. Fruit weight

was greatest in Shahi (18.61) and lowest in GTL-48 (15.55g). The greatest fruit

diameter was recorded for GTL-48 (3.35cm). Shahi fruits had the greatest peel

content (17.21%), pulp titratable acidity (0.526%), and reducing sugar (9.2%)

and nonreducing sugar (6.01%) contents. Rose Scented had the greatest pulp

content (71.11%), ascorbic acid content (34.7mg/100g) and total sugar content

(13.28%), and lowest pulp titratable acidity (0.526%). The TSS (total soluble

solid) content was highest in GTL-48 (17.76%) and nonreducing sugar (4.21%)

contents (Ram et al., 2005).

Sugar and organic acids in the aril of litchi (Litchi chinensis) were

analysed by HPLC. The high repeatability and recovery values suggested that

HPLC was highly efficient in the detection of organic acids and soluble

sugars.The contents of reducing sugar, organic acids and reduced ascorbic acid

in mature fruits of 2 litchi cultivars (Feizixiao and Nuomici) from Guangdong,

China, were analysed. Glucose, fructose and sucrose were the predominant

38

sugars in the aril. Feizixiao accumulated a higher amount of reducing sugar

than sucrose, whereas Nuomici accumulated a higher amount of sucrose than

reducing sugar. The dominant organic acids were tartaric acid and malic acid.

The ascorbic acid content of the aril of Feizixiao was higher than that of

Nuomici by 2- fold (Hu et al., 2005).

Anwar et al., (2005) studied the performance of twenty sweet orange

varieties under the soil and climatic conditions of Agricultural Research

Institute, Tarnab and Peshawar during 2002 and 2003. Data were recorded on

physic-chemical properties of fruits. Musambi contains highest non-reducing

sugar (6.4%), reducing sugar (6.47%) and total sugar of (13.21%).

The constituents of the fruits of 3 tamarind cultivars were studied .Ziton,

Bargeton and Zichupoton had a total suagr content of 45.90-50.26% , reducing

sugar content of 33.66-46.94%, Vc [ascorbic acid] content of 0.33-0.87% , and

Ca content of 1.2-2.0mg/ g. The percentage of essential amino acids relative to

the total amino acids reached 27.68-45.85%. The results suggest that tamarind

fruits can be used for the production of food and beverage. Zhao et al., (2005).

Grewia coriacea is a widespread plant species that occurs spontaneously

in tropical forests of Central Africa. It is one of the most important commercial

spontaneous fruits crops in the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), where it is

harvested,sold and consumed on a rather large scale.However, similar to many

39

other spontaneous products of the tropical rain forest in Africa, G.coriacea

remains poorly studied and its nutritional potential is unknown.Because the

G.coriacea is an important food for indigenous people in a large portion of the

Congo River Basin, the contents of various pigments, and the concentrations of

soluble sugars, ascorbic acid and soluble protein of the fruit pulp of G.coriacea

were analyzed in the laboratory. Increasing applied to the soluble sugars

(9, 9mg/g up to75, 4mg/g), ascorbic acid (25mg/100g upto 230mg/100g) and

soluble proteins (7mg/g upto 40mg/g).The study shows that the studied fruits

have high nutritional potentials, and that their ability to accumulate rather high

levels of ascorbic acid could make them a potential source of vitamin C.

(Attibayeba et al., 2007).

Diaz et al., ( 2007) determined the chemical compositions ( moisture,

degree brix, total fibre, protein, fat, ash, pH, acidity, ascorbic acid, total

phenolics, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni and Cr) in fruits belonging to

two species of prickly pear, Opuntia ficus indica and Opuntia dillenii, from

Tenerife Island. The chemical compositions of the two species were clearly

different. However, no important differences were observed between orange

and green prickly pears within the specie O. ficus indica. An important

contribution to the intakes of fibre, ascorbic acid, Mn, Cr and total phenolics is

provided by the consumption of prickly pears, particularly from fruits of

O.dillenii. Applying factor and/or discriminant analysis, the prickly pear

40

samples were differentiated according to the species, altitude and region of

cultivation in the island.

Fruit, vegetable and antioxidant intakes may reduce the risk of several

insulin-like growth factors (IGF)-related chronic diseases, such as certain types

of cancers and cardiovascular diseases.Plasma IGF-I and IGFBP-3

concentrations were measured in 1542 healthy women by enzyme–linked

immunosorbent assay. A self-administration semiquantative food- frequency

questionnaire was used to estimate mean daily dietary intakes of fruit,

vegetables, and antioxidants over the year preceding blood sampling.

Multivariate analyses were performed by using generalized linear models to

evaluate the association of quintiles of daily intakes with concentrations of

growth factors. A higher intake of citrus fruit was associated with the higher

concentrations of IGF-I (215ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 205ng/ml for

quintiles 1; P for trend = 0.04) and with lower concentrations of IGFBP-3

(4803ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 4960ng/ml/ for quintiles 1; P for

trend = 0.04). Higher dietary vitamin C intake was associated with higher

concentrations of IGF-I (214ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 204 ng/ml for

quintiles 1; P for trend = 0.02) and lower concentrations of IGFBP-3 (4813

ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 4953ng/ml for quintiles1; P for trend =

0.03). Total intake of fruit and vegetables and intakes of other botanical fruits

and vegetable subgroups, beta-carotene, and lycopene were not related to either

41

IGF-I or IGFBP-3 concentrations. Women with higher intakes of citrus fruit or

dietary vitamin C tend to have higher plasma concentrations of IGF-I and lower

plasma concentrations of IGFBP-3, (Cong et al., 2006).

Owolarafe et al., (2006) studied the physical and chemical properties of

Spondias mombin an underexploited fruit. The moisture content, ash, crude

fibre, crude protein, cardohydrate and ether extract were 85.0, 0.53, 0.30, 0.93,

13.1 and 0.11%, respectively .The total soluble solids (TSS) content was 4.6.

The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content was 38m/g/100g while the ph was 5.6.

The oxalate (1.4 mg/100g) composition was low. The essential amino acids

contents, ranged from 0.88 to 14.4g/16Gn. The high moisture, vitamin C,

essential amino acids and TSS contents with very low anti-nutritional oxalate

content suggested that the fruit can be a good source for beverage juice.

Soluble sugar, organic acid, vitamin C [ascorbic acid], total carotene,

protein, starch, tannic acid, amino acid are important indices of the nutritive

values levels of fruits, which have guiding functions on the development and

utilization of the cultivar. The content of the above elements was determined

and synthetically analysed, using Prunus divaricata (from Xinjing, China) as

the experimental, material. The result indicate that Fengchandaguo 001

contained higher protein, vitamin C and tannic acid; Dujiahuanggou 33

contained abundant carotene, soluble sugar, starch and amino acid; and

Fengchanguo 002 and Majintanggou 31 contained higher content of and

42

various types of organic acids the human body needs. Prunus divaricata fruits

contain high nutritive components and have extensive application and

development prospects (Qiman et al., 2005).

Khasbagan et al., (2006) analysed the nutritional components in dry

fruits of Lonicera caerulea var. eduli, collected from Hulun Buir of Inner

Mongolia. Dry fruits mainly contained sugar (243.40mg/g), crude protein

(87.49mg/g), crude fat (86.30mg/g), riboflavin (0.543mg/g), nicotinamide

(2.809mg/g), retinol (4.66×10-3mg/g), carotene (1.661mg/g), essential amino

acids (22.97mg/g). Fruits also contained ascorbic acid, thiamin, K, Na, Ca, Mg,

P and other nonessential amino acids.

The nutritive values of fruits of four cultivars (Dashehari, Langra,

Chausa and Lucknow Safed) of mango, 3 (Sardar, Sangam and Allahabad

Safeda) of guava and 2 (Calcuttia and Rose scented) of litchi (Litchi chinensis),

grown in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, were assessed during 2003-04. The fruit

quality of mango was the best with the highest total soluble solid and sugar

content, followed by litchi. Guava was relatively poor in this respect, but it was

significantly the richest source of vitamin, pectin and iron. Litchi was a fair

source of Ca, while mango and guava were poor in Ca (Vinata et al., 2005).

Ten apricot cultivars from north China were compared with 20 cultivars

from South Xinjiang, China for different nutritive components: sacrocarp total

suagr, total organic acid, ascorbic acid, water soluble solids, water –insoluble

43

solids, kernel fat and other fruit characters. Xinjiang cultivars showed higher

sugar content than north China cultivars, with sugar acid rario of 13.34 (1.5

times higher than north China cultivars). Ascorbic acid, water insoluble solids

and kernel proteins varation was not significant among geographical places, but

significant among cultivars Xinjiang apricots showed smaller fruits and the

weight is15g lower than those of north China cultivars, but Xinjiang cultivars

showed high soluble solids content (4% higher than north China cultivars) (

Zhang et al., 2006).

Laurocerasus officinalis Roem is a summer fruit highly characteristic of

the Black Sea region. The edible parts of the fruit were tested for chemical

composition and antioxidant properties. Total moisture, ash, protein, sugar,

pectin, ascorbic acid, phenolic, and mineral contents of the fruit were

determined. The antioxidant activity of the fruit was investigated using TLC

plate and ferric thiocyanate methods. Its antioxidative character was also tested

utilizing hydroxyl, DPPH, and superoxide radical scavenging activity

measurements, using BHT, vitamin C, and Trolox as references. Besides being

a good source of nutrients, L.oficinalis was found to provide a rich source of

protective antioxidant compounds. Its antioxidant and radical scavenging

activities were comparable to or higher than those of the reference antioxidants.

It appeared to have high mineral content. The concentrations of macroelements

K, Mg, Ca, and Na were high at 221510.5, 17911, 15730.8 and 550.3 mg/kg,

44

respectively, and the concentrations of trace elements Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu were

24.21.3, 8.30.8, 1.90.2, and 0.80.1mg/kg, respectively. In addition, the fruit

showed very low contents of Pb, Ni, Co, and Cr, below the detection limits,

which is considered to be a good foof quality. As it is a rich source of protein,

sugar, ascorbic acid, minerals, and antioxidants, L.officinalis is well worth

further studies regarding its components possessing important health benefits

and inclusion in the daily diet (Kolayli et al., 2003).

A study was conducted to develop value added products from papaya

fruit to provide maximum return to growers and proper utilization of the fruits

to avoid glut in the market. The product was prepared with pulp (1kg), sugar

(1.25 or 1.80kg) and citric acid (25 or 28kg). Results showed that acidity,

ascorbic acid contents and total soluble solids, sugar content and reducing

sugars were increased. Different sugar levels influenced the colour and

appearance of the papaya squash. With an increase in sugar content, the colour

of the pigments available in the fruit produced better appearance due to

condensation of the sugar and phenols with carotenoids (Saravanan et al.,

2004).

Research work by Kulkarni and Aradhya, (2005) describes the major

chemical changes and antioxidant activity and their significant during

development of pomegranates. Pomegranates arils showed a significant (p < =

0.05) increase in total soluble solids, total sugar and reducing sugar contents up

45

to 100 days of fruit development, followed by a steady-state in their rate of

accumulation. Significant (p < = 0.05) decreases of 76.2% and 71.1% in the

concentration of ascorbic acid and total phenolics, respectively, were recorded

from 20 to 100 days of fruit development. The equilibrium concentration of

these chemicals on the 100th day marked the attainment of optimum maturity

and onset of ripening of pomegranate fruit. After an initial rapid decrease (by

66.9%) in total protein content, pomegranate arils showed a significant (p < =

0.05) increase (by 58.7%) during the late – developmental stages (80-120

days). The high antioxidant activity (71.2%) of arils recorded in 20-day-old

fruit decreased significantly (by 13%) up to 60 day, concomitant with a

decrease in ascorbic acid and total phenolics by 68.4% and 63.9%,

respectively. An increase in antioxidant activity by 10.6% in the late

developmental stage was due to a build up of anthocyanins. The trend in

accumulation and depletion of the above mentioned chemicals marked the

different stages of fruit development, maturity and onset of ripening. A

significant decrease in acidity was found to be the major chemical factor for

increased incidence of internal browning in over-ripe fruits.

The development and ripening of 15-year-old guava cv. Lucknow-49

trees were studied in a field experiment conducted in Hisar, Haryana, India

during the winter of 1999-2001 and rainy season of 2000. Total soluble sugar,

total sugar, reducing sugar and ascorbic acid contents increased throughout the

46

development and ripening of the fruits, with the values of the parameters

measured being higher during the winter compared to the rainy season. Protein

content was highest 30 days after fruit set and lowest at harvesting. (Hegde and

Chharia, 2004).

A study was carried out during 2000 and 2001 to investigate the

behavior and different physicochemical fruit characters of some commonly

grown apricots cultivars/landraces, i.e. Halman, Raktesy Karpo, Narmo,

Tokpapa, Khantey Chulli, Afgani Selection and Koban, in Ladakh, Jammu and

Kashmir, India. Raktsey Karpo and Koban was the first and last, respectively,

to initiate flowering. On an average, a flowering span of 18.5-27.5 days was

recorded with a fruit set range of 57.5-80.0% under open pollination. Weight of

fruit, stone and kernel, shelling percentage, total soluble solids, titratable

acidity, reducing sugar, nonreducing sugar and total sugar ranged from 8.3 to

40.7g, 1.2 to 3.1g, 0.4 to 0.9g, 29.03 to 37.50%, 13.5 to 20.0%, 0.2 to 1.7%, 1.5

to 2.8%, 6.8 to 13.5% and 8.8 to 16.5%. Biswajit et al., (2004).

A study was conducted to evaluate the performance of three late

maturing plum cultivars (Warwickshire Dropper, Green Gage and Grand Duke)

in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Green Gage attained the maximum tree height

(5.25m) and trunk girth (7.5cm), while Warwickshire Dropper obtained the

minimum height, trunk girth and tree volume with the maximum fruit yield

(10.9kg/trees). The maximum fruit and peel weight, reducing sugar content,

47

total sugar content and the maximum total soluble solids content and flowering

to harvest period (135 days) were recorded in Warwickshire Dropper

(Srivastava et al., 2005).

Blackberries are an excellent source of natural antioxidants. Fully

ripened fruits of ‘Apache’, ‘Apache’, ‘Chester,’ ‘Loch Ness,’ ‘Navaho’ and

‘Triple Crown’ thornless blackberries were evaluated for their physicochemical

and antioxidative activity. There were no consistent differences in initial pH,

titratable acidity, total soluble sugar and TSS/TA ratio values. Differences

among cultivars with respect to reduced ascorbic acid were established, but

there were no differences in either oxidized ascorbic acid or total ascorbic acid

content. The antioxidant activity as determined by ABTS radical cation

procedure for fractionated crude fruit extracts varied in response to parameters

evaluated. Hydrophilic antioxidant activity was not different among cultivars

evaluated. In contrast, differences were found in lipophilic antioxidant activity

and total antioxidant activity (Thomas et al., 2005).

Guo et al., (2004) investigated the seasonal changes in the carbohydrate

content and enzyme activity in the fruits and leaves of peach cv. Yanfengyihao.

The reducing sugar content in the fruits and leaves decreased during the early

fruit development stage, while that of non-reducing sugars increased. Reducing

sugar content remained low during mid- and late stages of fruit development.

Sucrose, glucose and fructose contents were significantly higher in fruits than

48

in leaves during fruit development. Sucrose content in the fruits increased from

the beginning to the end of the fruit development. Glucose and fructose

contents decreased in the fruit during the early stages of fruit development and

remained low. The seasonal evaluation of sorbitol content in leaves first

decreased and then maintained a low stable level. A significantly positive

correlation was observed between fructose activity and the activities of neutral

invertase (beta-furctofuranoside), sucrose synthase (SS) and succinate

dehydrogenase (SDH); and between glucose content and SS and SDH activities

in the fruit. A significantly positive correlation between glucose content and

SDH activity, and a negative correlation between fructose content and SS

activity and ADGPPase activities in leaves were observed. Sucrose content was

negatively correlated with the activity of sucrose- phosphate synthase (SPS) in

leaves, but no correlation was found between sucrose content and SPS in the

fruit.

The biochemical and mineral compositions of the raw juice extracted

from M.citrifolia fruits were determined by Chunhieng and Montet, (2005) to

understand the medicinal characteristics of the noni fruit cultivated in

Cambodia. The oil, fatty acid, protein, amino acid, sugar and mineral contents

of juices were analysed.The composition of noni juice of various origins was

determined, compared, and discussed in relation to the biochemical and mineral

composition of other vegetable oils. The biochemical composition of the noni

49

juice, which showed a high content of antioxidant molecules, is not sufficient

to explain the medicinal effects of noni juice.

Fruits of Choerosposdias axillaris, an indigenous fruit tree of Nepal,

were collected from fresh fruit sellers in Kathmandu and from six selected

mother trees in Central Nepal. From both the samples, the edible (peel and

pulp) and non-edible (stone) parts were separated in the laboratory. Lapsi fruit

contained 71% (w/w) of edible parts and 29% of stones.The edible part

contained 83% water, 3.4% total sugars and 6.76 % of titratable acidity.

Ascorbic acid content of the market collected samples was lower (6.7%) than

reported in earlier publication. The composition of fruit from the selected trees

varied greatly in total reducing sugar (1 to 3.3%), titratale acidity (5 to 7%),

and mineral content. Lapsi fruits were also rich in potassium (355.1 mg per

100g), calcium (57 mg per 100g), and magnesium (34 mg per 100g). Highest

values for sugar, acidity and potassium were found with KCP-205 (Paudel et

al., 2002).

Lin et al., (2002) studied the chemical composition from fruits and seeds

of Ligustrum lucidum Ait and found that mineral and total sugar contents of the

fruits were relatively high.

50

Yuan et al., (1998) presented data showing the nutritional component

(water, ash, fibre, protein and sugar) and mineral composition of fruits of

Zizyphus mauritiana.

Fei et al., (1994) carried out study to clarify and compare the chemical

compositions of the fruits of 4 non- astringent, Japanese persimmon cultivars

and 2 local astringent cultivars. Sugar, protein, vitamin, mineral element and

ash content were determined. The ascorbic acid concentration of Jiro was

121.49 mg/100g FW, which was 2.45 times that of the astringent cultivar

Fangshi. But two pollination variant, non-astringent cultivars, Zenjinaru and

Nishimura Wase, had much lower ascorbic acid concentration than the others.

The content of trace elements such as Fe, Zn, Se, were noticeably higher in

non-astringent cultivars.

Plant of mulberry (Morus nigra cv. Pakistan) were propagated by

budding on Japanese mulberry seedlings. Trees were cultivated under saline

soil conditions in northern Cairo, Egypt, during 1998-99. Fruit contained

10.2% carbohydrates, 1.4% protein and 1.2% fibres. Fruits were found to be a

good source of iron, potassium, calcium and phosphrous. Fruits contained a

medium level of vitamin C. Ripe fruits could not survive more than 5 days of

storage at room temperature, but survived 3 weeks of cold storage ( El Obeidy,

2005).

51

Fourteen wild edible berries, fruits, roots, and nuts consumed by the

Khasi tribe of Meghalaya were botanically identified and analyzed for their

nutrient contents in terms of macronutrients, minerals and vitamins. The study

revealed that Coix lachrymal jobi, a nut, was rich in protein (13.3g%).

Castanopsis indica a nut, contained good amount of calcium (1540mg%),

Kaempfaria galangal a root, considerable amount of iron (69.91mg%) and

zinc (8.4mg%), and Vangeria spinosa, a fruit, a good amount of zinc

(23.0mg%). The berry Solanum indicum contained 826.4mg% of vitamin C

(608.9mg%). It can be concluded that the wild edible eaten by the Khasi are a

good source of nutrients, and considering their low cost and easy availability,

need to be popularized and recommended for commercial exploitation

(Agrahar and Subbulakshmi 2005).

Ambarella (Spondias cytherea Sonn.) belong to Anacardiaceae family.

The round or oval- shaped fruits were analysed for some physical and chemical

changes at three different maturity stages. The maturity stages at which

determinations were carried out are defined. The fruit length and width on

average were 5.56 and 4.26 cm, respectively. The fruits were found to contain

protein (1.76-2.33%). The pH, soluble solids and insoluble matter increased

with the maturity of the fruit. Ripe fruits were significantly less acidic than

green and half- ripe ones. Vitamin C content ranged from 4.650.27 to 5.860.73

52

mg/100g.The amount of P (3.93-4.52g/100g) was highest compared with the

other minerals, (Na, Mg, Ca and Zn) (Siti et al., 2005).

Various fruits and vegetable spices are known to provide food security

to the people in the arid zone of northeast India. Among various available arid

foods, analysis for nutritional composition and organoleptic evaluation of phog

(Calligonum polygonoides) products was carried out. The phog seeds were

found to contain 6.05g protein, 57.31g carbohydrate, 359.73 k cal energy,

3.52mg iron, 211mg calcium, 427mg phosphorus, 75.05mg sodium, 271mg

potassium and 4.30mg vitamin C on dry weight basis. Phog products like spicy

vegetable, parantha, raita, kadi and simple vegetable were also standardized

having 3.41 to 4.63 overall mean acceptability scores on five-point scale (Sarita

and Madhu, 2003).

Fruits of A. chinensis cv. Bruno at different developmental stages were

sampled in the northern region of Zheijang, China. Fruit growth was

characteristic of a double “S” curve. During fruit development, the content of

the main nutritive ingredients, such as organic acids, proteins, carbohydrates

and vitamin C, change regularly (Fu et al., 2004).

Chemical and biochemical changes were studied in ripening prickly

pears from three Opuntia morphospecies with different ripening behavior. At

fullyripe stage (commercial maturity), Blanca Cristalina showed the biggest

53

fruits, the hardest texture, and its pulp had the highest protein content. There

were no significant differences among morphospecies in ph or total soluble

solids in fully ripe fruits. The three species exhibited considerable levels of

vitamin C, dietary fibre, and mineral such as calcium iron and zinc. Protein

expression was analysed in pulp and skin from every species at physiological

and commercial maturity. Some proteins appeared at both stages, while many

others expressed differentially.This study evaluated prickly pear components

important for human nutrition and health, and provide basic information on

prickly pear ripening, with a view to its control and to improving shelf life.

(Silos et al., 2003).

Kowalski et al., (2003) determined the chemical composition of

aubergine cultivars Solara, Black Beauty and Epic, raised in an unheated

plastic tunnel in Lublin, Poland. Dry matter and ash, total protein content were

highest in Solara, whereas carbohydrate and vitamin C content, and energetic

value were highest in Black Beauty. Solara recorded the highest mean P, K, Ca,

Mg, Zn, Fe, Mn, Se and Cu content, whereas Black Beauty recorded the

highest Na content.

The juice in fruits of 21 genotypes of Japanese quince (Chaenomeles

japonica), 1 genotype of Chinese quince (C.cathayensis). 1 genotype of

flowering quince (C.speciosa) and 1 genotype of a hybrid taxon (C.x superb),

representing plant breeding material, was extracted and characterized. The

54

content of juice in the fruits varied between 41% and 52%, on fresh weight

basis. The juice was very acidic (pH 2.6 and a titratable acidity of 3.5%

calculated a anhydrous citric acid, on average) and transparent (52 NTU, on

average), with low density and viscosity. Protein constituted 26 mg per 100ml

juice on average, but no soluble polysaccharides were present. A high content

of vitamin C (59mg per 100ml juice, on average), beside the high acidity of the

juice, suggests that chaenomeles juic may be an interesting raw material as

ingredient for the food industry and a source of valuable substances (Ros et al.,

2004).

Akaniwor and Arachie, (2003) studied the nutritive values of some

fruits and seeds usually eaten raw in Nigeria.The fruits showed appreciable

amounts of moisture; pawpaw (80.244.20%), garden egg (73.463.15%), banana

(68.843.14%) and avocado pear (66.363.20) in decreasing content.The protein

content of all the fruits and seeds were not high; the highest value of 3.000.21%

was obtained for coconut. Appreciable amount of calcium and vitamin C

(13.80210% and 7.190.14%) respectively have been obtained from fruits

some.The carbohydrate content (expressed as glucose) of the fruits and seeds

also gave values ranging from 2.970.02% to 4.000.10%. The results show that

these fruits are good sources of essential nutrients particularly vitamin C which

is destroyed by high temperature.

55

The domestication of new fruits from tropical and subtropical regions of

the world holds promise to diversify and increase income and nutrition in these

regions. Many of the species have never been intensive cultivation and show

large intraspecific genetic varation. It is therefore expected that rapid

improvement in overall product quality can be achieved by simple selection. To

assist in the selection of superior individuals with a potential for wider

production and marketing, simple and quick screening method must be made

available. In the rural setting of developing countries, where malnutrition is

still prominent, the nutritional value of the fruit has ro be on of the most

important selection criteria. Selection for high-quality marula (Sclerocarya

birrea) have beenmade in the South Africa against the background of

commercial wine and liqueur production. In Kenya, where several provenances

exist, marula remains under -utilized by the local population. To develop a

selection strategy targeted at increased consumption by local communities,

fruits of 15 trees from Chyulu Hills and Mbui Nzau provenances (Makueni

District, Kenya) were collected in January 2000 and analysed for vitamin C,

sugar, starch, protein and mineral content. Vitamin C values in the pulp and

skin fraction ranged from 90 to over 300mg per 100g of fresh matter, sugar

content varied between 7 and 11% sucrose. Total acidity was around 2%, and

the embryos, consumed like nuts, contained over 50% fat. Most minerals were

present in only small amounts (Thiong et al., 2002).

56

Prickly pear (Optunia ficus indica) fruits, pulp, and seed oil (obtained

from markets in Alexandria, Egypt in July 1999) were studied in terms of fruit

technological properties, physicochemical, and chemical properties as well as

technological pulp processings to prepare jam, sheet, and paste. The results

showed that the strained pulp had a ph value of 6.12. The acidity of the pulp as

citric acid percentage was 0.19%. Chemical composition showed minor

amounts of crude protein, ether extract, crude fibre, ash and pectin, being

0.204, 0.11, 0.08, 0.42, and 0.195, respectively. Reducing sugars represented

about 97% of the total sugar (11.15%). The pulp contained fair amount of beta-

carotene (66 mg per g) and vitamin C (28mg per 100g). The different products

prepared from the strained pulp; paste, jam, and sheet were highly acceptable

by panelists (Abdel Nabey, 2001).

Teixeira et al., (2001) analysed the physical and chemical characteristics

of 6 carambola cultiuvars (Tean-ma, Fwang Tung, Arkin, Malaysia, Golden

star and Nota-10) from Sao Paulo, Brazil. Fresh weight, size, percentage juice,

residue and seed, seed numbers, and coloration were determined. pH, moisture

content, total soluble solids, total titratable acidity, vitamin C, total soluble

sugar, ash, protein total and soluble pectin, and minerals were evaluated for the

pulp. It was shown that Arkin, Tean-ma and Nota -10 were the largest, heaviest

and had the greatest total soluble solid and soluble sugar contents and a good

ratio of total souble solids to total titratable acidity.

57

Regular observation and measurement of Actilida kolomikta fruits

revealed that fruit weight and volume increased synchronously, resulting in a

double S-shaped growth curve. Regular changes in nutrient contents of fruits,

including organic acids, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates and vitamin C

[ascorbic acid], were also observed. Nutrients in fruits were at the appropriate

level about 90 days after pollination (Cang et al., 2001).

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) is an important indigenous fruit tree species

in semi-arid regions of southern Agfrica and the Sahelian zone and has been

commercially exploited in Botswana and South Africa. S.birrea (marula) fruits

and seeds collected from two regions in Kenya in January 1999 (Kibwezi) and

March 1999 (Kitui) were evaluated for their nutritive quality, and the results

compared with fruits from South Africa. Intial results from bulked sample from

the Kitui and Kibwezi provenances showed similar to higher values for vitamin

C, protein, important nutritional minerals and carbohydrates than values

published for fruits from Botswana, Namibia ans South Africa. The vitamin C

content of fresh fruit was 5-6 times higher than that in citrus (188 and 236mg

per 100g flesh for Kibwezi and Kitui fruits, respectively, while high value of

protein ,and minerals were obtained from nut. Fruits from both Kenyan

provenances showed significantly higher values for carbohydrates and minerals

in the fruit flesh than those of South Africa fruit. The results indicate the

possibility of commercializing this crop in Kenya (Jaenicke and Thiong, 2000).

58

Guava fruits of cv. Allahabad Safeda and Sardar harvested at different

developmental stages were analysed for their physico-chemical, biochemical

and minerals constituents. The growth of fruits followed a double sigmoid

curve.Data indicated that fruit densiy,total acidity, skin chlorophyll, skin

carotenoids, vitamin A, total pectins, crude protein, phosphorus, potassium,

calcium, magnesium and sodium contents decreased; pulp pH, total tannins,

dry matter and iron contents showed marginal changes, and TSS, vitamin C,

sucrose, glucose and fructose contents increased during fruit maturation and

ripening. The fruits of Allahabad Safeda had glucose: fructose ratio below 1

and those of Sardar above 1 during maturation and ripening. Citric acid content

was the major acid together with malic, tartaric, pyruvic, succinic, fumaric,

oxaloacetic, x- ketoglutaric and malonic acids formed 71-97% of the total non-

volatile acids at various ripening stages (Sslvaraj et al., 1999).

The physicochemical properties of pineapple (cv. Kew) fruits harvested

at various dates during the winter (115-120, 135-140, 141-145, 146-150, 151-

155 or 156-160 days from flowering to harvesting or DFH) were studied. Fruits

harvested in the winter had higher TSS and ascorbic acid contents, but had

lower TSS: acid ratio, sugar: acid ratio, total sugar content and reducing sugar

content than those harvested in the summer. The reducing sugar content

increased until the full colour development stage in the winter, but increased

until the 2/3 colour development stage, and then decreased, during the summer.

59

The total sugar content increased until the full colour development stage. The

ascorbic acid content increased until 2/3 colour development stage, and then

decreased. The data suggested that the optimum harvesting time for pineapple

fruits is 5-6 days earlier in the summer than in the winter (Deka et al., 2007).

An experiment was conducted to determine selected features of the new

honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea) cultivars Zielona. The average mass of one

fruit was 0.99g, 198g firmness, 12.65% dry weight content and total sugar

content was low (4.64g/100g mostly reducing sugar).Whereas ascorbic acid

was 42.7mg per 100g. Fruit extract showed ability of scavenging ~ 52% of

DPPH radicals. Because of low climatic agronomic requirements, early fruiting

and valuable chemical composition of the fruit, blue honeysuckle is an

interesting species both for amateur and commercial cultivation (Skupien et al.,

2007).

Kim and Park (2007) studied the sugar accumulation and related enzyme

activities of peach fruit during fruit development. Fruit growth and

development patterns of ‘Kanoiwa Hakuto’ (an early maturing cultivar),

‘Nagazawa Hakuho’ (a medium maturing cultivar), 'Yumyeong' (a late matur

ing cultivar) and ‘Changhowon Hwangdo’ (a very late maturing cultivar) were

similar. In all the cultivars, soluble solid content (SSC) increased rapidly as the

fruit matured. The contrast, titratable acidity increased gradually until pit

hardening stage, and then decreased as the fruit matured. Total soluble sugar

60

content in fruit increased with fruit maturation. The change was almost sigmoid

and mainly due to change in sucrose which was the predominant soluble sugar

in mature fruits, although initially glucose and fructose were the predominant

soluble sugar in immature stage. Activity of sucrose synthase (SS) was high in

young fruit and decreased as the fruit matured. That of SS increased again to

high level with fruit maturation in all cultivars. On the other hand, sucrose-

phosphate synthase activity was low throughout fruit maturation. Thus, SS

might account for the most portion of sucrose synthesis. Acid invertase (AI)

activity was high at the initial fruit growth, and decreased to low level at

ripening. Sine AI activity was high at the early developmental stage, content of

reducing sugar such as glucose and fructose were higher than sucrose content.

There was the negative correlation with SSC in all the cultivars, while glucose,

fructose and sorbitol showed negative correlation with SSC.

An investigation was carried out during 2003 and 2004 to study the fruit

developmental stages pertaining to quality characteristics for fixation of

maturity standards in Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) at the Central

Horticultural Experiment Station, Vejalpur, Gujarat, India. It was observed that

the fruit growth was faster initially and slowed down between last week of

September to first week of October and increased slightly thereafter and

followed a double sigmoid growth pattern in almost all the cultivars. Total and

reducing sugar contents increased as the fruits reached towards maturity. In all

61

the cultivars, vitamin C increased during development and became constant

until the fruits attained physiological maturity (Sanjay et al., 2006).

The changes in chemical and microbiological characteristics of some

olive [olea europea] cultivar during natural fermentation in brine were

examined. Chemical characteristics such as reducing sugars, titratable acidity,

total phenols and dry matter were investigated. The olives were put in brine

acidified up to pH 4. The salt concentration and pH values were necessary to

favour lactic acid fermentation. A uniform trend of pH was observed for all the

olive culivars; a stable pH value below 4.5 was noted.Reducing sugar content

was highest in the Nocellara etnea cultivar (> 5%), and lower than 4% in the

other cultivars.Drymatter content was highest in the Ogliarola cultivar (Poiana

and Romeo, 2006).

Some nutritional and physical properties of myrtle fruits (Myrtus

communis) growing wild in Mersin region, Turkey were determined.

Nutritional properties (such as protein, oil, fibre, reducing sugar, tannin, ash,

and water soluble extract) and physical properties (such as dimensions, weight,

thickness, geometric mean diameter, shhericity, bulk density, porosity,

projected area, 100 fruit weight, terminal velocity and the rupture strength of

myrtle fruits) were established. The crude oil, crude protein, crude fibre, crude

energy, reducing sugar, tannin, ash, water-soluble extract and essential oil

values of fruit were determined as 2.37%, 4.17%, 17.41%, 11.21 kcal per g,

62

8.64%, 76.11mg per 100g, 0.725%, 52.94% and 0.01, respectively. Some

physical properties of myrtle fruits were evaluated as functions of moisture

content. The average length, width, thickness, the geometric mean diameter of

myrtle fruits were 13.75mm, 8.11mm, 7.57mm, 10.53mm at a moisture content

of 8.32% d.b., respectively (Aydn and Ozcan , 2007).

Diurnal varations of carbohydrate content and activities of related

enzymes in source leaves in response to defruiting were studied during

endocarp hardening and final rapid fruit growth stages of ‘Yanfeng Yihao’

peach. The total soluble sugar, sorbito, sucrose and starch contents, opposite to

glucose and fructose contents, tended to increase during the day in sucrose

leaves for both retaining fruit (control) and defruiting treatments (defruiting).

Defruiting resulted in significantly higher contents of sorbitol and starch , and

higher activities of aldose-6- phosphate reductase (A6PR) and ADP- glucose

pyrophosphorylase (ADPGPase) compared with the control at most time during

a day ( Li et al., 2006).

Two varieties of guava fruit were analyzed for total phenol contents,

ascorbic acid contents and antioxidant activities. The antioxidant activities

were assessed based on the ability of the fruit extract in 50% ethanol to

scavenge DPPH, reduce Fe (III) to Fe (II) ion. The results were compared to

several other local fruits as well as orange. It was found that the guava fruit

contains relatively high amounts of antioxidant. It also has high primary, but

63

low secondary antioxidant potential. Storage at 4 degree C has the effect of

increasing ascorbic acid content, and the non-peeled fruit has higher total

phenol and ascorbic acid contents compared to the peeled fruit (Lim et al.,

2006).

Shela et al., (2001) evaluate the antioxidant properties of some citrus

fruits. The contents of dietary fibre, total polyphenols, essential phenolics,

ascorbic acid and some trace elements of lemons, oranges and grapefruits were

determined and compared with their total radical-trapping antioxidant potential

(TRAP). There was no significant differences in the contents of total, soluble

and insoluble dietary fibre in the studied peeled fruits or their peels.The

contents of total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre in peels were significantly

higher than in peeled fruits (p<0.05 in all cases). The peeled lemons, oranges

and grapefruits contain 164 ± 10.3; 154 ± 10.2 and 135 ± 10.1mg per 100g of

total polyphenols, respectively.The content of total polyphenols in the peels

was significantly higher than in peeled fruits (p<0.05) in all the cases. The

same results were obtained in the investigation of essential phenolics and

ascorbic acid. The content of Fe in peeled lemons and their peels was

significantly higher than in peeled oranges and grapefruits and their peels,

respectively. Also the TRAP was significantly higher in peeled lemons and

their peels than in peeled oranges and grapefruits and their peels, respectively.

In all three fruits, the TRAP was significantly higher in peels than in peeled

64

fruits (p<0.05). Thus, lemons possesthe highest antioxidant potential among the

studied citrus fruits and are preferable for dietary prevention of cardiovascular

and other diseases.

Uptil now there has been no reports regarding the nutritive values and

cultivation of wild fruits. No symstematic work or datas for the improvement

of cultivation of these wild fruit of Manipur has not so far been taken up.

However an account of some of the edible fruit plants of Manipur that are eaten

by the people in different ways along with there local names have been made

(Sharma et al., 2000).