chaembrio poly01.ppt

8/17/2019 chaembrio poly01.ppt

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Chapter 18Evolution of

Plants and FungiLecture Outline

Copyright © The McGra!"ill Co#panies$ %nc& Per#ission re'uired for reproduction or display&


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18.1 Plants have a green algal ancestor

Multicellular$ photosynthetic eu(aryotes

Evolved fro# freshater green algae so#e )**

#illion years ago

Evidence + ,oth green algae and plants

1& Contain chlorophylls a and - and various

accessory pig#ents

.& /tore e0cess car-ohydrates as starch

& "ave cellulose in their cell all

18!.


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18!Figure 18.1A The evolution of plants


common ancestor

megaphylls

microphylls

seeds

flowers, double fertilization, endosperm, fruit

Flowering plants

Gymnosperms

Ferns and allies

osses

!ycophytes

"ornworts

# a s c u l a r

$ o n v a s c u l a r

% e e d

l e s s

& r y o p h y t e s

% e e d

!iverworts

'harophytes

(() *))*()()) +() +)) ()P-%$/

common

green

algalancestor

embryo

protection

apical

growth

vascular

tissue

illion 0ears Ago 0A2


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18. Alternation of generations life cycle

. #ulticellular stages alternate

%porophyte represents the diploid generation 2.n3

Produces spores -y #eiosis

4 spore undergoes #itosis to -eco#e a ga#etophyte

Gametophyte represents the haploid generation 2n3

Produces gametes %n plants$ eggs and sper# are produced -y #itosis

4 sper# and egg fuse$ for#ing a diploid 5ygote that

undergoes #itosis and -eco#es the sporophyte

18!6


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18!)

Figure 18. 4lternation of generations


zygote n2

sporophyte n2

spore n2

gametophyte n2

n2n2

gametes

i t

o s i s

i t o

s i s

i t o

s i s

sporangium n2

diploid n2

haploid n234%3%F-/3!35A/34$


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18.+ %porophyte dominance was

adaptive to a dry land environment

Plants differ as to hich generation is do#inant

Only the sporophyte has vascular tissue for

transporting ater and nutrients

Only plants ith a do#inant sporophyte

generation attain significant height

18!7


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Figure 18.+A The si5e of the ga#etophyte is progressively reduced as

the sporophyte -eco#es #ore do#inant

18!


oss Fern Gymnosperm Angiosperm

roots

roots

roots

rhizoids

G

am

e

t

o

p

h

y

te

n2

%p

o

r

o

p

h

y

t

e

n2

seed seedspores spores

rhizoids


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9eproductive 4daptation to Land Environ#ent

Ferns are seedless vascular plants ith a do#inant

sporophyte

:ater!dependent ga#etophyte #a(es it #ore difficult forferns and related plants to spread to and live in dry

environ#ents

Floering plants are seed plants ith a do#inant

sporophyte 4ll reproductive structures are protected fro# drying out in

the terrestrial environ#ent

18!8


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Figure 18.+& a& 4rchegoniu# in seedless plants

18!;© Ed 9esch(e

surface of

gametophyte

egg becomes

sporophyte embryo

a. Archegonium in seedless plants



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18!1*

Figure 18.+& -& Ovule in seed plants&

b. 4vule in seed plants

tissue of

sporophyte

ovule becomes

seed

egg becomes

sporophyte

embryo


© Ed 9esch(e


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Other 4daptations to the Land Environ#ent

/pophytes have a cuticle

Covering that provides an effective -arrier to aterloss$ -ut it also li#its gas e0change

Leaves have little openings called stomata 2sing&$

sto#a3 that let car-on dio0ide enter hile alloingo0ygen and ater to e0it

18!11


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18!1.

Figure 18.+' Leaf structures of vascular plants


Falsely colored scanning

lectron micrograph

4f leaf surface

%tained photomicrograph

4f a leaf cross section

stomata

#ascular plant leaves

"ave a cuticle and stomata.

cuticle

2left3< © =ingsley /tern> 2right3< © 4ndre /yred?/PL?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc&


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&ryophytes6 $on7#ascular Plants

E0s< hornorts$ liverorts$ and #osses

First plants to coloni5e land

/uccessfully reproduce on land -ecause they

protect the e#-ryo @ produce ind!-lon spores

Ao true roots$ ste#s$ or leaves + no vascular

tissue BAon!vascular plants

18!1


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Figure 18.*A 9epresentative -ryophytes

18!16


"ornwort !iverwort female gametophyte oss gametophyte

sporophyte

gametophyte

archegonium

gemma cup

2hornort3< © /teven P& Lynch> 2liverort3< © "arold Taylor?Getty %#ages> 2#oss3< © Aigel Cattlin?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc&


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3n &ryophytes, the Gametophyte is

ominant

,ryophyte reproduction

Ga#etophyte is the do#inant generation

Fe#ale ga#etophyte produces eggs in archegonia$

and the #ale ga#etophyte produces flagellatedsper# in antheridia

Folloing fertili5ation$ the 5ygote -eco#es a

sporophyte

/porophyte attached to$ and derives its nourish#entfro#$ the photosynthetic ga#etophyte

18!1)


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Figure 18&6, Moss life cycle$ Polytrichum sp&

18!17


2top3< © Peter LilDa?Getty %#ages> 2-otto#3< © /teven P& Lynch

zygote

spermegg

Archegonia

Antheridia

%pores

%porangium

Gametophytes

buds

itosis

itosis

haploid n2

diploid n2

1

(

9

eveloping sporophyte6

/he sporophyte embryo

is retained within the

archegonium, where

it develops, becoming a

mature sporophyte.

developingsporophyte

Fertilization6

Flagellated sperm

produced in

antheridia swim in

e:ternal water to

archegonia, each

bearing a single egg.

/he mature

gametophytes63n mosses, the

dominant

gametophyte shoots

bear either antheridiaor archegonia, where

gametes are

produced by mitosis.

%pore dispersal6

%pores are releasedwhen they are most

li;ely to be

dispersed

by air currents.

/he immature gametophyte6

A spore germinatesinto the first

stage of the male

and the female

gametophytes.

+

archegonium

antheridium

/he sporophyte6

/he dependent sporophyte has a foot buried in female

gametophyte tissue, a stal;, and an upper capsule the sporangium2, where meiosis occurs and windblown spores

are produced.

*

34%3%F-/3!35A/34$

%porophyte

stal;

foot n2


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Plant #ascular /issue

ascular tissue in plants<

$ in the plant&

18!1


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Ferns6 %eedless vascular plants

Ferns$ horsetails$ and his( ferns are

seedless vascular plants

"ave #egaphylls

,road leaves ith several strands of

vascular tissue

18!18


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18.9 Ferns have large leaves

called megaphylls

"orsetails

One genus$

Equisetum, and

appro0i#ately .)species

4-out ** M4$

horsetails ere

do#inant plants and

gre as large as

#odern trees

18!1;Figure 18.9& "orsetail 2Equisetum3


strobilus

branches

leaves

© Gerald @ ,uff Corsi?isuals nli#ited


20/50


called megaphylls

:his( ferns

Psilotum and

Tmesipteris

Epiphytes Plants that live

on?in trees

Ao leaves

18!.*Figure 18.9' :his( fern 2Psilotum3


rhizome

sporangium

aerial stem

scale

root

2Left3< © C4,%/CO?Photota(e


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called megaphylls

Ferns

11$** species

Megaphylls

called fronds Leaves first

appear as

fiddleheads

. generationsseparate and

independent

18!.1Figure 18.9 Hiversity of fern fronds


'innamon fern, 4smunda cinamomea

frond

undivided2

"art?s tongue fern'ampyloneurum scolopendrium

aidenhair fern,Adiantum pedatum

spores onfertile frond

a:is

leaflet

2cinna#on fern3< © Ia#es 9and(lev?Getty %#ages> 2hartJs tongue3< © :alter "& "odge?Peter

4rnold?Photoli-rary> 2#aidenhair3< © Ieff Foott?Getty %#ages

frond

divided2


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Figure 18.9 Fern life cycle

18!..


%porophyte

fiddlehead roots

frond

%porangium

sperm

Antheridium

egg

Archegonium

Gametophyte

%pores

zygote

leaflet

%orus

sporangium

34%3%

ryopterus

itosis

itosis

haploid n2

diploid n2

(

9

*

+

1 /he sporophyte6 /he sporophyte is

dominant in ferns.

0oung sporophyte6/he sporophyte

embryo develops

inside anarchegonium.

As the distinctivefirst leaf appearsabove the

gametophyte, and

as the rootsdevelop below it,

the young sporophyte

becomes visible.

young sporophyteon gametophyte

F-/3!35A/34$

/he sporangia63n this fern, the

sporangia arelocated within sorising., sorus2 on

the underside of

the leaflets.

/he spores6

>ithin asporangium,

meiosis occursand spores are

produced. >hen asporangium opens,

the spores arereleased.

germinating

spore

/he gametophyte6A spore germinates into a

heart7shaped gametophyte,which typically bears archegonia

at the notch and antheridia at the

tip between the rhizoids.

Fertilization6

Fertilization ta;es

place whenmoisture is

present, becausethe flagellated

sperm must swimin a film of water

from the antheridia to eggs within

archegonia.

2Top right3< © Matt Meados?Peter 4rnold?Photoli-rary

%ori


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Gymnosperms @ Angiosperms

Gy#nosper#s and angiosper#s are seed plants

%eed contains a sporophyte generation$ along

ith stored food$ ithin a protective seed coat

4-ility of seeds to survive harsh conditions until

the environ#ent is again favora-le for grothlargely accounts for the do#inance of seed plants

today

18!.


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18. ost gymnosperms bear cones

on which the seeds are Bna;edC

Hiversity of Gy#nosper#s

Four groups of living gy#nosper#s< cycads$ gin(goes$

gnetophytes$ and conifers

4ll have ovules and develop seeds that are e0posedon the surface of cone scales or analogous structures

Conifers

Consist of a-out )) species of trees

Many are evergreens such as pines$ spruces$ firs$ cedars andhe#loc(s

Econo#ic alue of Conifers :ood of conifers is used e0tensively in construction

18!.6


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Figure 18.A Gy#nosper# diversity

18!.)


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Figure 18.A Gy#nosper# diversity 2Cont&3

18!.7


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Figure 18.A Gy#nosper# diversity 2Cont&3

18!.


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18!.8

Figure 18.& Pine life cycleCopyright © The McGra!"ill Co#panies$ %nc& Per#ission re'uired for reproduction or display&

Pollen sac

%eedstored food

seed coat

zygote

seed wing

%porophyte

pollen cone scale

%eed cones

seed cone scale

Pollen cones

sperm

pollen tube

egg

ature female gametophyte

Pollen grain

Pollination

egaspores

icrospores

pollen grain

egaspores6

egaspore mother cell

in ovule undergoes

meiosis to produce

megaspores.4ne

megaspore will

become the

egg7producing

/he pollen grain6

/he pollen grain has two wings and is carried by the

wind to the seed cone during pollination

ature male gametophyte

)) Dm

34%3% 34%3%

4vule

4vule

itosis

itosis

itosis

haploid n2

diploid n2

+

*

(

1

F-/3!35A/34$

/he sporophyteembryo6After

fertilization, the

ovule matures and

becomes the seed

composed of the

embryo, reserve

food, and a seed

coat. Finally, in the

fall of the second

season, the seed

cone, by

now woody and

hard, opens to

release winged

seeds. >hen

a seed germinates,

the sporophyte

sporophyte

embryo

Fertilization6

4nce a pollen grain

reaches a seed cone,

it becomes a mature

male gametophyte.

A pollen tube digests

its way slowly

toward a female

gametophyte and

discharges

nonflagellated sperm.

/he fertilizedegg is

a zygote.

ovule

wall

megaspore

mother cell

microspore

mother cell

/he pollen cones6

/ypically, the pollen

cones are Euite smalland develop near the

tips of lower

branches.

/he seed cones6

/he seed cones are

larger than the pollen

cones and are located

near the tips of higher

branches.

icrospores6

icrospore mother

cells undergo meiosis

to produce

microspores. ach

microspore becomes a

pollen grain.

2,otto# right3< © Photota(e

"4> !3F '"A$G%


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"4> !3F '"A$G%

18A 'arboniferous Forests

&ecame the 'oal >e =se /oday Our industrial society runs on fossil fuels$ such

as coal

Huring Car-oniferous period 2K** M43 a great

sa#p forest enco#passed hat is nonorthern Europe$ the (raine$ and the

4ppalachian Mountains in the nited /tates&

Enor#ous a#ount of -io#ass

9e#ains -eca#e covered -y sedi#ent that changed

to sedi#entary roc(

:ith pressure$ the organic #aterial -eca#e coal

18!.;


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Figure 18A /a#p forest of the Car-oniferous period

18!*


Fossil seed fern

2fossil fern3< © /inclair /ta##ers?/PL?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc&


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Figure 18A /a#p forest of the Car-oniferous period 2Cont&3

18!1


early gymnosperm

club mosses

horsetail

seed fern

fern

Fossil seed fern

2fossil fern3< © /inclair /ta##ers?/PL?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc


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Angiosperms6 Flowering Plants

4ngiosper#s are floering plants

Evolved so#e .** M4

.6*$*** (non species

Ovules alays enclosed ithin sporophyte tissue

4ngiosper# Hiversity

Monocots + One cotyledon

Eudicots + To cotyledons

Cotyledons + seed leaves ith nutrients that nourish

the e#-ryo

18!.


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Figure 18.8A Generali5ed floer

18!


petals corolla2 sepals caly:2

stamens

anther

filament

receptacle

stigma

ovary

ovule

style

pollentube

carpel


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Figure 18.8& Floering plant life cycle

18!6


ovary

stigma

style

egaspores

sperm

pollen tube

icrospores

mature male gametophyte2Pollen grain

mbryo sac

mature female gametophyte2

Pollination

polar nuclei

ovule wall

egg

%eed

endosperm +n2

sporophyte embryo

seed coat

%porophyte

Anther

egg

polar nuclei

%tamen 'arpel

stigma

style

ovary

ovule

filament

anther

34%3% 34%3%

sperm

ovule

/he mature male gametophyte6

A pollen grain that lands on the carpel of the same typeof plant germinates and produces a pollen tube,which delivers two nonflagellated sperm to the female

gametophyte. A fully germinated pollen grain is themature male gametophyte.

itosis

i t o

s i s

i t o s i s

4vule

diploid n2

haploid n2

'arpel

ouble Fertilization

receptacle

+

*

(

9

1

/he stamen6

An anther at the top of eachstamen has four pollen sacs.

/he carpel6

/he ovary at the base of a

carpel contains one or moreovules. /he contents of an

ovule change during the

flowering plant life cycle.

pollen

sac

microsporemother cell megaspore

mother cell

degeneratingmegaspores

icrospores6icrospore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce

microspores. ach microspore becomes a pollen grain.

egaspores6

egaspore mother cell inside ovule undergoes meiosis to

produce megaspores. 4ne megaspore will become theegg7producing female gametophyte.

pollen

tube

F-/3!35A/34$

/he mature female gametophyte6

/he ovule now contains the mature female

gametophyte embryo sac2, which typically consists ofeight haploid nuclei embedded in a mass of cytoplasm.

/he cytoplasm differentiates into cells, one of which isan egg and another of which contains two polar nuclei.

ouble fertilization6

4n reaching the ovule, thepollen tube discharges the

sperm. 4ne of the two spermmigrates to and fertilizes theegg, forming a zygote the

other unites with the two

polar nuclei, producing a +n

triploid2 endosperm nucleus./he endosperm nucleus

divides to form endosperm,food for the developing plant.

/he seed6

/he ovule now develops into

the seed, which contains anembryo and food enclosedby a protective seed coat.

/he wall of the ovary andsometimes adHacent parts

develop into a fruit that

surrounds the seeds2.

/he sporophyte embryo6/he embryo within a seed

is the immature sporophyte.>hen a seed germinates,growth and differentiation

produce the maturesporophyte of a flowering

plant.

fruit

mature ovary2seed

mature ovule2

"4> &34!4G0 3PA'/% 4=- !3#%


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"4> &34!4G0 3PA'/% 4=- !3#%

18& Flowering plants provide

many services "u#ans derive #ost of their sustenance fro# three

floering plants

:heat First cultivated in the Middle East a-out 8*** ,&C&

Thought to -e one of the earliest cultivated plants

Corn Mai5e first cultivated in Central 4#erica a-out $*** years ago

9ice Originated several thousand years ago in southeastern 4sia$

here it gre in sa#ps

4-out )* of all phar#aceuticals co#e fro# plants

18!)


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Figure 18&.1 /pecies of grains i#portant to hu#ans

18!7


'orn plants, 5ea -ice plants, 4ryza

ear grain head

>heat plants,/riticum

grain head

2heat3< © Creatas %#ages 9F> 2corn plants$ rice plant3< © Cor-is 9F> 2ear of corn3< © Horling =indersley?Getty 9F> 2rice grains3< © He0 %#age?Getty 9F> © Cor-is

9F


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Figure 18&. ses of plants

18!


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Fungi differ from plants @ animals

/tructurally diverse group of eu(aryotes

/trict "eterotrophs

nli(e ani#als$ fungi release digestive en5y#es into

the e0ternal environ#ent and digest their food outsidethe -ody

Most are saprotrophs + deco#posers

,ody of #ost fungi #ade of a #ass of fila#ents

2hypha3 called a mycelium

Cell alls contain chitin

18!8


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Figure 18.IA

Fungal #ycelia

and hyphae

18!;


a. Fungal mycelia on a corn tortilla b. 'ell structure of hyphae

nuclei

septum

cell wall

nonseptate

hypha

septate

hypha

2a3< © Gary 9& 9o-inson?isuals nli#ited


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18.1) Fungi have mutualistic

relationships with algae and plants

%n a #utualistic relationship$ to different

species live together and help each other out

Mycorrhi5al fungi for# #utualistic relationships2mycorrhizae3 ith the roots of #ost plants

!ichen + a #utualistic association -eteen a fungus

and a green algae

18!6*


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Figure 18.1) Lichen structure and e0a#ples

18!61


2foliose3< © =erry T& Givens> 2fruticose3< © /tephen /harnoff?isuals nli#ited

Fruticose lichen, 'ladoniaFoliose lichen,


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18.11 !and fungi

occur in

three maingroups

5ygospore Fungi Mainly saprotrophs$

-ut so#e are

parasites

18!6.

Figure 18.11A

,lac( -read #old$

Rhizopus stolonifer


zygospore

sporangium

mycelium

J

34%3%n

n

+*

%e:ual

reproduction

Ase:ual

reproduction

1

2top left3< © 9un(?/choen-erger?Grant "eil#an Photography

F-/3!35A/34$

K

germinating

spores

(

1


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18.11 !and fungi occur in

three main groups

%ac Fungi

Aearly ) of all

descri-ed fungal

species

:6 0east + 1 celled

fungi&

18!6Figure 18.11& /e0ual reproduction in sac fungi


2cup fungi3< © Feli0 La-hardt?Getty 9F> 2#orel3< © 9o-ert Marien?Cor-is 9F

meiosis

Ascocarp of the cup fungus %arcoscypha

'up fungi

orel

ascocarp

ascocarp

ascospores

male organ

female organ

nuclear

fusion zygote

n2mature

ascus

di;aryotichyphae

J mating type n2

spore

K mating type n2

spore


44/50

Figure 18.11' 4se0ual reproductive structures in sac fungi

18!66


a< © Havid Philips?isuals nli#ited> -< © Havid Philips?isuals nli#ited>

conidia

a. b.

budding

yeast cell

18 11 !and fungiCopyright © The McGra!"ill Co#panies$ %nc& Per#ission re'uired for reproduction or display&


45/50

18.11 !and fungi

occur in

three main groups

'lub Fungi

Aa#e co#es fro# the

reproductive structure$

the basidium The -asidia are

located ithin a

-asidiocarp

:hen you eat a#ushroo#$ you are

eating a -asidiocarp

18!6)Figure 18.11 /e0ual reproduction in clu- fungi

basidiocarp

fusion meiosis

%e:ual reproduction

spores

nuclei in

basidium

gill of

mushroom

J7


46/50

Figure 18.11 /e0ual

reproduction in clu- fungi

involves a -asidiocarp of

hich three types areshon 2Cont&3

18!67

%helf fungiushroom

Gaint puffball


2#ushroo#3< © ,iophoto 4ssoc&?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc&> 2shelf fungi3< © %nga /pence> 2puff-all3< © L& :est?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc

"4> &34!4G0 3PA'/% 4=- !3#%


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"4> &34!4G0 3PA'/% 4=- !3#%

18.1( !and Fungi "ave conomic

and edical 3mportance Econo#ic %#portance

"elp produce #edicines and #any foods

Mold Penicillium as original source of penicillin

E0cellent lo!calorie #eat su-stitute containing lots of vita#ins

Fungal pathogens are a #aDor concern for far#ers

Medical %#portance

Certain #ushroo#s are poisonous

Mycoses are diseases caused -y fungi

levels of infection Cutaneous!s(in

/u-cutaneous!affects a deeper level

/yste#ic!spread through -ody via -lood

18!6


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Figure 18'.1 Plant fungal disease

18!68


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Figure 18'. "u#an fungal diseases

18!6;


© Iohn "adfield?/PL?Photo 9esearchers$ %nc&> © CM/P?Getty %#ages> Courtesy of the Centers for Hiseare Control and Prevention

a. -ingworm c. /hrush

tongue

bac; of throat

b.Athlete?s foot

' ti th ' t


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'onnecting the 'oncepts6

'hapter 18

Plants

Trend toards ga#etophyte dependence on a

sporophyte ith large leaves and vascular tissue 4ngiosper#s are the #ost idely dispersed of the

land plants

Fungi

4dapted to the land environ#ent -ecause theyproduce ind-lon spores&

18!)*

chaembrio poly01.ppt

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