chapter 18 leadership, management and supervision …
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CHAPTER 18
LEADERSHIP, MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION
Leadership
Leadership is an interpersonal influence directed towards the achievement of goal or good
and this will help inspire people to achieve them.
Management
Management is the effective use and coordination of business resources in order to achieve
key objectives with maximum efficiency.
Supervisors
A supervisor is a person given responsibility for planning and controlling the work or group
of employees. They are responsible for ensuring that specified tasks are performed correctly
and efficiently by the group.
The following are the key functions of
- They undertake technical or operational work alongside of overlooking the group
- They advise and supervisors their team members
Managers Leaders
• Administrators
• Rely on controls
• They are important
• Innovators
• Inspire trust
• Leaders are essential
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Management Authority and Responsibility
Authority
Authority refers to the relationship between the participants within an organization According
to the expert Henry Fayol authority is defined as the right to give orders and powers to exact
obedient
Responsibility
Responsibility is the liability of the person to be called for account for his/her actions, it
expresses the obligation a person has to fulfill a given task. Usually responsibility cannot be
delegated to others.
Power
Authority is the right to do something while power is the ability to do something. Power is
what enables the manager to ensure that the team member will comply with his request.
There are 5 types of power.
(1) Reward Power
Where one person is able to reward another person for carrying out their order or
meeting other requirements.
(2) Cohesive Power
Where one person having the ability to punish another person failing to carry out their
orders
(3) Expert Power
Where it is considered one person is expert on a particular task than other
(4) Referent Powers
This is based on the personal qualities of the individual and often occurs when one
person identifies with or wishes to imitate another.
(5) Legitimate Power
This is the power derived from his position of authority within the organization.
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Theories of Management
1. Classical Theories of Management
They are largely concerned with improving efficiency and productivity. The following are
the main functions as per Henry Fayol.
(1) Fayol – The five functions of management
Organization / organizing Planning
Divide the work into tasks and
projects and ensure the right
They set objectives and evaluate their
objectives resource handles the right job
Management
Functions
Direct / command
Give instructions to subordinates to
Coordination carry out their duties Where all staff should work
coordinately to achieve the Control
objectives as a whole Setting targets, measure the out come
and compares with the targets.
(2) Taylor - Scientific Management (F W Taylor)
Taylor believed that by analyzing work in a scientific manner, it was possible to find
the one best way to perform a task. The following are the 4 principles of Taylors
scientific management
1. Task should be analyzed in detail to determine the most efficient method to use
2. Staff members should be scientifically managed only suitable people should be
chosen.
3. Managers should make all key decisions and provide detail instruction
4. Work should be divided between workers and managers.
While there are areas where these classical models are still relevant, most modern theorists
would argue that a more progressive approach is needed where,
• it is recognized that there is not always a ‘best’ way of doing a particular job
• managers realise that employees can have valuable insights into a job and can make i
mportant suggestions for improvements, and
• many workers are motivated by factors other than financial rewards
2. Human relation school (Elton Mayo)
- Mayo states that employee behaviour depends primarily on group relations and
management worker communication.
- Wage rates or elements are not the primary element to motivate
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3. Modern Writers
Several of the more modern writers on management focused on the various functions of a
manager.
(1) Peter Drucker - 5 basic operations/functions
Organize Develop People
Motivate and
communicate Set objectives
Establish yard sticks
(2) Henry Mintzberg - 10 skills of management
Interpersonal
• Figure head
• Leader
• Liaison
Information
• Monitor
• Disseminator
• Spokes person
Decisional
• Entrepreneur
• Disturbance handler
• Resource Allocator
• Negotiator
Reasons
A symbolic role of manager to represent with
carries out all his duties under his consideration.
A relationship with other subordinates to create a
good environment to the business involve with
certain level of information.
They collect information and disseminate for the
important person
This is where passing of the information to
necessary authorities
Managers transmit information to various
external group to achieve their objective such as
bank, tax dept.
Where entrepreneur should take risk to gain a
better return on investment
Whenever there is a dispute / pressure the
managers will take the responsibility
Allocation of resources more efficiently and
smoothly
When there is a dispute over something the
negotiator will come forward
A manager according
to Peter Drucker
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3 Main groups of leadership theories
1. Trait Theories
This is argued that good leaders have certain attributes or qualities that allows them to lead.
Trait theories have been described as follows:
These argue that good leaders have certain natural attributes or qualities that allow them to lead (such as a cheerful personality, or fairness). Leaders
are therefore born, not made.
2.Style theories
These argued that certain leadership approaches can be learnt or used by manager depending
on the situation. There are 2 main types,
2.1Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid
When they observed two basic dimensions for leadership
• Concern for people
• Concern for production
Based on the managers concern they can be plotted for the following
High
Concern for
people
Low
Low High
Concern for
Production
1.1 – Management impoverishment (Most minimum effort given to both criteria)
1.9 – Country club management (High people concern, but low prod" concern)
9.1 – Task management (mainly concern about production but not people)
9.9 – Team management (Where we have a high integration for both PPL & prod")
5.5 – Middle of the road management (They moderately achieve good results on both
dimension)
9 1.9 9.9
8
7
6
5 5.5
4
3
2
1 1.1 9.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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2.2 Ashridge Management college
The following are the 4-management style from Ashridge Management college
(1) Autocratic (tells)
Manager makes all the decisions and issue instruction to obey without any concerns
(2) Persuasive (sell)
Managers still takes all the decisions but believes that team members must be
motivated to accept them in carrying out properly.
(3) Participative (Consult)
The manager gets some consultation from the team, but retains the final say.
(4) Democratic (Join)
The leader and the team members make the decisions together.
3.Contingency Theory
These suggest that there is no correct style, or approach. Instead, successful leadership
involves adapting to the particular circumstances in which the leader finds themselves.
3.1Action centered leadership - Adair
Adair suggested that any leader has to strive to balance three interrelated goals in order to be
effective. These three goals relate to the needs of the group, the individual and the task.
Task
Need
Group
Need Individ
-ual
Needs
• Communication
• Team Building
• Motivation
• Discipline
Setting objectives, Planning
Coaching, Motivating
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3.2 Contingency theory - Fiedler
Fiedler studied the relationship between the style of leadership and the effectiveness of the
work group. First, he identified two distinct styles of leadership.
there are two types of leaders:
(1) Psychologically distant managers (PDMs)
• seek to keep their distance from subordinates by formalising roles
and relationships within the team
• are withdrawn and reserved in their interpersonal relationships
• prefer formal communication and consultation methods
• task oriented
(2) Psychologically close managers (PCMs)
• do not seek to formalize roles and relationships
• prefer informal contacts to regular staff meetings
• are primarily person oriented rather than task oriented
Fiedler suggested that the situation is most favourable for the manager when they have a
strong relationship with the group they are managing, group tasks are well defined and the
power of the leader to reward and punish the team is high.
• Fiedler’s research indicated that a PDM approach works best when the situation is eith
er very favourable or very unfavourable to the leader
• A PCM approach works best when the situation is only moderately favourable for the
leader.
3.3 Transformational Leadership - Bennis
Bennis argued that there are two types of leaders:
(1) Transactional leaders
These leaders see the relationship with their followers with regard to rewards
(2) Transformational leaders:
They see their role as inspiring and motivating others to work at level beyond
compliance
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3.4 Kotter – Managing Change
Kotter set out the following change approaches to deal with resistance.
They are:
(1) Participation and innovation – Allowing the people to handle it
(2) Education and Communication – Keep them updated on what's happening
(3) Facilitation and support – Training and consultation
(4) Manipulation Co-optation – This selectively shows only the benefits of the change
(5) Negotiation and agreement – where staff will be understood what is done and how it
is done. This approach enables several parties with opposing interests to bargain.
3.5 Heifetz – Leadership to motivate
Heifetz argues that the main role of managers is to help people to face reality and mobilize
them to make changes where necessary. A true leader doesn’t necessarily have all the
answers – instead they encourage people to tackle tough challenges themselves.
In addition, Heifetz suggested that anyone within an organization may have provided some
degree of leadership in certain circumstances. This means that leaders may sometimes simply
emerge, rather than being formally appointed by the organization. This is referred to as
‘dispersed leadership’.
Contingency theories – conclusion
Contingency theories are often seen as the most practical, as they encourage leaders to
understand their current circumstances and adapt their approach accordingly. However, in
practice, most managers find it difficult to vary their leadership approach on a regular basis –
instead simply finding a style that they are comfortable with and sticking with it.
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CHAPTER 19
RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION OF EMPLOYEER
What is recruitment?
The term recruitment can be defined as attraction of suitable applicants for a particular job.
Usually recruitment can be done internally or externally.
Internal Recruitment
When an organization recruits employees within the organization, it is considered to be
internal recruitment.
External Recruitment
Any recruitment done outside the organization is considered to be the external recruitment.
Selection
The term selection refers to choosing the most suitable candidate for the specified position.
The consequence of poor recruitment and selection:
- High staff turnover
- High cost of advertising for vacancies
- Waste of management time involve in selection and training
- The expense of dismissal
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The Recruitment and Selection process
Define the vacancy
↓
Job Analysis
↓
Job description Recruitment
↓
Person's specification
↓
Attract candidates
↓
Application form
↓
Interviews
↓ Selection
Testing
↓
References
Defining the vacancy
A vacancy can arise from 2 ways
• An existing employee leaving the organization
• A new job / position is created
A vacancy can be filled in two ways:
(1) Internally
Advantages Disadvantages
• Cost and time are cheap
• The employee already knows about
the culture of the org"
• No new ideas will come into the
business
• Something conflicts can arise
(demotivation also can be taken)
(2) Externally
Advantages Disadvantages
• New blood and new ideas can come
into the business
• For certain jobs external recruitment
is important
• Cost and time taken is high
• Training cost also will be high
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Job Analysis
The process of Job analysis is a detail study and the description of task. This is an internal
document.
Job Description (JD)
Once management fully understand the role they will prepare the JD, which can be defined as
"a broad statement of the purpose, scope, duties and responsibility of the Job"
The following are the elements of JD:
(1) Job title
(2) Purpose of the Job
(3) Principle duties
(4) Working conditions
(5) Wages and salaries
(6) Key difficulties in the job
Person's Specification
A person's specification is about a person and not about the job. This can be defined as a
description of the qualifications, skills, experience, knowledge and other attributes a
candidate must possess to perform the job duties.
Alec Rodgers 7-point place
S – Special attribute (Skills and abilities of the candidate)
C – Circumstances (does the job hove any special demands)
I – Interests (interest in personal or social life which helps the job)
P – Physical make up (Personal appearance)
D – Disposition (What sort of nature of this candidate ex: social or calm in crisis ?)
A – Attainments (Does the ideal candidate need any special qualification)
G – General intelligence (Find out the average success of a particular person)
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Attracting Candidates
This stage will motivate candidates to apply to org". If it is an internal recruitment the staff
attraction will come through.
- Promotion
- Transfers
- Rotating job among staff
Advertising
(1) The main objective of recruitment is to advertise the most suitable person into the job.
Therefore, advertisements should be very comprehensive and should give the correct
details of the Job.
(2) It should attract many people as possible
(3) It should include many information possible without making it overload.
The advertisement method / media which is to be selected will be based on several factors.
(1) Type of the organization
(2) Type of the job being advertised
(3) The cost of the advertising
(4) The frequency and duration of the advertisement
The following are the types of Advertising
(1) National and local press
(2) Internet
(3) Radio and TV channel
(4) Specialist Journal
Application Forms
These will provide the org" with relevant information about the candidate. This allows
organization.
- To eliminate unsatisfactory applicants
- Save interview time
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Selection interviews
The purpose of an interview is to:
(1) Find the best person
(2) Candidate understands what the job involves and what the career would be
(3) The candidate feels that they have been fairly treated
There are various types of interview
(1) Face to face – one person with another
(2) Group interviews – interview takes place with other candidates
(3) Succession interviews – obtained better view of candidate
(4) Panel interviews – interview by a group of six / seven members
(5) Paired interviews – this is where two managers conduct the interview
with one applicant
Advantages Disadvantages
• Make the candidate ease
• Opportunities to use nonverbal
communications
• Opportunity to assess appearance
• Too brief to get to know candidates
• Effort from initial impression
• Certain factors such as motivation,
honesty and difficulty to assess.
Selection Testing
Two basic testing
- Proficiency and attainment – skills and abilities of the areas
- Psychometric – These are more into psychology
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CHAPTER 20
INDIVIDUAL, GROUP AND TEAM BEHAVIOUR
Characteristics of individual behaviour
Although individual behaviour varies significantly the underline issues relating to behaviour
are the same for all people typical issues that affect individual behaviour and performance at
work include:
(1) Motivational Level
This is where desire to do a job or not desire to do a job. This affects with
* Financial rewards * Non-financial rewards
(2) Perception
Individuals select, organize and interpret the stimuli they receive.
(3) Attitudes
These are persistent feelings and behavioural tendencies directed towards specific
people, group or ideas
(4) Personality
This is combination of emotional, attitudes and responses on an individual
Role Theory
This model suggests that behaviour of individual depends on other people’s expectation on
them and how they are supposed to behave in a given situation. A Role is the pattern of
behaviour expected by someone who occupies the particular situation.
Role Signs
These are visible indications of
roles such as uniforms etc.
ex: army uniform badges
Role behaviour
Certain types of behaviour can be
associated with a particular role in
an org"
Role set
This describes the people who
respond to an individual to a
particular role
Role Theory
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Problems in roles
Groups
A group is a collection of individuals who perceive themselves to be a group. The
following are the characteristics:
(1) The sense of identify
(2) Loyalty to group
(3) Purpose of leadership
Group
Informal Group
That individuals voluntarily join to meet their
social or security needs ex: A group at
railway station to check about train coming
on time
Formal Group
Group that are created to carry out specific
tasks or communicate to solve the problem
ex: Project Group
Group Behaviour
When dealing with individuals’ people can adapt different kinds of behaviour.
(1) Aggressive
This violates another person's rights and can often lead to conflict.
(2) Assertive
This is direct, honest professional communication. This does not violate rights.
(3) Passive behaviour
Is giving into another person in a believe that their rights are more important than
yours.
Role in incompatibility
This occurs when individuals
experience expectations from
outside group about their role that
are different to their own role
expectations.
Role conflicts
This occurs when individual find a
clash between roles
Role ambiguity
Role Theory
Problems
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The Contributions of individuals and teams for Organizational Success
(1) Mixture of skills and abilities
(2) Synergy – pooling of ideas
(3) Increased flexibility
(4) Better control
(5) Improved communication
Problems in Groups
(1) Group decision making can be slow
(2) Tend to produce decisions that are compromising
(3) Lack of individual responsibility
(4) Competition and conflicts
Teams (Formal Group)
A team is more than a group which can be described as any group of people who must
significantly relate with each other in order to accomplish shared objective. Teams usually :
(1) Share a common goal
(2) Enjoy working together
(3) Committed achieving certain goals
(4) loyal to the team with a team spirit
1. Team Role theory - Belbin
He discusses about a different roles:
(1) Leader - Pulls the group to achieve the goal
(2) Shaper - Promotes activity and dominant
(3) Plant - Ideas person
(4) Monitor Evaluator - Criticizes other ideas and brings the team down to earth
(5) Resource investigator - Looks for alternative solutions
(6) Implementer - Turns ideas into practical solutions (administrator)
(7) Team worker - Concern with the relations within e group
(8) Completer / finisher - The progress chaser
(9) Specialist - Who provides skills and knowledge
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2. Tuckman's Stages of group development
Forming – Team initially comes together
↓
Storming – Conflicts stage for roles and processes are challenged
↓
Norming – Co-operation begins
↓
Performing – The team begins to productive
↓
Adjourning / Dorming – Team completes the objective and disbands
Team Effectiveness
The following are key aspects of successful teams
(1) Team should be relatively small
(2) Team should have a relative duration
(3) Membership should be voluntary
(4) Communication should be informal and unstructured
(5) It should be action oriented
The following are the main concerns in team building
- Improved Communication
- Building Trust
- Social Interaction