Chapter 15 – The Family

• Socialization = teaching beliefs & customs

• Who socializes children?

- Parents

- Teachers

- Siblings/extended family

- Peers

- Media

Cultural Influences

• Cultures - specific beliefs & behaviors

• Universals

- in behaviors children learn

- in parents’ goals

ParentingSocialization Methods

• Instruction

= giving information

(and encouragement)

• Modeling

= setting example

• Disciplining

= sanctioning behavior

Give Take Away

Positive Positive Response

Reinforcement Cost &

Time Out

Negative Punishment Negative Reinforcement

• Positive Reinforcement

= rewarding behavior

- goal = increase good behavior

**- best way to increase desired behavior

- social vs. physical/tangible reinforcers

- social are best

- less expensive

- no need to remove

- positive social interaction

• Punishment

= administer negative to reduce negative behavior

- physical or verbal

Best to not use

- associates parent with negative event

- teaches aggression

- is less effective

Especially ineffective if:

- delayed

- too mild or too intense

- inconsistent

- parents are not otherwise warm/loving

• Response Cost/Time Out

= remove something positive

(attention, privileges, tangible things)

- goal: decrease negative behavior

** best method

- must be administered properly

• Negative Reinforcement

- NOT punishment

= remove something aversive

- goal: increase positive behavior

- ineffective & negative strategy

• Can increase positive behavior

- give a positive (positive reinforcement)

- remove negative (negative reinforcement)

• Can decrease negative behavior

- give a negative (punishment)

- remove a positive (reponse cost)

• Therapy with behaviorally-disturbed children/parents

Parent Behavioral Training (PBT)

- teach parents more effective strategies

• Outcome

- continued tantrums

- parent gives in

- parent teaches kid to have tantrum to get own way

• Solution

- extinguish tantrums

- might increase before decrease

Other Processes

• Reciprocal Influence

- kid & parent influence each other

- 1940s-50s: blame parent

• Shaping

- gradually reinforce closer approximations to the goal

- parents & teachers often dislike

Parenting Styles

• 2 dimensions

- warmth & involvement

- control

• 4 styles

Warmth

High Low

High AuthoritativeAuthoritarian

Control

Low Indulgent- Indifferent-

Permissive Uninvolved

• *Authoritative

= firm & loving

- rules with discussion

- responsive to child’s needs

- kids’ outcomes are best

- “energetic-friendly”

• Authoritarian

= traditional; parents set rules

- kids’ outcome: no initiative, lower grades & self-esteem

- but few behavioral problems

- “conflicted-irritable”

• Indulgent-Permissive

= few rules, rarely punish

- very warm & involved

- kids’ outcome: immature, poor self-control, poor academically

- but good self-esteem

- “impulsive-aggressive”

• Indifferent-Uninvolved

= reduced time & effort parenting

- psychologically distant

- kids’ outcome: little emotional control; most behavioral problems, probably worst self-esteem

- hostile & rebellious as teens

• Summary:

- parenting style is strongly related to child behavior/outcome

- moderate control and much warmth is best (love and limits)

Divorce

• Prevalence

- 40-50% of recent marriages

• Impact

Not just single event - The Divorce

- marital conflict*

- changes after divorce

• Effects on Parents

- angry

- isolated

- financial problems

- moms: edgy, impatient, punitive

- dads: permissive & indulgent

• Children

- angry, depressed & afraid

- guilty (preschoolers)

- blame parents (adolescents)

- whiny & disobedient

- problems at school & with peers

- vicious cycle between parent & child

• Sex differences

- worse on boys than girls

- more behavioral problems, longer to recover

- BUT may be easier to see boys’ problems

- boys/girls better if live with same-sex parent

• Staying together for the kids

- poor idea

- conflict, not divorce, causes the problems

• Long-term effects

- no clear evidence of when is best

- better if friends from divorce

- less optimistic about own marriage

Remarriage

• Positive: better finances, partner

• Negative: initial conflict & change

• Sex difference: boys adjust better to stepfather

• Stepmothers: tougher job initially because of active childrearing role

• Younger children adapt better

Siblings• Relationships

- much conflict- less conflict among same-sex pairs

- relationship is more positive than negative- older siblings more domineering

+ more helpful/playful- sibling relations are closer/warmer + more conflictual

- viewed as more important than friends

- less intense, more supportive in adolescence

• Older Sibling Functions

1. Attachment objects

2. Social models

3. Teachers

Birth Order

• First-born children

- treated differently by parents & have different experiences

- more likely to feel sibling rivalry

Outcomes related to birth order

• Success

- first-borns

• Popularity

- later-borns

• Individual differences

Only Children

• Not spoiled & selfish

• More obedient & socially skilled

• High self-esteem, low anxiety

• Independent

• Competent: higher in IQ/achievement

• May gain from peers & parents what lose from siblings

• China

- teachers rated only kids same as others

- parents rated only girls as depressed, moody, & temperamental

- peers rated only children as more selfish, less cooperative, less liked

Abuse & Neglect

Types

• Physical abuse

- physical injury

• Sexual abuse

- ANY sexual activity with a child

• Psychological abuse

- belittling, demeaning

• Neglect

- inadequate care & protection

Risk Factors

• Child factors

- behavior/temperament problems

- premature birth/illness/deformities

- male for physical, female for sexual

• Parent factors

- history of abuse

- poor peer relations as a child

- low self-esteem

- low IQ

- poor interpersonal skills

- inability to control anger

• Family/system factors

- marital discord & divorce

- single parenthood

- poverty

- unemployment

- social isolation

- divorce

Outcomes of Abuse

• Personality

- passive & obedient

- negative, hostile

- low self-esteem, withdrawn

- difficulty with trust & attachment

- worse for sexual abuse

• Cognitive

- worse memory & attention abilities

- severe abuse => brain injury, lower IQ