changing role of woman in past 25 years
TRANSCRIPT
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The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few
millennia.[4][4]
From equal status with men in ancient times[5]
through the low points of the medieval
period,[6] to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been
eventful. In modern India, women have held high offices in India including that of
the President, Prime Minister , Speaker of the Lok Sabha and Leader of the Opposition.
As of 2011, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (Lower
House of the parliament) were women. However, women in India continue to face atrocities such as
rape, acid throwing, dowry killings, and the forced prostitution of young girls.[7][8][9]
According to a
global poll conducted by Thomson Reuters, India is the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world
for women,[10][11]
and the worst country for women among theG20 countries.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 History o 1.1 Ancient India
o 1.2 Medieval period
o 1.3 Historical practices
o 1.4 British rule
2 Independent India
3 Timeline
4 Culture
5 Education and economic development
o 5.1 Education
o 5.2 Workforce participation
o 5.3 Land and property rights
6 Crimes against women
o 6.1 Acid throwing
o 6.2 Child marriage
o 6.3 Domestic violence
o 6.4 Dowry
o 6.5 Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion
o 6.6 Rape
o 6.7 Sexual harassment
o 6.8 Trafficking
7 Other concerns
o 7.1 Social opinions
o 7.2 Health
o 7.3 Family planning
o 7.4 Sex ratios
o 7.5 Sanitation
8 Notable Indian women
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
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History [edit] Ancient India[edit]
According to scholars, women in ancient India enjoyed equal status with men in all aspects of
life.[13]
Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women
were educated in the early Vedic period.[14][15]
Rigvedic verses suggest that women married at a
mature age and were probably free to select their own husbands.[16]
Scriptures such as the Rig
Veda and Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notablyGargi and Maitreyi.[17]
There are very few texts specifically dealing with the role of women[18]
an important exception is
the Stri Dharma Paddhati of Tryambakayajvan, an official atThanjavur c. 1730. The text compiles
strictures on women's behaviour dating back to the Apastamba sutra (c. 4th century BCE).[19]
The
opening verse goes:
mukhyo dharmaH smr^tiShu vihito bhartr^shushruShANam hi :
women are enjoined to be of service to their husbands.
Some kingdoms in ancient India had traditions such as nagarvadhu ("bride of the city").
Women competed to win the coveted title of nagarvadhu. Amrapali is the most famous
example of a nagarvadhu.
According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic
period.[20]
However in approximately 500 B.C., the status of women began to decline, and
with the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal empire and Christianity later worsened
women's freedom and rights.[6]
Although reform movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to religious
orders, by and large women in India faced confinement and restrictions.[20]The practice
of child marriages is believed to have started around the sixth century.[21]
Medieval period[edit]
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Krishna at Goddesss Radharani's feet.
Indian women's position in society further deteriorated during the medieval
period,[6][13] when child marriages and a ban on remarriage by widows became part of social
life in some communities in India. The Muslim conquest in the Indian
subcontinent brought purdah to Indian society. Among the Rajputs of Rajasthan,
the Jauhar was practised. In some parts of India, some of Devadasis were sexually
exploited. Polygamy was practised among Hindu Kshatriya rulers for some political
reasons.[21]
In many Muslim families, women were restricted to Zenana areas of the house.
In spite of these conditions, women often became prominent in the fields of politics,
literature, education and religion.[6]Razia Sultana became the only woman monarch to have
ever ruled Delhi. The Gond queen Durgavati ruled for fifteen years before losing her life in a
battle with Mughal emperor Akbar 's general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand
Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the powerful Mughal forces of Akbar in the
1590s. Jehangir 's wife Nur Jehan effectively wielded imperial power, and was recognized as
the real power behind the Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahanara and Zebunnissa
were well-known poets, and also influenced the ruling powers. Shivaji's mother, Jijabai, was
queen regent because of her ability as a warrior and an administrator. In South India, many
women administered villages, towns, and divisions, and ushered in new social and religious
institutions.[21]
The Bhakti movements tried to restore women's status and questioned certain forms of
oppression.[20]
Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement
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figures. Other female saint-poets from this period included Akka Mahadevi, Rami Janabai
and Lal Ded. Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many
others were principle movements within the Hindu fold openly advocating social justice and
equality between men and women.
Immediately following the Bhakti movements, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs, preached
equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to lead religious
assemblies; to lead congregational hymn singing called Kirtan or Bhajan; to become
members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; to have
equality in marriage, and to have equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also
preached the same, but their practices were often regarded to be a breach of women rights.
Historical practices[edit]
Traditions such as Sati, Jauhar, and Devadasi among some communities have been banned
and are largely defunct in modern India. However, some instances of these practices are still
found in remote parts of India. The purdah is still practiced by Indian women in some
communities. Child marriage remains common in rural areas, although it is illegal under
current Indian law.
Sati
Sati is an old, almost completely defunct custom among some communities, in which thewidow was immolated alive on her husband's funeral pyre. Although the act was supposed tobe voluntary on the widow's part, its practice is forbidden by the Hindu scriptures in Kaliyuga, the current age.
[22] After the foreign invasions of Indian subcontinent, this practice
started to mark its presence, as women were often raped or kidnapped by the foreignforces.
[23] It was abolished by the British in 1829. There have been around forty reported
cases of sati since independence.[24]
In 1987, the Roop Kanwar case in Rajasthan led to TheCommission of Sati (Prevention) Act.
[25]
Jauhar
Jauhar refers to the practice of voluntary immolation by wives and daughters of defeatedwarriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent molestation by the enemy. The practicewas followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who are known to place a high premiumon honour. Evidently such practice took place during the Islamic invasions of India.
[26]
Purdah
Purdah is the practice among some communities requiring women to cover themselves so asto conceal their skin and form from males. It imposes restrictions on the mobility of women,curtails their right to interact freely, and is a symbol of the subordination of women. It is notedthat Indian women had to purdah in the Islamic Kingdoms in Indian Subcontinent, as result of
fear, that they would be kidnapped by the Muslim invaders.
Devadasis
Devadasi is often misunderstood as religious practice. It was practised in southern India, inwhich women were "married" to a deity or temple. The ritual was well-established by the 10thcentury A.D.
[27] By 1988, the practice was outlawed in the country.
[28]
British rule[edit]
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European scholars observed in the 19th century that Hindu women are
"naturally chaste" and "more virtuous" than other women.[29]
During
the British Raj, many reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar and Jyotirao Phule fought for the betterment of women. Peary
Charan Sarkar , a former student of Hindu College, Calcutta and a memberof "Young Bengal", set up the first free school for girls in India in 1847 in
Barasat, a suburb of Calcutta (later the school was named Kalikrishna Girls'
High School).
While this might suggest that there was no positive British contribution
during the Raj era, that is not entirely the case. Missionaries' wives such as
Martha Mault née Mead and her daughter Eliza Caldwell née Mault are
rightly remembered for pioneering the education and training of girls in
south India. This practice was initially met with local resistance, as it flew in
the face of tradition. Raja Rammohan Roy's efforts led to the abolition ofSati under Governor-General William Cavendish-Bentinck in 1829. Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar's crusade for improvement in the situation of widows
led to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. Many women reformers such
as Pandita Ramabai also helped the cause of women.
Kittur Chennamma, queen of the princely state Kittur in Karnataka,[30] led an
armed rebellion against the British in response to the Doctrine of
lapse. Abbakka Rani, queen of coastal Karnataka, led the defence against
invading European armies, notably the Portuguese in the 16th century. Rani
Lakshmi Bai, the Queen of Jhansi, led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 againstthe British. She is now widely considered as a national hero. Begum Hazrat
Mahal, the co-ruler of Awadh, was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857.
She refused deals with the British and later retreated to Nepal. The Begums
of Bhopal were also considered notable female rulers during this period.
They did not observe purdah and were trained in martial arts.
Chandramukhi Basu, Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were
some of the earliest Indian women to obtain a degree.
In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand
women's political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All
India Women's Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927, it became
a major organisation in the movement for social change.[20][31] In 1929, the
Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the
minimum age of marriage for a girl.[20][32][full citation needed ]
Though Mahatma
Gandhi himself married at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to
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boycott child marriages and called upon young men to marry child
widows.[33]
Women played an important part in India's independence struggle. Some
famous freedom fighters include Bhikaji Cama, Dr. Annie Besant, Pritilata
Waddedar ,Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur , Aruna Asaf
Ali, Sucheta Kriplani and Kasturba Gandhi. Other notable names
include Muthulakshmi Reddy and Durgabai Deshmukh. The Rani of Jhansi
Regiment of Subhas Chandra Bose's Indian National Army consisted
entirely of women, including Captain Lakshmi Sahgal. Sarojini Naidu, a poet
and freedom fighter , was the first Indian woman to become President of
the Indian National Congress and the first woman to become the governor
of a state in India.
Independent India[edit]
Female Safety Index per state according to the Tata Strategic Management Group.
Light green indicates greatest safety; yellow, medium safety and light red, least
safety.
Women in India now participate fully in areas such as education, sports,
politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology,
etc.[6]
Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime Minister of India for an aggregateperiod of fifteen years, is the world's longest serving woman Prime
Minister .[34]
The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article
14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity
(Article 16), and equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it
allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and
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children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of
women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the
State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity
relief. (Article 42).[35]
Feminist activism in India gained momentum in the late 1970s. One of the
first national-level issues that brought women's groups together was
the Mathura rape case. The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a
young girl Mathura in a police station led to country-wide protests in 1979-
1980. The protests, widely covered by the national media, forced the
Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code, and
the Indian Penal Code; and created a new offence, custodial
rape.[35] Female activists also united over issues such as female infanticide,
gender bias, women's health, women's safety, and women's literacy.
Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in
India,[36]
many women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and other
states.[35]
Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental
leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law and have
criticized thetriple talaq system.[20]
In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new
women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed
Women's Association (SEWA) have played a major role in the
advancement of women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as
leaders of local movements; for example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada
Bachao Andolan.
The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's
Empowerment (Swashakti ).[20]
The National Policy For The Empowerment
Of Women came was passed in 2001.[37]
In 2006, the case of Imrana, a Muslim rape victim, was highlighted by the
media. Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some
Muslim clerics that Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to widespreadprotests, and finally Imrana's father-in-law was sentenced to 10 years in
prison. The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All
India Muslim Personal Law Board.[38]
In 2010 March 9, one day after International Women's day, Rajya Sabha
passed the Women's Reservation Bill requiring that 33% of seats in India's
Parliament and state legislative bodies be reserved for women.[39]
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Timeline[edit]
The steady change in the position of women can be highlighted by looking
at what has been achieved by women in the country:
1848: Savitribai Phule, along with her husband Jyotirao Phule, opened
a school for girls in Pune, India. Savitribai Phule became the first
woman teacher in India.
1879: John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune established the Bethune School
in 1849, which developed into the Bethune College in 1879, thus
becoming the first women's college in India.
1883: Chandramukhi Basu and Kadambini Ganguly became the first
female graduates of India and the British Empire.
1886: Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi became the first
women from India to be trained in Western medicine.
1905: Suzanne RD Tata becomes the first Indian woman to drive a
car .[40]
1916: The first women's university, SNDT Women's University, was
founded on 2 June 1916 by the social reformer Dhondo Keshav
Karve with just five students.
1917: Annie Besant became the first female president of the Indian
National Congress.
1919: For her distinguished social service, Pandita Ramabai became
the first Indian woman to be awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal by
the British Raj.
1925: Sarojini Naidu became the first Indian born female president of
the Indian National Congress.
1927: The All India Women's Conference was founded.
1944: Asima Chatterjee became the first Indian woman to be conferred
the Doctorate of Science by an Indian university.
1947: On 15 August 1947, following independence, Sarojini Naidu
became the governor of the United Provinces, and in the process
became India's first woman governor.
1951: Prem Mathur of the Deccan Airways becomes the first Indian
woman commercial pilot.
1953: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit became the first woman (and first Indian)
president of the United Nations General Assembly
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1959: Anna Chandy becomes the first Indian woman judge of a High
Court (Kerala High Court)[41]
1963: Sucheta Kriplani became the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, the
first woman to hold that position in any Indian state.
1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot ofthe state airline, Indian Airlines.
1966: Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay wins Ramon Magsaysay award for
community leadership.
1966: Indira Gandhi becomes the first woman Prime Minister of India
1970: Kamaljit Sandhu becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in
the Asian Games
1972: Kiran Bedi becomes the first female recruit to join the Indian
Police Service.[42]
1979: Mother Teresa wins the Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the firstIndian female citizen to do so.
1984: On 23 May, Bachendri Pal became the first Indian woman to
climb Mount Everest.
1989: Justice M. Fathima Beevi becomes the first woman judge of
the Supreme Court of India.[43]
1992: Priya Jhingan becomes the first lady cadet to join the Indian
Army (later commissioned on 6 March 1993)[44]
Culture[edit]
Women in Tamil Nadu.
A sari (a long piece of fabric wound around the body) and salwar
kameez are worn by women all over India. A bindi is part of a woman's
make-up. Despite common belief, the bindi on the forehead does not signify
marital status; however, the Sindoor does.[45]
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Rangoli (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women.
Education and economic development[edit]
According to 1992-93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were
headed by females. However, approximately 35% of the households below
the poverty line were found to be headed by females.[46]
Education[edit]
Further information: Education in India
Though it is gradually increasing, the female literacy rate in India is less
than the male literacy rate.[47]
Far fewer girls than boys are enrolled in
school, and many girls drop out.[35]
In urban India, girls are nearly on a par
with boys in terms of education. However, in rural India girls continue to be
less well-educated than boys. According to the National Sample Survey
Data of 1997, only the states of Kerala and Mizoram have approached
universal female literacy. According to scholars, the major factor behind
improvements in the social and economic status of women in Kerala is
literacy.[35]
Under the Non-Formal Education programme (NFE), about 40% of the NFE
centres in states and 10% of the centres in UTs are exclusively reserved for
females. As of 2000, about 300,000 NFE centres were catering to about
7.42 million children. About 120,000 NFE centres were exclusively for
girls.
[48]
According to a 1998 report by the U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief
barriers to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such
as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in the
curriculum (female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).[49]
Workforce participation[edit]
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Women at work carrying new bricks, Puri, Orissa.
Contrary to common perception, a large percentage of women in India
work.[50]
National data collection agencies accept that statistics seriously
understate women's contribution as workers.[35] However, there are far
fewer women than men in the paid workforce. In urban India, women
participate in the workforce in impressive numbers. For example, in the
software industry 30% of the workforce is female.[51]
In the workplace
women enjoy parity with their male counterparts in terms of wages and
roles.
In rural India in the agriculture and allied industrial sectors, females account
for as much as 89.5% of the labour force.[46] In overall farm production,
women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total
labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 94%
of total employment in dairy production in India. Women constitute 51% of
the total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.[46]
One of the most famous female business success stories is the Shri Mahila
Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad. In 2006, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, who founded
Biocon, one of India's first biotech companies, was rated India's richest
woman. Lalita D. Gupte and Kalpana Morparia were the only
businesswomen in India who made the list of the Forbes World's Most
Powerful Women in 2006. Gupte ran ICICI Bank, India's second-largest
bank, until October 2006 [52]
and Morparia is CEO of JP Morgan India.[53]
Land and property rights[edit]
In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own
names, and do not get a share of parental property.[35]
Due to weak
enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue to have little access
to land and property.[54]
In fact, some of the laws discriminate against
women, when it comes to land and property rights.[55]
The Hindu personal laws of 1956 (applying to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and
Jains) gave women rights to inheritances. However, sons had an
independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters' shares
were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a father could
effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral
property, but a son would continue to have a share in his own right.
Additionally, married daughters, even those facing marital harassment, had
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no residential rights in the ancestral home. Thanks to amendment of the
Hindu laws in 2005, women now have the same status as men.[56]
In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an elderly
divorced Muslim woman, was eligible for maintenance money. However,
the decision was vociferously opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders,
who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law. The Union
Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of
Rights Upon Divorce) Act.[57]
Similarly, Christian women have struggled over years for equal rights in
divorce and succession. In 1994, all churches, jointly with women's
organisations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and
Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended
the relevant laws.[20]
Crimes against women[edit]
Police records in India show a high incidence of crimes against women. The
National Crime Records Bureau reported in 1998 that by 2010 growth in the
rate of crimes against women would exceed the population growth
rate.[35] Earlier, many crimes against women were not reported to police due
to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation. Official statistics
show a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes against
women.[35]
Acid throwing[edit]
A Thomas Reuters Foundation survey [58]
says that India is the fourth most
dangerous place in the world for women to live in.[59]
Women belonging to
any class, caste, creed or religion can be victims of this cruel form of
violence and disfigurement, a premeditated crime intended to kill or maim
permanently and act as a lesson to put a woman in her place. In India, acid
attacks on women[60]
who dared to refuse a man's proposal of marriage or
asked for a divorce [61]
are a form of revenge. Acid is cheap, easily
available, and the quickest way to destroy a woman's life. The number ofacid attacks have been rising.
[62]
Child marriage[edit]
Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India and continues to this
day. Historically, child brides would live with their parents until they reached
puberty. In the past, child widows were condemned to a life of great agony,
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shaved heads, living in isolation, and being shunned by society.[33]
Although
child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice.[63]
According to UNICEF’s “State of the World’s Children-2009” report, 47% of
India's women aged 20 –24 were married before the legal age of 18, rising
to 56% in rural areas.[64] The report also showed that 40% of the world's
child marriages occur in India.[65]
Domestic violence[edit]
Main article: Domestic violence in India
The number of incidents of domestic violence is higher among the lower
Socio-Economic Classes (SECs).[citation needed ]
The Protection of Women
from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into force on 26 October 2006.
Dowry[edit]
Main articles: Dowry , Dowry death and Dowry law in India
In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition
Act,[66] making dowry demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However,
many cases of dowry-related domestic violence, suicides and murders have
been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such cases were reported.[50]
In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride
and bridegroom) Rules were framed.[67]
According to these rules, a signed
list should be maintained of presents given at the time of the marriage to
the bride and the bridegroom. The list should contain a brief description of
each present, its approximate value, the name of who has given the
present, and relationship to the recipient. However, such rules are rarely
enforced.
A 1997 report claimed that each year at least 5,000 women in India die
dowry-related deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires'
thought to be intentional.[68]
The term for this is "bride burning" and is
criticized within India itself. Amongst the urban educated, such dowry abuse
has reduced considerably[citation needed ]
.
Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion[edit] Main articles: Sex-selective abortion and infanticide and Missing women of
Asia
In India, the male-female sex ratio is skewed dramatically in favour of
males, the chief reason being the high number of females who die before
reaching adulthood.[35]
Tribal societies in India have a less skewed sex ratio
than other caste groups. This is in spite of the fact that tribal communities
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have far lower income levels, lower literacy rates, and less adequate health
facilities.[35]
Many experts suggest the higher number of males in India can
be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions.
Ultrasound scanning constitutes a major leap forward in providing for the
care of mother and baby, and with scanners becoming portable, these
advantages have spread to rural populations. However, ultrasound scans
often reveal the sex of the baby, allowing pregnant women to decide to
abort female foetuses and try again later for a male child. This practice is
usually considered the main reason for the change in the ratio of male to
female children being born. In 1994 the Indian government passed a law
forbidding women or their families from asking about the sex of the baby
after an ultrasound scan (or any other test which would yield that
information) and also expressly forbade doctors or any other persons from
providing that information. However, in practice this law (like the lawforbidding dowries) is widely ignored, and levels of abortion on female
foetuses remain high and the sex ratio at birth keeps getting more
skewed. [69]
Female infanticide (killing of girl infants) is still prevalent in some rural
areas.[35] Sometimes this is infanticide by neglect, for example families may
not spend money on critical medicines or withhold care from a sick girl.
Continuing abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons
for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.
Rape[edit]
Main article: Rape in India
Rape in India has been described by Radha Kumar as one of India's most
common crimes against women[70]
and by the UN’s human-rights chief as a
“national problem”.[71]
In the 1980s, women's rights groups lobbied
for marital rape to be declared unlawful, as until 1983, the criminal law
(amendment) act stated that "sexual intercourse by a man with his own
wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age is not rape". Marital rape
is still not a criminal offence.
[70]
While per-capita reported incidents are quitelow compared to other countries, even developed countries,
[72][73] a new
case is reported every 20 minutes.[74][75]
New Delhi has the highest rate of
rape-reports among Indian cities.[76]
Sources show that rape cases in India
have doubled between 1990 and 2008.[77]
According to the National Crime
Records Bureau, 24,206 rape cases were registered in India in 2011,
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although experts agree that the cases of unreported sexual assault is
higher .[78]
Sexual harassment[edit]
Main article: Eve teasing
Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or molestation of
women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidents of sexual
harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987,
The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed[79] to
prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in
publications, writings, paintings or in any other manner.
Of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990, half related
to molestation and harassment in the workplace.[35]
In 1997, in a landmark
judgement[ambiguous], the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against
sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down
detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National
Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a
Code of Conduct for employers.[35]
In 2013 India's top court investigated on
a law graduate's allegation that she was sexually harassed by a recently
retired Supreme Court judge.[80]
Trafficking[edit]
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956.[81]
However many
cases of trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. Thesewomen are either forced into prostitution, domestic work or child labour .
Other concerns[edit] Social opinions[edit]
Main article: Sexism in India
In the wake of several brutal rape attacks in the capital city of Delhi,
debates held in other cities revealed that men believed women who
dressed provocatively deserved to get raped; many of the correspondents
stated women incited men to rape them.[82][83]
Health[edit]
Main article: Women's health in India
The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many
countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many
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families, especially rural ones, girls and women face nutritional
discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.[35]
The maternal mortality in India is the 56th highest in the world.[84] 42% of
births in the country are supervised in Medical Institution. In rural areas,
most of women deliver with the help of women in the family, contradictory to
the fact that unprofessional or unskilled deliverer lacks the knowledge about
pregnancy.[35]
Family planning[edit]
The average woman living in a rural area in India has little or no control
over becoming pregnant. Women, particularly women in rural areas, do not
have access to safe and self-controlled methods of contraception. The
public health system emphasises permanent methods like sterilisation, or
long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilization
accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation
accounting for almost 95% of all sterilisations.[35]
Sex ratios[edit]
India has a highly skewed sex ratio, which is attributed to sex-selective
abortion and female infanticide affecting approximately one million female
babies per year .[85]
In, 2011, government stated India was missing three
million girls and there are now 48 less girls per 1,000 boys.[86]
Despite this,
the government has taken further steps to improve the ratio, and the ratio is
reported to have been improved in recent years.[87]
Sanitation[edit]
Further information: Sanitation in India
In rural areas, schools have been reported to have gained the improved
sanitation facility.[88] Given the existing socio-cultural norms and situation of
sanitation in schools, girl students are forced not to relieve themselves in
the open unlike boys.[89]
Lack of facilities in home forces women to wait for
the night to relieve themselves and avoid being seen by others.[90]
In 2011 a "Right to Pee" (as called by the media) campaign beganin Mumbai, India's largest city.
[91] Women, but not men, have to pay to
urinate in Mumbai, despite regulations against this practice. Women have
also been sexually assaulted while urinating in fields.[91] Thus, activists have
collected more than 50,000 signatures supporting their demands that the
local government stop charging women to urinate, build more toilets, keep
them clean, provide sanitary napkins and a trash can, and hire female
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attendants.[91]
In response, city officials have agreed to build hundreds of
public toilets for women in Mumbai, and some local legislators are now
promising to build toilets for women in every one of their districts.[91]
Notable Indian women[edit]
See also: List of Indian film actresses
Education
Savitribai Phule was a social reformer. Along with her husband, Mahatma
Jotiba Phule, she played an important role in improving women's rights in
India during British Rule. Savitribai was the first female teacher of the first
women's school in India and also considered to be the pioneer of modern
Marathi poetry. In 1852 she opened a school for Untouchable caste girls.
Arts and entertainment
Singers and vocalists such as M.S. Subbulakshmi, Gangubai Hangal, Lata
Mangeshkar , Asha Bhosle and others are widely revered in India. Anjolie
Ela Menon is a famous painter.
Sports
Although in general the women's sports scenario in India is not very good,
some Indian women have made notable achievements in the field. Some
famous female sportspersons in Indian include P. T. Usha (athletics), J. J.
Shobha (athletics), Kunjarani Devi (weightlifting), Diana
Edulji (cricket), Saina Nehwal (badminton),Koneru Hampi (chess)
and Sania Mirza (tennis). Female Olympic medalists from India include
weightlifter Karnam Malleswari (bronze, 2000), Saina Nehwal (bronze,
2012), and boxer Mary Kom (bronze, 2012).
Politics
Through the Panchayat Raj institutions, over a million women have actively
entered political life in India.[54]
As per the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendment Acts, all local elected bodies reserve one-third of their seats for
women. Although the percentages of women in various levels of political
activity has risen considerably, women are still under-represented in
governance and decisionmaking positions.[35]
Literature
Many women writers are prominent in Indian literature as poets and story
writers, such as Sarojini Naidu, Kamala Surayya, Shobha De, Arundhati
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Roy, and Anita Desai. Sarojini Naidu is called the nightingale of India.
Arundhati Roy won the Booker Prize (Man Booker Prize) for her novel The
God of Small Things.