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Should price gouging be illegal?

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6When you have completed your

study of this chapter, you will be able to

1Describe the alternative methods of allocating scareresources and define and explain the features of an efficientallocation.

2 Distinguish between value and price and define consumersurplus.

3 Distinguish between cost and price and define producer

surplus.

CHAPTER CHECKLIST

Efficiency and Fairnessof Markets

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When you have completed your

study of this chapter, you will be able to

4Evaluate the efficiency of the alternative methods ofallocating scare resources.

5 Explain the main ideas about fairness and evaluate thefairness of alternative methods of allocating scarceresources.

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6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY

Resource Allocation Methods

Scare resources might be allocated by Market price

Command Majority rule

Contest

First-come, first-served

Sharing equally

Lottery

Personal characteristics

Force

How does each method work?

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Market Price

When a market allocates a scarce resource, the peoplewho get the resource are those who are willing to paythe market price.

Most of the scarce resources that you supply getallocated by market price.

You sell your labor services in a market, and you buymost of what you consume in markets.

For most goods and services, the market turns out to doa good job.

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Command

Command systemallocates resources by the order

(command) of someone in authority.For example, if you have a job, most likely someone

tells you what to do. Your labor time is allocated to

specific tasks by command.

A command system works well in organizations with

clear lines of authority but badly in an entire economy.

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Majority Rule

Majority rule allocates resources in the way that amajority of voters choose.

Societies use majority rule for decisions about tax ratesthat allocate resources between private and public useand tax dollars between competing uses such as

defense and health care.Majority rule works well when the decision affects lots ofpeople and self-interest must be suppressed to useresources efficiently.

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Contest

A contest allocates resources to a winner (or group of

winners).The most obvious contests are sporting events but they

occur in other arenas:

For example, The Oscars are a type of contest.

Contest works well when the efforts of the players are

hard to monitor and reward directly.

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First-Come, First-Served

A first-come, first-served allocates resources to thosewho are first in line.

Casual restaurants use first-come, first served toallocate tables. Supermarkets use first-come, first-served at checkout. Airlines use first-come, first-servedto allocate standby seats.

First-come, first-served works best when scarceresources can serve just one person at a time in asequence.

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Sharing Equally

When a resource is shared equally, everyone gets the

same amount of it.You might use this method to share a dessert in a

restaurant.

To make sharing equally work, people must be in

agreement about its use and implementation.

It works best for small groups who share common goals

and ideals.

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Lottery

Lotteries allocate resources to those with the winningnumber, draw the lucky cards, or come up lucky.

State lotteries and casinos reallocate millions of dollarsworth of goods and services each year, but lotteries aremore widespread.

For example, tickets to Michael Jacksons memorialservice were allocated by lottery.

Lotteries work well when there is no effective way todistinguish among potential users of a scarce resource.

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Personal Characteristics

Personal characteristics allocate resources to those

with the right characteristics.For example, people choose marriage partners on the

basis of personal characteristics.

But this method gets used in unacceptable ways:

allocating the best jobs to white males and

discriminating against minorities and women.

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Force

Force plays a role in allocating resources.

For example, war has played an enormous rolehistorically in allocating resources.

Theft, taking property of others without their consent,also plays a large role.

But force provides an effective way of allocatingresourcesfor the state to transfer wealth from the richto the poor and establish the legal framework in which

voluntary exchange can take place in markets.

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Using Resources Efficiently

Allocative efficiency is a situation in which the quantities of goodsand services produced are those that people value most highly.

It is not possible to produce more of one good or service without

producing less of something else.

Efficiency and the PPF

Production efficiencyproducing on PPF

Producing at the highest-valued point on PPF

The PPFtells us what can be produced, but the PPFdoes nottell usabout the value of what we produce.

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Marginal Benefit

Marginal benefitis the benefit that a person receives

from consuming one more unit of a good or service.

Peoplespreferences determine marginal benefit.

The marginal benefit from a good is what people are

willing to forgo to get one more unit of the good.

Marginal benefit decreases as the quantity of the good

increasestheprinciple of decreasing marginal benefit.

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PossibilityA and pointA tell us that if we

produce 2,000 pizzasa day,

people are willing togive up 15 units ofother goods andservices up to get onemore pizza.


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Point B tells us that ifwe produce 4,000

pizzas a day,

people are willing togive up 10 units ofother goods andservices to get onemore pizza.


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Point Ctells us that ifwe produce 6,000pizzas a day,

people are willing togive up 5 units of othergoods and services to

get one more pizza.

The line through pointsA, B, and Cis themarginal benefit curve.


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Marginal Cost

Marginal costis the opportunity cost of producing one

more unit of a good or service and is measured by the

slope of the PPF.

The marginal cost of producing a good increases as

more of the good is produced.

The marginal cost curve shows the amount of othergoods and services that we must give up to produce

one more pizza.

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PossibilityA and pointA tell us that if we

produce 2,000 pizzasa day,

we must give up 5units of other goods

and services toproduce one morepizza.


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Point B tells us that ifwe produce 4,000

pizzas a day,

we must give up 10units of other goodsand services to

produce one morepizza.

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Point Ctells us that ifwe produce 6,000pizzas a day,

we must give up 15units of other goods andservices to produce onemore pizza.

The line through pointsA, B, and Cis themarginal cost curve.

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Efficient Allocation

The efficient allocation is the highest-valued allocation.

That is, the allocation is efficient if it is not possible toproduce more of any good without producing less of

something else that is valued more highly.

To find the efficient allocation, we compare marginal

benefit and marginal cost.

Figure 6.3 on the next slide shows the efficient quantity

of pizzas.

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Production efficiency occurs atall points on the PPF.

Allocative efficiency occurs atthe intersection of the marginalbenefit curve (MB) and themarginal cost curve (MC).


Allocative efficiency occurs atonly one pointon the PPF.

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1. When 2,000 pizzas areproduced, marginal benefitexceeds marginal cost,

so the efficient quantity islarger.

Too few pizzas are being

produced.

Increase the quantity ofpizzas by moving along thePPF.


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2. When 6,000 pizzas areproduced, marginal costexceeds marginal benefit,

so the efficient quantity issmaller.

Too many pizzas are being

produced.

Decrease the quantity ofpizzas by moving along thePPF.

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6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS

Demand and Marginal Benefit

Buyers distinguish between value andprice.

Value is what the buyer gets. Price is what the buyer pays.

The value of one more unit of a good or service is its

marginal benefit.

Marginal benefit can be measured as the maximum

price that people are willing to pay for another unit of

the good or service.

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The consumer will buy one more unit of a good or

service if its price is less than or equal to the value the

consumer places on it.

A demand curve is a marginal benefit curve.

For example, the demand curve for pizzas tells us the

dollars worth of other goods and services that people

are willing to forgo to consume one more pizza.That is, the demand curve for pizzas shows the value

the consumer places on each pizza.

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The demand curve shows:

1. The quantity demanded ateach price, other thingsremaining the same.

Figure 6.4 shows demand,willingness to pay, andmarginal benefit.

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The demand curve shows:

2. The maximum price willinglypaid for the last pizzaavailable.

Figure 6.4 shows demand,willingness to pay, andmarginal benefit.

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Consumer Surplus

Consumer surplusis the marginal benefit from a

good or service minus the price paid for it, summedover the quantity consumed.

Figure 6.5 on the next slide shows the consumer

surplus from pizzas.

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1. The market price of apizza is $10.

2.People buy 10,000

pizzas and spend$100,000 a day on pizzas.

3. But people are willing to

pay $15 for the 5,000th

pizza, so consumersurplus from that pizza is$5.

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4. Consumer surplus fromthe 10,000 pizzas thatpeople buy is the area of

the green triangle.Consumer surplus frompizzas is $50,000.

The total benefit from

pizzas is $150,000the$100,000 that peoplespend on pizzas plus the$50,000 of consumersurplus.

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6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS

Supply and Marginal Cost

Sellers distinguish between costandprice.

Cost is what a seller must give up to produce thegood.

Price is what a seller receives when the good issold.

The cost of producing one more unit of a good orservice is its marginal cost.

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The seller will produce one more unit of a good or

service if the price for which it can be sold exceeds or

equals its marginal cost.

A supply curve is a marginal cost curve.

For example, the supply curve of pizzas tells us the

dollars worth of other goods and services that firms

must forgo to produce one more pizza.That is, the supply curve of pizzas shows the sellers

cost of producing each unit of pizza.

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The supply curve shows:

1. The quantity supplied ateach price, other thingsremaining the same.

Figure 6.6 shows supply,minimum supply price, andmarginal cost.

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The supply curve shows:

2. The minimum price thatfirms must be offered tosupply a given quantity of

pizzas.

1. The quantity supplied ateach price, other thingsremaining the same.

Figure 6.6 shows supply,minimum supply price, andmarginal cost.

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Producer Surplus

Producer surplusis the price of a good minus the

opportunity cost of producing it, summed over thequantity produced.

Figure 6.7 shows the producer surplus for pizza

producers.

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1. The market price of apizza is $10.

At that price producers

plan to sell 10,000 pizzas.

2. The marginal cost ofproducing the 5,000th pizzais $6,

so the producer surplus onthe 5,000th pizza is $4.

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3. Producer surplus from the10,000 pizzas sold is$40,000 a daythe area of

the blue triangle.

4. The cost of 10,000 pizzasis $60,000 a daythered area under the

marginal cost curve.The cost equals totalrevenue of $100,000minus the producer

surplus of $40,000.

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6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT?

5.Consumer surplus plus

6. Producer surplus is

maximized.

3. Marginal benefit curve.

4. When marginal cost

equals marginal benefit,quantity is efficient.

2. Marginal cost curve.

Figure 6.8 shows anefficient pizza market

1. Market equilibrium.

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In a competitive market:

The demand curve shows buyers marginal benefit.

The supply curve shows the sellers marginal cost.

So at the equilibrium in a competitive market, marginal

benefit equals marginal cost.

Resources allocation is efficient.

So the competitive market delivers the efficient quantity.

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Total Surplus Is Maximized

Total surplusis the sum of consumer surplus and

producer surplus.The competitive equilibrium maximizes total surplus.

Buyers seek the lowest possible price and sellers seek

the highest possible price.

But as buyers and sellers pursue their self-interest, the

social interest is served.

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The Invisible Hand

Adam Smith in the Wealth of Nations (1776) suggested

that competitive markets send resources to the uses inwhich they have the highest value.

Smith believed that each participant in a competitive

market is led by an invisible hand to promote an end

which was no part of his intention.

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Market Failure

Market failure is a situation in which the marketdelivers an inefficient outcome.

Inefficiency can occur because:

Too little is producedunderproduction.

Too much is producedoverproduction.

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Underproduction

When a firm cuts production to less than the efficient

quantity, a deadweight loss is created.

Deadweight lossis the decrease in total surplus and

that results from an inefficient underproduction or

overproduction.

The deadweight loss is borne by the entire society. It is

a social loss.

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Efficient quantity is 10,000

pizzas.If production is 5,000 pizzas a

day:

Figure 6.9(a) shows theeffects of underproduction.

Total surplus is reduced by theamount of the deadweight loss.

Deadweight loss arises.


Underproduction is inefficient.

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Overproduction

When the government pays producers a subsidy, the

quantity produced exceeds the efficient quantity.

A deadweight loss arises than reduces total surplus to

less than its maximum.

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If production is 15,000 pizzas:

Figure 6.9(b) shows theeffects of overproduction.

Efficient quantity is 10,000

pizzas.

A deadweight loss arises.

Total surplus is reduced by the

amount of the deadweightloss.

Overproduction is inefficient.

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Sources of Market Failure

Markets generally do a good job of sending resources

to where they are most highly valued.

But obstacles to efficient that bring market failure are:

Price and quantity regulations

Taxes and subsidies

Externalities Public goods and common resources

Monopoly

High transactions costs

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Price and Quantity Regulations

Price regulations sometimes put a block on the price

adjustments and lead to underproduction.

Quantity regulations that limit the amount that a farm is

permitted to produce also leads to underproduction.

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Taxes and Subsidies

Taxes increase the prices paid by buyers and lower theprices received by sellers.

So taxes decrease the quantity produced and lead tounderproduction.

Subsidies lower the prices paid by buyers and increasethe prices received by sellers.

So subsidies increase the quantity produced and lead tooverproduction.

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Externalities

An externalityis a cost or benefit that affects someone

other than the seller or the buyer of a good.

An electric utility creates an external costby burning

coal that creates acid rain.

The utility doesnt consider this cost when it chooses the

quantity of power to produce. Overproduction results.

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An apartment owner would provide an externalbenefitif

she installed an smoke detector. But she doesnt

consider her neighbors marginal benefit and decides

not to install the smoke detector.

The result is underproduction.

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Public Goods and Common Resources

Apublic goodbenefits everyone and no one can be

excluded from its benefits.

It is in everyones self-interest to avoid paying for a

public good (called the free-rider problem), which leads

to underproduction.

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A common resource is owned by no one but used by

everyone.

It is in everyones self interest to ignore the costs of

their own use of a common resource that fall on others

(called tragedy of the commons), which leads to

overproduction.

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Monopoly

A monopolyis a firm that is sole provider of a good or

service.

The self-interest of a monopoly is to maximize its profit.

To do so, a monopoly sets a price to achieve its self-

interested goal.

As a result, a monopoly produces too little andunderproduction results.

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High Transactions Costs

Transactions costsare the opportunity costs ofmaking trades in a market.

To use market prices as the allocators of scarceresources, it must be worth bearing the opportunity costof establishing a market.

Some markets are just too costly to operate.When transactions costs are high, the market mightunderproduce.

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Alternatives to the Market

No one method allocates resources efficiently. But

supplemented by other methods, markets do an

amazingly good job.

Table 6.1 on the next slide shows some possible

remedies for market inefficiencies.

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6.5 ARE MARKETS FAIR?

Two broad and generally conflicting views of fairness

are:

Its not fair if the rules arent fair

Its not fair if the resultisnt fair.

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Its Not Fair if the RulesArent Fair

This idea translates into equality of opportunity.

Harvard philosopher, Robert Nozick, inAnarchy, State,and Utopia (1974), argues that the rules must be fair

and must respect two principles:

The state must enforce laws that establish and

protect private property.

Private property may be transferred from oneperson to another only by voluntary exchange.

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Its Not Fair if the Resul tIsnt Fair

The fair rules approach is consistent with allocative

efficiency, but the distribution might be too unequal.

Most people recognize that there is no easy answer or

principle to guide the amount of equality.

The fair results approach conflicts with efficiency and

leads to what is called the big tradeoff.

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The big tradeoffis a tradeoff between efficiency and

fairness that recognizes the cost of making income

transfers.

The tradeoff is between the size of the economic pie

and the degree of equality with which it is shared.

The greater the amount of income redistribution through

income taxes, the greater is the inefficiency thesmaller is the economic pie.

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Taking all the costs of income transfers into account,

the fair distribution of the economic pie is the one that

makes the poorest person as well off as possible.

The fair results ideas require a change in the resultsafter the game is over. Some say that this in itself is

unfair.

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Should Price Gouging Be Illegal?

The figure illustrates themarket for camp stoves.

The supply of stoves is thecurve S, and in normaltimes, the demand forstoves is D0.

The price is $20 per stove

and the equilibrium quantityis 5 stoves per day.

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Following a hurricane, thedemand for camp stovesincreases to D1.

With no price gouging law, theprice jumps to $40 and thequantity increases to 7 stovesper day.

This outcome is efficientbecause the marginal cost ofa stove equals the marginalbenefit from a stove.

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If a strict price gouging lawrequired the price after thehurricane to be $20 a stove,...

Then the quantity of stovessupplied would remain at 5per day.

A deadweight loss shown bythe gray triangle arises.

The price gouging law isinefficient, but is it fair?

ch 06 lecture

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