POLITICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

EMPIRES AND ENCOUNTERS1450-1750

CHAPTER 13AP WORLD HISTORY 2015 SOFISANDOVAL

EARLY MODERN ERA• Chapter 13 to 15 are conventionally labeled as “Early

Modern Era”. – historians are suggesting that during these three centuries we can find some initial signs of markers of the modern world.

• The beginnings of genuine globalization, elements of distinctly modern societies, and a growing European presence in world affairs.

• The most obvious expression of globalization, of course, lay in the oceanic journeys of European explorers and the European conquest and colonial settlement of the Americas.

EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN THE AMERICAS

• Spanish focused their empire building efforts in the Caribbean and then, in the early 16th century to mainland, with stunning conquests of powerful but fragile Aztec and Inca empires.

• Portuguese established themselves along the coast of present day Brazil.

• British, French, and Dutch launched colonial settlements along the eastern coast of North America.

EUROPEAN ADVANTAGE• Geography provides a starting point for explaining Europes American empires. • Portugal, Spain, Britain and France were simply closer to the Americas than

Asian competitors.• Fixed winds of the Atalntic blew in the same direction.• European innovations in mapmaking, navigation, sailing techniques.• Highly motivated *Economic• Elites were increasingly aware of their regions marginal position in the rich

world.• European population recovered from the plagues• Growing desire for sugar, tobacco, meat and fish.• Merchant class in rapidly commercializing Europe.• Missionaries inspired by crusading zeal to enlarge the realm of Christendom.• Minorities in search of a new life.

European intentions• “We came here to serve God, the King and to get

rich.” – Spanish Conquistador.

THE GREAT DYING• Aztec and Inca empires had no

immunities to Europes diseases: smallpox, measles, typhus, malaria and yellow fever. = Native American people died in appalling numbers.

• Caribbean islands virtually vanished – 10 million, to 1 million by 1650.

• In North America, governor Bradford of Plymouth: “Sweeping away great multitudes of the natives…that will make room for us.”

THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

• Labor shortage and certainly did make room for immigrant newcomers. = combinations of indigenous, European and African peopes created a new society in the Americas.

• Europeans and Africans brought not only their germs and their people but also their plants and animals. = transformed the landscape.

• Even more revolutionary were their animals: horses, pigs, cattle, goat and sheep. = New domesticated animals made possible the ranching economies and cowboy cultures (North American West), hunting bison by horseback.

COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE• 60 million in 1400 to 390 million in

1900. Those Amerindian crops later provided cheap and reasonably nutritious food for millions of industrial workers.

• American stimulants such as tobacco and chocolate.

• Never before in human history had such a large scale and consequential diffusion of plants and animals operated to remake the biological environment.

• Globalization -> reshaped the whole economy.

COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE• The plantation owners of the tripical

lowland regions needed workers and found them by the millions in Africa.

• The slave trade which bought these workers to the colonies, and the sugar and cotton trade, which distributed the fruits of their labor abroad, created a lasting link among Africa.

• This enormous network of communication, migration, trade, disease, and the transfer of plants and animals, all generated by European colonial empires in the Americas, has been dubbed the COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE.

NEW UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD

• Two worlds were joined – creating a new world of global dimensions. But very unequally distribuited.

• New information flooded into Europe, shaking up conventional understandings of the world and contribuiting to the revolutionary new way of thinking, known as the Scientific Revolution.

• The wealth of the colonies *metals, natural resources, new food crops, slave labor, colonial markets provided one of the foundations on which Europe’s Industrial Revolution was built.

COMPARING COLONIAL SOCIETIES

• “Old World” gave the rise to a “New World” in the Americas. Their colonial empires: Spanish, Portuguese, British and French did not simply conquer and govern societies, but rather generated new societies.

• European rulers viewed their realms through the lens of the economic theory known as MERCANTILISM. – Encouraging exports and accumulating bullion *precious metals: Silver and Gold. Which were believed to be the source of national prosperity.

COLONIAL SOCITIES IN THE AMERICAS

• Mercantilist thinkers fueled European wars and colonial rivalries around the world: competing.

• Piracy and smuggling allowed Spanish colonists to exhange goods with Spain’s rivals.

• Some differences grew out of the societies of the colonizing power such as the contrast between semi-feudal and Catholic Spain, and a more rapidly changing Protestant England.

• This economy established a settler dominated agriculture, slave based plantations, ranching or mining.

WOMEN IN THE AMERICAS• Women and men often experienced colonial

intrusion in quite distinct ways. • Conquest was often accompanied by the

transfer of women to the new colonial rulers. • Spanish men married elite native women –

as a means for cementing their new relationship. (Aztecs exchanged female slaves and viceversa)

• Women often experienced sexual violence and abuse. = Rape accompanied conquest in many places, enslaved women performed sexual services to European men.

• This tragedy and humiliation for native and enslaved men as well, for they were unable to protect their women.

THE LANDS OF THE AZTECS AND THE INCAS

• A century before the British had even begun their colonizing efforts in North America, the Spanish in Mexico and Peru had established nearly a dozen major cities, even universities, churches, cathedrals and administrative bureaucracy.

• The economic foundation for this emerging colonial society lay in commercial agriculture, and the silver and gold mining.

• African slaves provided most of the labor. Almost everywhere it was forced labor.

ENCOMIENDA AND HACIENDA SYSTEM

• A legal system known as ENCOMIENDA, the Spanish crown granted to particular Spanish settlers a number of local native people from whom they could acquire labor, gold, or agricultural produce and to whom they owed “protection” and instruction in the Christian faith.

• By the 17th century the HACIENDA system had taken shape by which the owners of large states directly employed native workers. With low wages, high taxes, and large debts to the landowners, the PEONS who worked these estates had little control over their lives.

SOCIAL CLASS IN THE AMERICAS

• At the top of this colonial society were the Spanish settlers, who were politically and economically dominant = aristocracy.

• Spaniards born in the Americas CREOLES, resented the pretensions to superiority of those born in Spain PENINSULARES.

• Spanish missionaries and church authorities were often worried of how these settlers treated Natives.

• Spanish women shared only racial privilages, viewed as the “bearers of civilization” were essential link for transmitting male wealth, honor and status to future generations. To continue the PURITY OF BLOOD

MESTIZOS• The problem was that there were very

few of Spanish women.• The emergence of MESTIZO or mixed

race, = Spanish and Indian women. • Mestizo numbers grew substantially,

becoming the majority of the populations in Mexico. Even though dozens of separate groups evolved, CASTAS, based on racial heritage and skin color (African with Spanish, Native with African…)

• Mestizos were largely Hispanic in culture, but Spaniards looked down on them during much of the colonial era, regarding them as illegitimate of not born of “proper” marriages.

INDIANS• Particularly in Mexico, mestizo identity

blurred the sense of sharp racial difference between Spanish and Indian peoples and became a major element in the identity of modern Mexico.

• At the bottom of the Mexican and Perivian colonial societies were the indigenous, known to Europeans as INDIANS.

• They were subject to gross abuse and exploitation, since they were the primary source of labor for mines.

• Many learned Spanish, converted to Christianity, moved to cities to work for minimun wages, ate their diet.

THE TUPAC AMARU REVOLT• Tupac Amaru II was the leader of an indigenous

uprising in 1780 against the Spanish in Peru. He later became a mythical figure in the Peruvian struggle for independence and indigenous rights movement.

• The Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, was an uprising of native and mestizo peasants against the Bourbon reforms of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Tupac Amaru was executed in 1781. But the rebellion continued for another year.

• The goernment of Spain, in an effort of controlling the colonial empire, began introducing what became known was the Burbon Reforms throughout South America. Creating Viceroyalties. Separating territories, specially the economically important that had silver mines.

VICEROYALTIES

COLONIES OF SUGAR• Europeans found a very profitable substitute

in sugar, which was much demanded in Europe.

• Sugar based colonies produced almost exclusively for export. (large scale sugar production had been pioneered by Arabs, but Europeans learned their technique and transferred it to their Atlantic possessions-> then to Americas.

• Portuguese planters along the northeast coast of Brazil dominated the world market for sugar.

• British, French, and Dutch turned their Caribbean territories into highly productive sugar producing colonies, breaking the Portuguese and Brazilian monopoly.

COLONIES OF SUGAR• Sugar transformed Brazil and the

Caribbean.• It was perhas the first modern

industry in that it produced for an international and mass market, using capital and expertise from Europe.

• Use of massive slave labor. Worked in horrendous conditions. The heat and fire from the cauldrons= scenes from hell. -> death rates 10% a year.

WOMEN IN SUGAR PLANTATIONS

• Women field gangs that did the heavy work of planting and harvesting sugarcane. They were subject to brutal punishments.

• Women who worked in urban areas -> domestic chores, laundries and brothels.

• Majority of Brazil population was either partially or wholly black – African descent.

• In the French Caribbean colony of Haiti 1790, the figure was 95%.

SLAVERY AND RACISM• Mulattoes produt of Portuguese and African unions,

predominated. -> more than 30 separate named groups indicating racial mixture.

• Southern colonies of British North America where tobacco, cotton were major crops. But social outcomes were quite different from those south.

• American slaves had been born in the New World, in contrast with Latin America where large scale importation of new slaves continued well into the 19th century.

• Mulattoes in Brazil had more economic opportunities than did their counterparts in the United States.

• Does this mean that racism was absent in Brazil? NO, but it was quite different from racism in North America.

WHITE PEOPLE

• White had enormously greater privileges and opportunities than others. Skin color in Brazil and Latin America generally meant class status, and the perception of color changed with the educational or economic standing of individuals.

SETTLER COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA

• 18th century British colonies remained far less prominent on the world stage than those of Spain or Portugal.

• British launched its colonial ventures in 17th centurym it had already experienced considerable conflict between Catholics and Protestants.

• The emergence of Parliament as a check on the authority of the Kings.

• Although they brought much of their English culture, many of British settlers were: Puritans in Massachusetts and Quakers in Pennsylvania. (much of them escaping aspects of an Old European society rather than to re-create it)

WOMEN IN NORTH AMERICA

• While Puritan Christianity praised the family and a woman´s role as wife and mother, it reinforced largely inlimited male authority.

• “God has made him the Head and set him above me.”

• Women were prosecuted from the crime of “fornication” far more often than male companions.

• Few girls attended school, and could never become ministers of church or even aspire political life.

DIFFERENCES• British settlers were far more numerous than

their Spanish counterparts, outnumbering them 5 to 1 by 1750.

• By the time of the American Revolution, some 90% of these colonies’ populations were Europeans.

• Slaves were not needed in agricultural economy, but dominated in small scale independent farmers working their land.

• A largely Protestant England was far less interested in spreading Christianity among the natives.

CONTRAST• The Church and State were not intimately

connected as they were in Latin America.• Protestant emphasis on reading the Bible

for oneself led to a greater mass literacy than in Latin America.

• 75% of white males in British North America were literate by 1770s.

• British settler colonies evolved traditions of local self government more extensively than in Latin America. -> Preferring to rely on joint stock companies.

NORTH AMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA

• English King and Parliament meant that the British government paid little attention to the internal affairs of the colonies.

• The grand irony of modern history of the Americas – for 100´s of years, the major centers of wealth, power, commerce and innovation lay in Mesoamerica and the Andes.

• Spanish and Portuguese colonies seemed far more prosperous and successful than their British or French counterparts in North America. - By the 19th and 20th centuries the balance shifted.

• United States became more politically stable, democratic and economically successful.

THE STEPPES AND SIBERIA: THE MAKING OF A RUSSIAN EMPIRE

• Europeans were building their empires in the Americas, while Russian Empire was beginning to take shape.

• City of Moscow was emerging from two centuries of Mongol rule. Conquered a number of neighbouring Russian speaking cities and incorporating them into its territory.

• Over the next 3 centuries, Russian domination over the vast tundra, forests and grasslands of northern Asia extended.

• Some 200,000 in the 17th century and speaking 100 languages and mostly dedicated to hunting, gathering and herding people – no access to weapons.

MAKING RUSSIAN EMPIRE• Russians saw Siberia as an

opportinuty – as primarily the “soft gold” of fur bearing animals.

• Enormous Russian Empire took shape in the three centuries between 1500-1800. A growing line of wooden forts to offer protection.

• Political leaders .– defined the empire in terms of: defending Russian frontiers, enhacing power of the Russian state and bringing Christianity.

EXPERIENCING RUSSIAN EMPIRE

• Empire meant conquest. –Russian authorities demanded an oath to their territories “eternal submission to the grand Tsar.”

• They also demanded YASAK or tribute, paid in cash or in kind. Siberia sent enormous quantities of fur.

• Nevertheless conquest was acompanied by epidemics.

• Existed the pressure to convert to Christianity = tax centives for conversion.

• Catherine the Great established religious tolerance for Muslims.

RUSSIA AND SIBERIA• 700,000 Russians lived in Siberia thus

reducing the native Siberians to 30 percent of the total population.

• The loss of hunting lands for the agricultural settlers led to be depedent on Russian markets for grain, alcohol, sigar, tea. = Pastoral people abandoned their nomadic ways.

• “The grass and the water belong to heaven, and why should we pay any fees?”

• Over the course of three cenruries both Siberia and the steppes were incorporated to Russian state. = Adopting >Russian language and Christianity

RUSSIANS AND EMPIRE• Multiethnic empire, Russians remained politically

dominant. Among Slavik speaking and Belorussians predominated. Rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, mineral deposits playes a major role in making Russia one of the great powers of Europe. *by the 18th century

• During the late 17th centuries, Russia acquired substantial territories in the Baltic region, Poland and Ukraine. This contact with Europe also fostered an awareness of Russias backwarness relative to Europe and prompted and extensive program of westernization.

• Particularly, during Peter The Great (1689-1725), he led to vast changes in the modernization and enlargement of Russian military forces.

CATHERINE THE GREAT AND RUSSIAS EMPIRE

• Catherine The Great (1762-1766) followed up with further efforts to Europeanize Russian cultural and intellectual life, viewing herself as part of the European enlightenment.

• Was Russia a backward European country, destined to follow the lead of more highly developed Western European socities?

• The size of that empire, bordering on virtually all of the great agrarian civilizations of outer Eurasia, turned Russia, into a highly militarized state, “A society organized for continous war”. = required a powerful monarchy to hold its vast domains and highly diverse peoples together.

ASIAN EMPIRES• West Europeans were building their empires in

the Americas and Russia across the Siberia. Turko Mongol invaders from Central Asia created the Mughal Empire, bringing Hindu and Islamic rule. While the Ottoman Empire brought Christian population with Islamic to Turkish grounds.

• None of these empires had the global reach or worldwide impact of Europe´s American colonies. Nor did they have the same devastating and transforming impact on their conquered peoples.

MAKING CHINA EMPIRE• China built another kind of empire on its northern and

western frontiers that vastly enlarged the territorial size of the country and incorporated a number of non Chinese peoples.

• China’s Qing dynasty or many called it Manchu Dynasty *1644-1912

• Qing Dynasty was itself of foreign and nomadic origin, hailing from Manchuria *north conquered China.

• Confucian teachings and used chinese bureaucratic techniques to govern the empire. Perhaps because they were foreigners Qing rulers went to great lengths to reinforce Confucian gender roles, honoring men who were loyal sons, officials, and women who demostrated loyalty to spouses.

Qing Dynasty• For many centuries, the Chinese had

interacted with the nomaidc peoples who inhabited the dry and lightly populated regions now known as Mongolia,, Xinjiang, and Tibet. / trade, tribute and warfare ensured tat these ecologically and culturally different worlds were well known to each other.

• Qing dynasty undertool an 80 year military effort *1680 to 1760 that brought these huge regions solidly under Chinese control.

• Creation of a substantial state west Mongol region known as Zunghars – revived Chinese memories of an earlier Mongol conquest. Therefore the great expansion was viewed as a necessity.

CHINESE EMPIRE• China was ruled now through a new office called

the COURT OF COLONIAL AFFAIRS. Like other Colonal powers, the Chinese made actice use of local notables *Mongol aristocrats, Muslim Officials, Buddhist leaders, as they attempeted to govern the region (confucian based teachings). Nevertheless, what helped them was that they respect certain traditions of Mongols, Tibeta, Muslims.

• Still Chinese authorities sharply restricted and control the entrance of foreign merchants and other immigrants to preserve their culture.

• Chinese and Russian Empire transformed Central Asia. Hosting the Silk Road network, and enduring encounters between nomads of steppes and farmers.

timeline

QING DYNASTY

MUSLIMS AND HINDUS IN THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

• Indias Mughal Empire hsted a different kind of encounter. Long interaction of Islamic and Hindu cutlures in South Asia. = Muslims in religion and Turkic in culture.

• There was political unity (1526-1707) with a variety of small states, tribes, castes, sects and ethnolinguistic groups.

• The central division within Mughal India was religius. The ruling dynasty 20% Muslims. – the rest Hinduism

• AKBAR (1556-1605) acted deliberately to accommodate Hindu majority.

AKBAR • Akbar married several of their princesses but not

require to convert to Islam. He incorporated Hindus into political military elite of the empirea and supported the building of Hindu temples. He encourage widows to remarry and baned SATI.

• His 20th wife and favorite Jahangir (1605-1627) was widely regarded as the power behind the throne.

• Abkar imposed a policy of toleration, removing the speacial tax (jizya) on non muslims, constructed the house of Worship (intellectual discussions of many religions)

AURANGZEB

• Such policies fostered sharp opposition among some Muslims. –Specially in AURANGZEB (1658-1707) who reversed Akbars policy of accommodation and imposed Islamic supremacy.

• Music and dance were banned as well as drinking, prostitution and gambling. Hindu temples destroyed.

• Fractured the Mughal empire and after Aurangzebs death in 1707 opened the way for Britih takeover.

MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS OTTOMAN EMPIRE

• Ottoman Empire was also the creation of Turkic warrior groups. Ottoman Turks over the next three centuries created Islamic world´s most significant empire. Ottoman empire was transformed into prosperous, powerful, cosmopolitan empire.

• Its sultan combined the roles of a Turkic warrior prince, a Muslim caliph and conquering emperor = chief defender of the faith.

• Turks adopted Islam, and Turkish women found themselves secluded and often veiled.

WOMEN OTTOMAN EMPIRE

• Official censuses did not count women and Muslim reformers sought to restrict womens religious gatherings.

• Women of the royal court (elite) did had influence in political matters “sultanate of women”. Islamic law permitted to elites woen property rights, some became quite wealthy, allowed divorce and inheritance.

OTTOMAN EMPIRE • Ottoman Empire now incorporated a large numbers

of Arabs. The responsability and prestige of protecting Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem, the holy cities of Islam, now fell to the Ottoman empire.

• This empire, was also a cross cultural encounter like the Mughal empire. Extended across Anatolia, its mostly Christian population converted in large numbers to Islam as the Byzantine empire weakened.

• In 1453 when Constantinople fell to the invaders, renamed Istambul, that splendid Christian city became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

CHRISTIANS IN OTTOMAN EMPIRE

• Many of these Christians had welcomed Ottoman conquest because taxes were lighter and opperssion less pronounced than under their former Christian rulers.

• Christian churches were granted considerable autonomy in regulating their internal social, religious, educational affairs.

• Greek merchants, government officials, high clergy became part of the Ottoman elite, without converting to Islam.

• Fleeing Christian and Jewish refugees persecuted from Spain were liberated.

DEVSHIRME

• Turkish rule bore heavily on Christians, through a process known as the DEVSHIRME (collecting and gathering) were require to hand over a quota of young boys, who were then removed from their families, required to learn Turkish, usually converted to Islam, and trained for military servise as JANISSARY units.

• These loss was terrible but also devshirme represented means of upward mobility within the Ottoman empire. (at high price) :S