Interpreting the Indian Past

Today, most thoughtful people would think that the idea of American historywithout American Indians was an absurdity. Yet for generations historians of theUnited States wrote the nation's stlry as if Indians did not exist, or at best historiansmarginalized native people as bit players in the great national drama. In U.S. his- /tory textbooks Indians emerged only in time to be swept aside by westering white l/Americans. In the 1960s, the civil rights movement and the growth of politicaly/activism among people of color, ethnic groups, and women resulted in a challenge toexclusively Anglocentric history. Yet the writing of Indian history is no simple matter.Until the twentieth century, few Indians were literate, so the record of their activitieswas based primarily on documenls that whlte observers prod4cut. Indians remem-

bered theii past, but in rhe form Mne AmericanIndian experience often find that their work about the past is important to Indians'aspirations for the future. Consequently, the field is sometimes politically chargedin ways that other historical subjects are not. Until recently, there were no Indianhistorians in academe, and Indian views were only indirectly represented. In thepast few decades, this situation has improved so that Indian voices are increasinglyheard in classrooms and textbooks, but native historians are still a minority even inthe field of lndian history. This chapter poses questions about the state of Indianhistory and the special responsibilities of historians working in this field.

($ESSATS

The emergence of native scholars has necessarily brought new concerns to the attentionof historians. For Indian historians, the past is palpably linked to living people, places,

and problems with which they are intimately familiar. Professor Donald L. Fixico, an

historian of Creek, Seminole, Sac and Fox, and Shawnee heritage at the University ofKansas, challenges historians to augment their research techniques and analytical con-ceptions with research methods and ideas that are F.e!lsf.sutgl..1!l Indian history. Whileincorporating ideas about culture and oral history, historians must consciously remove

ethnocentrism from their work, a process that Professor Fixico regards as a moral im-perative. Professor Richard White of Stanford University explains the methodologicaldiffrculties of studying Indian history. He begins by questioning the.assumj[gs that

historians work from. Professor White is particularly concerned with the intersectionof Indian history and environmental history, but this essay and the questions it raises are

CHAPTERI

<F

o,-$/il$/ Interpreting the Indian Pdst

inherent in teaching and writing about Native American history. On the other side ofthis issue, some American Indians feel that the writing of American Indian history,mostly by non-Indians, is merely another example of the exploitative and unfairtreatment of Indian people. .., I'C,J ln

An interesting irony has occurred in theElstorlsgaphyhf the American expe-rience. For at least a century, scholars, writers, and historians have neglected NativeAmericans in writing the history of America. Different schools of thought like the

Germ theory and Turner thesis have encouraged historians to ignore the originalinhabitants of the entire western hemisphere. Why did this happen, if a scholar'sprofessional responsibility is to be objective in researching historical topics? Theseapproaches described the "white experience." as-illndir$ did not exist. To write a

Ihistory of the Anglo-American experience i@fggrbut to claim that it repre- |

sents the entire history of the American experience is a gross mistake.Historians, in particular, wrote Indians out of their textbooks for whatever t\ r- I

insecure reasons of justifying the past actions of America's heroes, racial bigotry , ,7 ,rf U:fe&*-or white guilt. By ignoring the dark episodes of the destruction of Indians and their r'lr ' - ll

cultures, historians in effect denied that these ever happened. Nonetheless non-Indians have had to face the issue that American Indians, indeed, have existed inthe Americas well before the accidental arrival of Columbus. and that NativeAmericans are a vital palt of the history of this country. Hence, the writing ofAmerican Indian history emerged as a body of literature in the early decades of thetwentieth century, although historians continued to vilify Indians as "savages" and"devilish heathens" that a glorified United States had to destroy, exalting a faisewhite supremacy over all minority races in this country.

,^,

Whether racially prejudiced or guiJtnd-d.en*patronizing, paternalistic, or{o- ,,li -l.1

J4nlie-lndian history mainly has been perceived from a white perspective. based \

on the idea that "the conquerors write the history." More than 30,000 manuscriptshave been published about American Indians, and more than 90 percent of thatliterature has been written by non-Indians. To illustrate this point further, a similarpercentage of these non-Indian historians have written about writing or studyingAmerican Indian history.

The point here is that non-Indian scholars have sought to define the param-eters of the field of American lndian history. They have attempted to determine itsforms of evidence only as wlitten accounts, professed limited theories, and de-vised methodologies from a non-Indian tradition. European explorers and militaryofficers recorded accounts of their contacts with Amelican Indians. During theBritish colonization in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, newspapers usednegative reports about Indians to sell newspapers. Eager novelists picked up theirpoisoned pens to embellish on any Indian resistance to intrigue readers withhorrific atrocities. In the 1880s, ethnographers recorded notes, wrote articles, anddrafted manuscripts describing Indians and their cultures. More ethnographersand anthropologists followed in the late 1880s in desperate efforts to study NativeAmerican cultures. These were believed to be disappearing with the buffalo, as

the Indian population in the United States declined to 243,000. Careless historiansfollowed ethnographers and anthropologists as a part of the academic communitythat wrote imbalanced articles and books about American Indians.

Even in the twentieth cantury, historians have written about the AmericanIndian with very little understanding about "him" (since this was assumed to be a

Major Problems in American Indian History

man's history) and the depth of his distinct culture. The ill-trained historian ap-

proached Indian history with his or her graduate training for writing mainstreamhistory. Historians borrowed much of their approach tiom western buffs mostlyinterested in Indian wars. Next, a srnall group of scholars emerged to write classi-cal tribal histories. The initial studies were published in the 1930s and 1940s by theUniversity of Oklahoma Press. These works led the way for other presses to pro-duce American Indian books.

The growing scholarly interest in Indians led to a series of conferences in theearly 1950s, including the Ohio Valley Historic Indian Conference on November 21,1953. A number of scholars participated, especially anthropologists involved in In-dian claims cases, and this regional conf'erence was expanded into the annual Amer-ican Indian Ethnohistoric Conference, currently known as the American Society forEthnohistory. Since then, scholars have struggled to understand the complexity ofAmerican Indian hislory.

In the early 1970s, historians worked to revise the discipline when they recog-nized that inadequate means were being used to examine Indian history. Historiansfoilowed the example of anthropologists using ethrpgfrFn'\o study AmericanIndian history. The breakthrough was the distinction 1{f "culturgZ and the study of itas a part of history. Historians who study Indian histo\-.-u*nink in terms of cul-ture, community, environment, and metaphysics.

Ethnohistory has allowed a cross-disciplinary approach using history and an-

thropology to study American Indian history. Since then, Native American historyhas been written by geographers, sociologj\and literary writers using a combina-tion of their academic expertise and th{tools }f historians. The value of the ethno-historical approach is that it examines rFiE( and culture within time periods thatalso allow it to address historical events. As one ethnohistorian stated, the advantage

is that ethnohistory can go beyond the limitations of one discipline by combiningtwo fields. On a cautionary note, another scholar warned that ethnohistory writtenabout American Indians is largely from a western perspective, while continuing tosuppress the American Indian point of view.

A revived interest in Indians was aided by Indians themselves during the riseof the Red Power movement during the late 1960s, when frustrated urban Indiansolganized protest marches for better treatment of Indian people. Indian lctivismand Indian militancy such as the occupations of Alcatraz (1969), the Bureau of In-dian Affarrs (1972) and Wounded Knee (1973) renewed public interest in Ameri-can Indians. This renaissance resulted in the rvriting of a deluge of Indian literatureand history.

American Indian history is often thought of as a history of Indian-white rela-tions. The fact that the Native peoples of the western hemisphere already possessed

histories of thousands of years time depth befbre the arrival of Columbus has had rlittle effect on non-Indians who perceive that only written records comprise history. V

Records of relations between the United States and Indian tribes have been nu-

merous and lengthy. The noted Record Group 75 of the National Archives includes

more than 1 1,000 cubic feet of documents collected since 1824 when the Office ofIndian Aflairs opened. More than 19,000 cubic feet of financial documents fromthe years 1790-1921 are found under Record Group 217. There are 610 docketcases of the Indian Claims Commission in Record Grotrp279.

lnterpretinll the lndian Past

A dependence on documents eliminates other evidence, and precludes othermethods and disciplines fiom interpreting Indian history. This singular, focused ap-

proach has produced an interpretation that hinges on the white point of view. It is nota balanced history of American Indians since it yields but one version of a history oftwo peoples interacting. Rather, it is an Amerocentric interpretation of Indian his-tory, a point of view that is shared by the majority of American historians writingabout the United States, Europe, diplomatic, and general history.

As historians ernploy the methodologies of other academic disciplines, otherformsofevidenceanddatahaveemerged.Forexample,culturalitemsfound<..'.underground like pieces of pottery or hunting weapons need to be considered by -x) LL r(L4historians writing about tribal camp lif'e as social history. Ceremonial items wouldcompel historians to consider the religious views and tribal philosophies extrapo-lated from them.

A discussion of what is meant by American Indian history is important indetermining the parameters for this essay. American Indian history is not just on" y'y'history of all Indian people. Actually it is a lield of many tribal histories, compli-cated by their relations with the United States. At this date. SJztr+esq the UnitedStates and Native Alaska communities have been federally @nrze./ The signif-icance here is the importance of "relations" in Indian history. In many case, tribes

?2

that had foreign relations with European nations before the American Revolutionadded another level of historical relations with the United States _povernment after.In this light, this series of relations also should include relations between tribes.Considering Indian history from this approach is primarily one of external relations,and studying the history of relations is like studying diplomatic history or foreignpolicy. It is from this general view of Indian history that studying the relationsfrom a non-Indian, Amerocentric point of view places American Indians in a mar-ginal history. This kind of myopic history is a violation of professional ethics whenscholars trre supposed to examine all the evidence and postulate objective analyses.

To ignore such narrow interpretations is to further break ethics by choosing not toattempt to balance the historical perspectives.

Arnerican Indian history had been viewed as a minority history of less impor-tance by frontier and Turnerian historians who viewed Indians as a part of the fron-tier, dipiomatic historians who clairn that Indians ai:e an internal subject, and

domestic historians who hid Indians in footnotes and called them "pawns" in themaking of American History. Such Amerocentric blindness and academic ar-rogance

ignores Indians, and mainstream historians have elected to exile American Indiansto "disciplinary banishment." The repercussions are devastating. Each new gelera- /^ /-tion of students learns a misconstrued history of the Americas. Unless critical revil l/sionist textbooks include a more accurate accounting of the role of AmericanIndians in the history of the Americas, Indians could one day be written out of his-tory. In many colleges and universities. Indian history is not taught, but it is even z /worse when an uninformed, insensitive scholar attempts to teach Indian history{ VFortunately, an estimated 250 scholars teach Indian history as a course or as a part

of their course on the American West. So then, the root of bias in mainstream historymust rest in the mainstream culture and its conscious and subconscious attitudestowards other peoples'histories. It is ethically wrong to use research to subvert thefair historical representation of other peoples, leaders, and non-mainstream events.

6 lrl.alor Problems in American Indian History

The most important ethical concern is for American Indian history to be in-

cluded in the scope of the American experience, so that historians would encounter

it as a part oftheir training in graduate school. Indian history should not be regarded

as a special or exotic subfield to be pushed aside and ignored. In actuality Indian

history has set fte foundation of American history. For example, early white settlers

, | , /adiusteA to rhe environment in ways that Indians had done for centuries. Although" " ,h. results differed, the environment has had a major influence on all peoples in

America. To ignore the historical variable of environment is to view history only

from a human perspective, disallowing a broader research focus that includes all

' factors influencing the facts as they fit together. Unfortunately American main-

stream history has placed "man" above "woman" and, indeed, above all other as-

pects of society, culture, environment, climate, and metaphysical forces.

In brief, ethics in writing Indian history;gggggpect for Native Americans in-

cluding, preferably, visiting Indian people in their homEtffiK Interpreting research

data and writing to take into account the Indian viewpoint is a most important ethic.

After all. Native American history should focus on how and why Indians partici-

pated in the American experience. Writing Indian history respectfully also requires

avoiding negative terminology such as "savage," "red skin," "Indian plight" and

other pejorative names or inappropriate prose that demean Indian peopie. Writing

prop"i Indian history would include avoiding suppressing Indians, or writing from

an Amerocentric view. Finally, ethics would include researching and examining all

kinds of evidence, including non-written data.

One significant responsibility of all scholarship is to pursue the unknown,

especially as it relates to the known. Specifically, mainstream American history

presents "one" perspective, which is the known. However, the known history of

this particular mainstream perspective fails to challenge itself to experience the un-

known or little-known history of American Indians. This narrow vision of history

fails to account for the full American experience. Such mainstream myopia fails to

understand the other side of historical issues, other historical figures, and Native

peoples and their cultures. It is unethical for scholars to claim they are experts on

American history; rather they are specialists.

American Indian communities possess internal histories of relations defined ac-

corrling to their separate cultures. Tribal communities are built on an infrastructure of

interrelated societies and roles, such as clans, leaders, warriors, medicinal persons,

and others. An important part of this network is the community's relationship with

the flora, fauna, and metaphysical spirituality. This network is based on a socio-

cultural understanding of a religious nature. Such an understanding of the internal

history of what has happened within the community remains foreign to the Amero-

centric historian. This dimension oflndian history cannot be seriously studied until

new tools ofhistorical interpretation and new theories can be developed'

The situation requires a basic understanding of the internal and external his-

tories of Native communities. This process is similar to that of using an under-

standing of United States domestic history and foreign relations to properly study

and teach American History. Understanding both the internalness and externalness

of tribal communities-even if the assignment is to study or teach the relations of

that tribe at war with the United States-is critically important in presenting a bal-

anced history. Unfortunately, this balanced history has been lacking in the practice

of American Indian historY.

Interpreting the Indian Past

Historians nlw have an opportunity to study and learn about rhe inrernal narureof Indian communities at the tribal or urban levels. This means using ethnohistoryor anthropology to comprehend the cultural development of the community. In con-

sidering Indian history in this manner, it is necessary to use introspective analysis

ofhow Indians perceive history with regard to tribal language, values, kinship rela-

tions, infrastructure, societal norms, tribal beliefs, and worldview. To further thisconsideration, historians mttst be willing to acknowledge other means of analyzinghistory and other sources of facts. For instance, historians will need to turn to otherforms of history such as interviews and oral history.

For many years the debate against oral history has gone on despite Studs Terkelwinning the Pulitzer Prize tbr "The Good War" : An Oral History of World War Two

in 1984. Historians must be ready to accept other kinds of history and must approachother disciplines to understand Indian history. Social and cultural history are ger-

mane as is the use ofhistorical archaeology to restructure Indian history and under-

stand the internalness of tribal communities. The problem for those who write aboutAmerican Indians is that written sources have been produced almost exclusively bynon-Indians. The alternative is to use oral history and interviews to acquire knowl-edge about such internal matters as kinship patterns and political organizations.

The need for ethics and responsibilities in teaching and writing AmericanIndian history increases as more individuals pursue the subject. The significance ofthis dilemma is accelerated as concern about the global environment causes people

to turn to tribal philosophies of environmental caretaking. This movement is evi-denced in the misguided New Age movement and recent videos, documentaries, and

films about American Indians [e.g., "Squanto" (1994), "Last of the Mohicans"(1993), "Lakota Woman" (1994), "Hawkeye" (1994), "The Broken Chain" (1994),

and "Dances with Wolves" (1992)1. Non-Indians are increasingly listening to Indianpeople as a growing number of Indian communities demand input on these projects.Obtaining a tribal viewpoint, a Native feeling, and the other side of history, and thenthinking like an Indian and putting yourself in that other position are mandatory forteaching and writing a balanced history oflndian-white relations.

In summary, the moral ethics of properly working in American Indian historyinclude deliberate removal of ethnocentrism. Improper attitudes have caused schol-ars to write negative histories about American Indians, or to write arrogant historiesin which non-Indians see themselves as superior to Indians for whatever insecurereasons. Proper attitude is ethically to subvert racist analysis and subconsciousthought about lndians. Respect toward Indian people and their heritage is ethicallyimportant. The next ethical step is consideration of Indian viewpoints, while striv-ing to think as an Indian. Disputing the imbalanced scholarship of the past aboutAmerican Indians becomes a crucial part of the role of the ethical scholar. Moreoverscholars must respect sensitive knowledge about tribal ways and not publish infor-mation about certain cultural rituals. The ethic of openmindedness in consideringthe value of disciplines other than one's own and being open to other forms of his-torical data is imperative to piece together a truer picture of the Indian past.

Responsibilities for American Indian history include fair treatment in theportrayal of Indians as well as other minorities within the mainstream society, and

balanced treatment in the characterization of Indian males and females. Culture is

an important concept in correctly addressing Native American history, as well as

analyzing environmental impacts on Indian life. The scholar needs to stretch his or

t/o,##

Y.]:onY\Artlu*

Major Problems in American Indian Hktory

her imagination to ponder the depth of tribal ways and values as these influencedhuman behavior and history. The scholar must consider the worldview of an Indiangroup to comprehend its members' sense of logic and ideology. In order to accom-plish this task, thinking about the "whole" of Indian life is imperative. After thisstep, it is essential to define the conception of reality constructed by the Indian com-munity. Mainstream conceptions of reality such as those commonly constructed inthe contemporary world cannot be used to study the past. The historian has the re-

ibility to understand the reality a tribe constructed to constitute its historicalexperiences of the physical and metaphysical as a whole.

Historians who teach and write American Indian history must examine thewhole picture in studying Native American societies and cultures. Such a responsi-

bility also involves examining Indian history from the diverse perspectives of whiteAmerican views including different bureaucratic positions, missionary beliefs, andhumanitarian concerns, as well as from the perspectives of the many tribes. A1l ofthese views naturally depend on the subject of study, and it bears repeating that a

single Indian voice is impractical. Just as one cannot say that there is one European

view, neither can one say that there is only one Indian view of history.The historian's last responsibility in achieving a true balance is to "think like

an Indian." While this may seem impractical, studying tribal cultures enables ascholar to understand individual and group behavior within the tribal community.Thinking of a synthetic physical and metaphysical reality allows the scholar to un-derstand Indians as pro-active instead of reactive in respect to historical events. Ingaining such a Native perspective it is necessary to use ethnohistorical methodolo-gies to reconstruct history according to how tribal members remember i1.

This extraordinary diversity of perspectives illuminates the sociocultural andpolitical complexity of American Indian history from an external point of view.

Combining the external perspective with an understanding of an inner perspective

balances the equation, resulting in a proper study of American Indian history. Placingboth perspectives within the full context of Indian life in relationship to the naturalworld is the ultimate goal in analyzing and writing American Indian history.

Indian Peoples and the Natural WorldAsking the Right Questions

RICHARD WHITE

ethodology/s at the heart of any historical endeavor because methodology goes

dirE-ctly to the most critical of historical questions: How is it that we claim to knowabout the past? I will make this more specific. Historians concerned with questions

of Indians and the environment have made a series of sweeping claims. They have

argued that many Indian peoples had, and some still have, quite distinctive ways of

Richard White, "Indian Peoples and the Naturai World: Asking the Right Questions," in Donald L. Fixico,

ed., Rethinking American Indian Hisrory (Albuquerque, N. Mex.: University of New Mexico Press, 1997),

87-100. Copyright @ 1997. Reprinted with permission.

Interpreting the Indian Past

understanding and culturally constructing nature and that Indian actions, in fact,shaped much of the North American world that whites regarded as wilderness.How is it that they claim to know this?

In answering this question, we appeal largely to our practice. Academic histo-rians assert knowledge of the past because they agree on a set of methods accordingto which claims about the past can be evaluated and judged. These methods willideally yield general, but hardly universal, agreement among practitioners as towhether some claims are more valid or less valid than other claims. Arguably, theremay be a consensus on historical methodology in general, but the environmental his-tory of Indian peoples is another, quite separate case. Writing an environmentalhistory of Indian peoples involves a hybrid methodology in which the methods ofenvironmental history meet the methods of Indian history (a.k.a. ethnohistory,a.k.a. anthropological history). Ethnohistorical methods of cultural reconstruction,scientific methods of landscape reconstruction, and more conventional historicalmethods all overlap. The result is often dissonance and confusion.

The most basic tasks of any historical method involve asking and answeringquestions. In any historical methodology, historical methods are intimately relatedto historical questions. A methodology stipulates not only how to answer ques-tions, but also how to ask them.

Talking about questions in the abstract is confusing, so let me provide as an

illustrative text two very broad questions (hereafter Big Question One and Big

Question Two) that recur both in the academic and the popular writing about theenvironment and Indian peoples. They will provide avenues into this methodologi-cal issue and prevent the discussion from becoming overiy abstract.

First, how do we know what Indians thought in the past about what we now callnature, and what equivalent or related conceptions of the natural world might Indianpeoples have had at various times in the past?

Second, how do we know how Indians acted in the past in regard to the naturalworld, and what were the consequences of their actions?

In answering the first of these questions historians borrow from ethnohistory; inanswering the second, they borrow from environmental history and environmentalsciences.

How we ask questions is particularly critical in Indian environmental history. Itis a field full of pitfalls: hidden assumptions, questions that are really answers in dis-guise, and loose and unworkable categories. Any methodology that allows us to an-

swer these big questions must stipulate that we ask the questions in a rvay that makes

more than one answer possibie. I will call this basic requirement of asking opera-

tional questions (that is, questions open to more than one answer) operationality.

To illustrate operationality and the dangers of bad questions, let's go back toBig Question 1.

1. How do we know about what the ancestors of the peoples we now call Indians

thought in the past about what we now call nature and what conceptions of the natural

world might these ancestors of Indian peoples have had at various times in the past?

This convoluted phrasing might seem to represent an excess of academic cau-

tion, the kind of thing that makes it impossible to get a straight answer out of a pro-

fessor. But the construction is quite purposeful. I want to frame a question that can

l0 Major Problems in American lndian Histlry

be answered while at the same time keeping the major concepts the question em-ploys open to interrogation. I am trying not to presume too much in the question. Iam. in particular. trying not to presume:

First, that there is a universal and transcendent agreement on what "nature" isand that agreement corresponds to our modern concept of nature.

Second, that modern day Indian peoples are identical with or have the same atti-tudes of their ancestors.

I am also trying to make clear thatl am acting on a third assumption: that Indiansare a people of history and that their beliefs can be discovered and understoodthrough historical research.

No serious historical methodology can proceed without critically examiningthe concepts it is putting into play, and few terms in contemporary discourse are

more contested than nature and Indians."The idea of nature," Raymond Williams has written, "contains, though often

unnoticed, an extraordinary amount of human history." Nature, Williams empha-sizes, is an idea that shifts and changes over time. What we choose to call nature isculturally and historically specific. You can touch deer, elk, or rocks, but you can-not touch nature. It is not a timeless concept floating through history. We cannotbegin our search for what various Indian groups thought about nature without leav-ing open the possibility that they did not think about nature at all. Certainly, theythought about deer, rain, fog, water, corn, camas roots, and all kinds of other non-human objects, but they did not necessarily group them together in the categorynature. Various Indian peoples certainly might have had equivalent concepts, but ifthey did, it is the historian's job to demonstrate that they did.

There is a corollary involved in leaving our terms open to inquiry; askingquestions reveals that in actual practice our methods do not stand totally separate

from our findings. In fact, they constantly inform each other. The framing of ourquestions and our methodology proceeds in conversation with our research itself.

The second term at issue here, Indian, is a good example of this conversationbetween methods and findings. Much of the older literature proceeded on the sup-position that there was a rather unproblematic racial identity and common outlookattached to the word Indian. The very concept Indian went unintenogated, and thisapproach has by now been so roundly attacked that I will not proceed to recountthe arguments here.

But if the term Indian has been problematized, much popular and indeed much

academic history still proceeds on the assumption that there was a coherent "Indian"attitude toward nature. J. Donald Hughes writes that "when one asks a traditionalIndian, 'How much of the earth is sacred space?' the answer is unhesitating: 'A11.' "As an illustration, he cites Chief Seattle. The easy methodological attack on Hughesis his lailure to question a source, the supposed speech of Chief Seattle, that is

, almost certainly a fabrication. But I think the more crucial issue is the easy accep-

"./ tance of.the ter.m traditional Indian with all its universalizing tendencies. Having

b accepted the idea of this pan-tribal traditional Indian, one misses all the specific

false notes in Seattle's speech and hears only its resonance with our construction;the traditional Indian. We cannot move from specific studies to universal Indianbeliefs. Richard Nelson, for example, although he makes methodological mistakes

Interpreting tht Indidn Pdst I I

of his own, carefully emphasizes that he is looking at Koyukon attitudes towardnature in Make Prayers to the Raven. Koyukon beliefs cannot stand for the beliefsof all Native Americans regarding the natural environment.

This tendency to universalize and essentialize Indian can take quite specificenvironmental forms. Indians can be constructed. for instance. as the antithesis ofhistory, which, in turn, is constructed as the antithesis of nature. Since a historicalmethodology presumes a history to study, defining Indians as outside history as weunderstand it creates a few problems. But according to [historian] Calvin Martin,Indian supposedly "subscribed to a philosophy of history, and of time, profoundlydifferent from ours." Our history, according to Martin, ignores the "biological per-spective" of Indian history.

Indians look not for history but for the "timeless wisdom of the human species,'the phylogenetic content of human experience."' Historians, Martin contends,"need to get out of history, as we know it, if we wish to write authentic histories ofAmerican Indians." Historical methodology, I will be the first to admit, is of verylittle use if one is attempting to get out of history.

I accept none of Martin's arguments or premises, but my point here is not toargue with him but, rather, to turn him to a methodological pulpose. Martin's at-tack on history, is, in fact, itself a history, and shows the difficulties of using his-tory to escape history. He gives a history of the invention of history. Martin findshimself relying on history itself to discredit historical consciousness.

But beyond this, Martin's history shows how not to fiame historical questions.Martin phrases his questions in such a way that there can be only one answer.

Martin asserts that "real Indians" do not think in linear time, never have and neverwill. This statement demands a history, for how could we know this is true unlesswe go back and examine conceptions of time among various Indian groups in thepast? The question would be: Are there Indian peoples who think in terms of lineartime and conceive of a linear history? For this to be an operational question, therehas to be the possibility of more than one answer. But Martin structures his argu-ment as a tautology, for his definition of an Indian is, in effect, a person descendedfrom the original inhabitants of the Americas who does not recognize linear time.Any Indian contaminated with linear thinking is no longer a "real" Indian.

This tactic does not place Indians outside history; it places Martin outside usualhistorical practice. Uniess a statement is posed so that it is refutable, ir is not a

meaningfuI historical question.

The first step of any historical methodology, then, is asking operational ques-

tions. Let me drive this home with one trnal example of a bad question: Were Indiansenvironmentalists?

To show why this is a bad question, I'11 tell you a story about a seven year old,the son of a friend of my wife. The seven year old is Puyallup; he listens to adultstalk about how whites have changed Puget Sound. He thinks about it and what theworld must have been like before whites came. Old ways have changed; thingsonce permitted have been curtailed. Before whites came, he decided in the way

seven years old decide such things, Indians did not have to drive on the right side ofthe road. They could drive their cars wherever they pleased.

But asking if Indians could drive on the wrong side of the road before whitescame is not much different from askine if Indians were environmentalists. Both

t2 Major Prohlems in American Indian History

assume that a curent set of ideas and practices can be read back into the past. Aseven year old assumes there were cars, roads, drivers; those who ask if Indians wereenvironmentalists assume there was a "nature" that corresponds to our "nature" andpractices that can be evaluated according to our definitions of environmentalism. Inboth cases very twentieth-century practices and concepts are read back onto the past.

Posing questions is, of course, only the first step. Answering them is the trick.Since Indian peoples themselves have left us very few records, we rely largely onrecords produced by non-Indians and on much more recent accounts left by Indians.Now given a certain construction of Indian societies, this lack of records from thepast is not really an issue. An extreme view, represented by a colleague of mine atthe University of Washington, a very good ethnobotanist and anthropologist namedEugene Hunn. According to Eugene Hunn, and to paraphrase an old Who song, a

good informant can see for millennia. This same practice is often asserted, at leastimplicitly, by the description of certain practices or beliefs as traditional. In one formthis embrace oftradition is straightforward and regards the past as transparent.

This embracing of an unchanging tradition is, however, so extreme that itvirtually negates history itself. It brackets off part of a culture so as to make itimmune from the changes afi'ecting everything around it. We have now a consider-able literature on the syncretic [combined with new elements] nature of many"traditional" Indian beliefs. . . . [There is a] necessity of recognizing the long timethat whites and Indians have been in contact and in conversation. There are numer-ous outside influences on modern Indian belief's and abundant evidence that theychange over time.

Much more common is a second methodological technique: upstreaming,which is connected with the work of William Fenton. Upstreaming starts fiom a

plausible premise. Current cultural formulations about things such as nature havenot been fbrmed from whole cloth. Basic cultural patterns remain constant overlong periods of time. They have a history. Therefore we can, in effect, disaggregatecurrent customs, beliefs, and practices and look fbr replicas in the past. So far so

good. When reliable sources at both ends of the time span describe similar prac-tices, we can supposedly use safely more abundant modern information to fill inwhat we do not know about ancient beliefs and practice.

There are two problems here. First, it assumes that the social group in question(the tribe, or nation) has remained relatively constant. Second, it assumes that ifrituals or practices exist across time then the meaning and significance of these

practices also exists relatively unchanged across time. Both are problematic.We cannot assume obvious connections between modern Indian groups and

historic groups bearing the same names. Historians have sometimes presumed thatany Indian group and its cultural practices could potentially be traced back to an

ancestral group living before European contact. Recent work, however, has con-vincingly demonstrated that many tribes are very much historic creations. They didnot exist before contact any more than the modern category Americans existed be-

fore contact. James Merrell's work on the Catawbas and J. Leitch Wright's history

of the Muscogolees are two prominent examples.

But the main problem with upstreaming is that similar words, customs, and

practices can hold radically different meanings at various points in time. There is

much, for example, that is constant in a Catholic mass, but few historians would

lnterpretin! the Indian Past I 3

argue that we could therefore take the beliefs of modern Catholicism and fix themon medieval Catholicism. We do not attempt to do so because we have abundant

sources on medieval Catholicism that both show us that this is not true and make itunnecessary to do so. We, however, lack such sources for many Indian peoples, and

so upstreaming has considerable appeal. We would be wise to resist the temptationas much as possible.

I think the basic technique in reconstructing older worlds has to remain very

close to traditional historical practice: close reading, evaluation, and contextualiza-tion of the records. Our basic rule is to know what they are, why they were produced,

when they were produced, and what they represent.

Much of what we then do is a kind of literary analysis, but with a differenc\History is an act of interpretation; it is, among other things, a reading and re-reading \of documents. Ideally, our methods are always comparative. We compare docu- \.ments; we read them against each other. We order them chronologically. Decon-

)struction [a method of literary analysis] is, in a sense, what historians have done /for a considerable time. We look for assumptions; hidden threads of connectiog*i/we probe for absences.

But in Indian history at the earliest stages we are dealing with an imperial his-tory whose documents are not produced by Indians and which both record the re-duction of Indians to a European order and understanding and are one of the means

of their reduction. Those documents rarely contain Indian writing, but they ottencontain Indian voices, or what purport to be Indian voices. We need, of course, to be

sure that the voices speaking are, in fact, Indian. Whites often speak through Indians.particularly when Indians speak of nature. From the Adario of the Baron de Lahotanto Seattle's speech, to modern books like the Daughters of Copper Woman, we have

had a whole array of fake Indian voices as well as the mixed Indian/white voice ofclassic accounts such as Black Elk.

The lack of "Indian" sources might seem on first glance a debilitating liability,but it can in certain circumstances be a singular advantage. Many of the Indianvoices that survive in the earliest and most problematic documents are talking tooutsiders in circumstances in which both they and their listeners needed to reach a

common understanding. They are engaged in a language that creates what I have

elsewhere described as the middie ground.

A large chunk ofour early documents, then, are conversations between people

who do not completely understand each other. Methodologically this has implica-tions. "To know a culture," Greg Deming has written, "is to know its system ofexpressed meanings. To know cultures in contact is to know the misreadings

of meaning." We are connoisseurs of misreadings. We rarely know Indians alone;

we always know them in conversation with whites. During early contact situationswe never get transparent accounts that allow us to peer into a world of Indianmeanings. We get mutual misreadings which often become a new common read-

ing: a middle ground.

My own operating assumption is that we will never recover a pure Indian past,

a purely indian view of the natural world as it existed before whites, because we

are prisoners of the documents. What we have is mixture, impurity, and dirtiness. To

seek purity is to create falsity. In Greg Deming's metaphor, this kind of ethnohistori-

cal construction is a history of beaches. We know little of the islands that lie beyond.

14 Major Probkms in American Indian Hislory

But to be trapped on the beach does not mean that we might not at least look

into the interior. We have limited lines of sight into the islands. We have what ar-

chaeology gives us, but archaeology's ability to recreate worlds of meaning is very

limited. A second line of sight comes through language. A third comes through

what we might call spatial histories.

Historians have done very little with language because so few historians know

any native languages. Our argument has been that there are no' or very few, docu-

ments in the language and very often no or very few native speakers are left, so

what is the point;f learning it? To this, we quite legitimately add a third objection:

languages "tung"

like everything else. The language recorded at a given point is

not necessarily the historical language'

All that is true, but languages usually change relatively slowly. Preserved in

the language are conceptual frameworks, categorizations of the world that struc-

ture how a speaker perieives and organizes the world. In them are potential in-

sights into worlds we do not know, but to follow them we need linguistic skills that

most historians do not Possess.

The Lushootseed language of southern Puget Sound, for instance, is now nearly

extinct, but in it are clues to a way of viewing and understanding the world' There

are native words that sefve as straight equivalents for English words, words for

porpoise, various varieties of salmon, bullheads, candlefish, and so on, but more

i"ueuting are words without direct equivalents. There are words for old salmon that

has akeldy spawned and is about to die and what fish in general are called after

spawning. There are classifications such as tataculbix-large animals-which refer

not only to size but to use: large animals are food for the people'

Language connecrs with a second way of recovering an Indian view of the

world that moves behind the documents. Spatial history concerns the movement

of people across the land. Metaphorically, Europeans remained on beaches, but in

ucioutiiy they moved inland. Their records of travel become soufces for a spatial

history which is not a history of what they discovered, what they believed was

ah"ajy constituted, but instead a history of their movements themselves, of why

they went where they did; of how and why they created boundaries. They turned

spa." irrto place. They constituted a world and as they did so they often revealed

another world, another possible organization of space that they were in the process

of either destroying or covering over. where they found Indians, where Indians

sought to block their path or steer them, the places Indians had named and occu-

piei'b"fore them all emerge in their travelings and can become the stuff of a spatial

irirtoty critical to environmental history, which always has to be located in space'

Court cases filed by the Hopi andZ'srlihave provided abundant materials for

spatial histories, but as an example of different conceptions of the world that can be

partially retrieved let me again turn to Lushootseed. There was in the late nineteenth

""n,ury u long battle over the name of Mount Rainier. Seattle wanted Mount Rainier;

Tacoma wanted, not surprisingly, Tacoma, which was derived from the Lushootseed

teq,ube? Teq*ube? is uiually translated as "permanently snow covered mountain,"

ani it refers actually to all mountains that have this character. Mount Rainier was

just the supreme. exemplar of a type' But the.derivation of the name seems to come

fro* *ord, meaning liierally "mountain bearing water." But what does it mean to be

a mountain bearing watef? A source of rivers? Glaciers? There seems to be a spatial

Interpretino rhe lntlian Pan I 5

relationhere, a hi.story, which sets the Iandscape in motion. Around such quesrions

can come recovery over an older categorization of the world. . . .

IIThe second Big Question-How do we know how Indians acted in the past in regard

to the natural world and what the consequences of their actions were?-carries intoanother set of methodological dilemmas. This question involves correlating what

the landscape looked like with descriptions of Indian action. Our descriptions ofboth actions and landscape are partial, fragmentary, and not completely reliable.Methodologicaliy, this is actually quite comforting. It is the kind of problem histo-rians routinely confront. But historians, in working with this material, do not workalone. Much environmental history is interdisciplinary in the sense that historiansuse the findings and raw data, and much less often the methods, of other disciplines.Other scholars, in turn, use the data and findings of environmental historians. Theymisuse our data; we misuse lheirs.

Most historians recognize the fiagmentary and complicated nature of evidence.We do not treat what survives from the past as if it were in any way a random orscientific sample of documents, let alone that those documents preserve some rep-resentative random slice of human behavior. Some scientists in using historicalevidence, however, sometimes treat this evidence as if it were, indeed. a randomsample of Indian actions. Emily Russell, an ecologist, has, for example, made an

argument for a limited Indian use of fire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centurieson the basis of European accounts reporting Indian use of fire. Essentially, she

evaluated sources mentioning fire as if they were a sample of Indian activities.Specific mentions of Indian burning were few; therefore, Indian burning was rare.

This, of course, does not follow, but it raises an interesting issue. How do we knowthat Indians all across the continent burned the woods or grasslands regularly ifthis is not something we can easily demonstrate from the records alone? -\

To make the case, historians borrow from ecological studies and risk mis-'1using ecologist's sources just as they sometimes misuse ours. We want to deter- \mine, if possible, what a landscape that was burned regularly might look hke and, /if it is possible to determine, whether natural fires alone might produce such a

landscape. If, in fact, we find that the landscape described at contact gives signs ofregular burning, and we can determine the approximate rate at which natural firesoccur, and we have accounts of Indian-set fires, then we can begin to make betterclaims for Indian actions. If, for example, natural fires are rare but we have ac-

counts of vegetation that thrives in frequently burned landscapes and we have even

scattered accounts of Indian burning, then we can suggest that lve are seeing a

pyrogenic landscape.

There is a second technique. If we can determine when Indian-set fires wereeliminated and trace the results of this fire suppression, then we can reason that at

least part of the earlier landscape may very well have been the result of Indian

burning. To do this, historians need to use specialized studies that include exami-nation of fire scarring, dendrochronology, and repeat photography. All of these

methods appear in the literature. We are methodological parasites. Our conclusions

depend on feeding off the work of others.

t6 Nlajor Problems in American Indian Hrstory

There is a danger involved in this kind of parasitism and historians havealready encountered it. We become prisoners of the conceptual framework of thoseoutside our discipline and when their work changes or lalls apart, so does ours. Acrisis in ecology has had profound effects on environmental history. I will usemyself as an example.

In 1980 I published a revised version of my doctoral dissertation with a ratherturgid title that I have never been allowed to live down: Land Use, Environmentaland Social Change: The Shaping of Island Counf4 Woshington. The early chaptersconcern the landscape Indian peoples created in Island Country and how itchanged with white settlement. In the book, I used ecological concepts like com-munity, succession, climax, and ecosystem unproblematically, as if they werescientific descriptions of actual things or events in nature. I did this even thoughwithin the discipline of ecology, these ideas had already come under attack. Look-ing back now, I realize that this book and other historicai studies were themselvesundermining such ecological concepts even as they relied on them. Histonans weredescribing a human impact upon the natural world-including an Indian impact-so pervasive that it made questions of climax and successions seem abstractionswith few equivalents in the actual landscape. The very scope ofthe changes that Idescribed in the book should have made me more suspicious of what I mistook forunquestioned orthodoxy. Like most scholars, however, I was more polite and lessbelligerent when intruding upon disciplines other"than my own.

Any intersection of the methods of diff'erent disciplines is fraught with danger.But there are also considerable opportunities. Historical studies have had a signiti-cant impact on ecological studies. Ecologists who once assumed little or limitedhuman impact on environments before the introduction of European agriculturenow are much more aware of a wide range of Indian activities from burning tograzing of domestic livestock, to farming. But at the same time the insistence ofhistorians on these activities has undermined their own easy reliance on a method-ology borrowed from an old and now obsolete ecology, and has forced them to paymore attention to newer ecological constructions in which stability plays little partand contingency is as prevalent as in history. Historians have to be aware of suchchanges. Historians of Indian peoples are not ecologists, but ecological studies be-come one of our major sources in reconstructing Indian actions.

This essay is not intended to be a mere listing of ways that historians recon-struct landscapes and surmise Indian actions, but instead to stress that the tech-niques for recovering these landscapes, which include dendrochronology, pollenstudies. repeat photography, GIS mapping, and numerons techniques that are beingdeveloped alnost constantly, become a critical part of the methodological tool kit.

This methodological tool kit is inherently unstable. Developing a historicalmethodology, particularly in an interdisciplinary field, rneans constant attention towhat you are doing and what those in the fields you plunder are doing. Not only doyour own findings, and those of your colleagues, influence your methods, but the

basic concepts that underlie methods you borrow from other tields can be about as

stable as California. Intellectual earthquakes, fires, storms, and landslides can send

structures you think secure tumbling down. If interdisciplinary history is not going

to be one field borrowing the mistakes of another, we need to be constantly aware of

lnterpreting the Indian Past 17

other disciplines. What seems certain is that the methodologies we leam in graduate

school will not be the methodologies at the end of our own practice as historians.

@FU RTI{ER READING

Woodrow W Borah and Sherburne F. Cook, Essays in Population History,3 vols.(197 1-1983)

Jennifer S. H. Brown and Elizabeth Vibert, eds., Reading BeyondWords: Contexts forNative History (1996)

Donald L. Fixico, ed., Rethinking American Indian History Q997)Guy E. Gibbon, ed., The Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia

(1998)Laurence M. Hauptman, Tribes and Tribulations: Misconceptions About American Indians

and Their Histories ( 1995)Frederick E. Hoxie, ed., Encyclopedia of North American Indians (1996)Frederick E. Hoxie and Peter Iverson, eds., Indians in American History: An Introduction

( I 998)Wilbur Jacobs, The Fatal Confrontation: Historical Studies of Indians, Environment, and

Historians (1996)Shepard Krech III, "The State ofEthnohistory," Annual Review ofAnthropology 20 (1991),

345-375.Calvin Martin, ed., The American Indian and the Problem of History (1987)

In the Spirit of the Earth: Rethinking History and Time (1992)The Way of the Human Being (1999)

Laura F. Klein and Lillian A. Ackerman. eds.. Woman and Power in Native North America( 1 995)

Devon A. Mihesuah, ed., Natives and Academics: Researching and Writing AboutAmerican Indians (L998)

Donald L. Parman and Catherine Price, 'A 'Work in Progress': The Emergence of IndianHistory as a Professional Field," Western Historical Quarterly 20 (1989): 185-196

Daniel K. Richter, "Whose Indian History?" The William and Mary Quarterly 50 (April1993),3'79-393

Thomas E. Sheridan, "How to Tell the Story of a 'People without History,"' Journal of theSouthwest 30 (1988): 168-189

William C. Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians,20 vols. (1978-)Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since

1492 (1987)John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas

(ree2)