THE SCIENCE OF COMPASSION:

IS OXYTOCIN INVOLVED?

Familial THANKS - Especially to Stephen Porges and our

Sons, Eric and Seth Porges, who stimulated my interest in the biology of positive social

interactions, long lasting social bonds and the capacity of hormones to regulate maternal

physiology and behavior

Also to my collaborators and other researchers, whose work I will have the

opportunity to describe, and especially Karen Bales, Angela Grippo, Jason Yee, Bill Kenkel and Hossein Nazarloo – whose contributions

are represented here.

Scientific attempts to understand compassion bring up many questions – for example: What is compassion? Once a compassionate experience is initiated, does the object of the compassion matter? (Maybe not?) Is compassion similar in form and function to other forms of positive social behavior? (Probably) [And how does it differ? (Beyond the scope of this presentation?] Can the analysis of other types of sociality, including parental behavior, help us understand the mechanisms for positive social interactions? Are neuroendocrine systems that rely an ancient hormone, known as OXYTOCIN, involved in compassion? Can understanding oxytocin help explain the value of positive social behaviors in optimizing human health? Could knowledge of oxytocin help to explain why it is “better to given than receive?”

Can a knowledge of the nervous system, and in particular the chemistry

of the nervous system give us a deeper understanding of -

THE SCIENCE OF COMPASSION?

Does the knowledge of the chemistry of social behavior more generally help to explain the

mechanisms thorough which both GIVING AND RECEIVING

can protect or heal mental and physical health?

WHAT IS COMPASSION?

“Compassion  is  that  which  makes  the  heart  of  the  good  move  at  the  pain  of  others.  It  crushes  and  destroys  the  pain  of  others;  thus,  it  is  called  compassion.  It  is  called  

compassion  because  it  shelters  and  embraces  the  

distressed.  ”-­‐  The  Buddha

Are there common elements in the neurobiology of social engagement and love, and those associated

with compassion? YES…

Are the behavioral and neural elements that make up compassion unique to humans?

Perhaps some elements are

common to all mammals.

Abstract concepts like

COMPASSION, are most easily understood in the context of their proximate & ultimate functions including:

SURVIVAL

social support & safety

REPRODUCTION

access to mates

care of offspring

genetic survival

It is a biological fact that most living organisms can

NOT SURVIVE OR REPRODUCE ALONE.

The mammalian nervous system is designed to work in a SOCIAL environment.

Social behavior is necessary for

physiological and behavioral homeostasis.

What Myron Hofer

called “Hidden regulators”

Positive social interactions including social bonds - are not

limited to humans

The EVOLUTIONARY prototype for POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS is

the parent child interaction

The EVOLUTIONARY prototype for POSITIVE SOCIAL INTERACTIONS in mammals is the mother-child interaction

Care of infants (alloparenting) is not limited mothers, and is not limited to biological offspring or relatives.

Not everyone is prepared to show appropriate social behavior, and some of

us may need hormonal help.

BASED ON THE SAME NEUROBIOLOGICAL SUBSTRATES THAT ARE NECESSARY FOR THE PARENT-CHILD INTERACTION? – PROBABLY

Is COMPASSION toward non-relatives

Lactation has major effects on the Maternal Brain & HPA axis, and is the most easily studied biological component of maternal behavior.

Lactation may allow a new mother to manage stress more effectively. Helping her to be less reactivity or more appropriately reactive to stressors. Lactation also is part of a physiological buffer between state of pregnancy & the postpartum period - possibly in part through effects of OXYTOCIN.

WHAT IS

OXYTOCIN?

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide, made primarily in the nervous system, and central to understanding the

biology of social behavior, social bonds and

social support.

Oxytocin was classically viewed as a “FEMALE

REPRODUCTIVE” Hormone,

Acting primarily On the UTERUS And MAMMARY

GLAND.

This is only part of the story!

Oxytocin is released into the blood stream at the Posterior Pituitary, but is also released within the nervous system. Oxytocin can affect social behavior, the autonomic nervous system and the immune system,allowing the body to ADAPT, protecting and healing in the face of challenge.

Post. Pituitary

PVN

SON

! !

Oxytocin is 1. made primarily in the brain (hypothalamus) & released into

the blood supply at the posterior pituitary from which is acts on the uterus (birth) and Mammary tissue (milk ejection)

2.also released into the brain & spinal cord where it binds to OXYTOCIN receptors OTRs) to influence behavior, the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and other aspects of physiology

3. possibly a major factor in the body’s capacity to PROTECT or HEAL in the face of either emotional or physical challenge/stress.

4. capable of healing – partial list injured skin (burns), heart (cardiac infarct) bone (osteoporosis) intestines (intestinal bowel disease) brain (stroke) mental disorders (anxiety, depression autism, schizophrenia) 5. Oxytocin is an anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant

Cys-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Arg-Gly-NH2!

Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2!

OXYTOCIN (OT)

Arginine VASOPRESSIN (AVP)

Oxytocin does not act alone OXYTOCIN has a sibling hormone – arginine VASOPRESSIN –

from which it differs by 2 (of 9) amino acids. Oxytocin and Vasopressin can interact with each other’s receptors, but tend to have different functions. Oxytocin is more important to

immobilization without fear. Vasopressin may be more critical in mobilization and active adaptations to fear and anxiety.

From Donaldson, ZR and Young, LJ. 2008. Science 322:900-904.

Oxytocin and the related peptide, Vasopressin, evolved from an ancestral molecule,

that preceded the evolution of Vertebrates

Mammals evolved from a reptilian ancestor. The capacity to show the traits associated with mammalian

social behavior, including SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT and SOCIAL BONDING depend on adaptations that were acquired in the

transition from reptiles to mammals.

Oxytocin and Vasopressin evolved from an ancestral molecule, that preceded the evolution of Vertebrates

Vasopressin

Defense territoriality

Vigilance

Mobilization

ACTIVE

NEUROCEPTION

Oxytocin

Love sharing

Relaxation

“Immobilization without fear”

PASSIVE

HEALING

Compassion is probably specific to mammals.

We can hypothesize that the EVOLUTION OF COMPASSION involves:

A dynamic dance between Oxytocin and Vasopressin

(both of which are critical to mental health)

Oxytocin facilitates SOCIAL ENGAGEMENT (love, empathy, compassion, relaxation)

Vasopressin may allow NEUROCEPTION (vigilance, hypermobilization,arousal)

Courtesy of Markus Heinrichs and Ernst Fehr, University of Zurich

Oxytocin intranasally also has been implicated in “TRUST” –

At least as measured in a computer game, in which trusting

others increases how much money you win.

Intranasal oxytocin increases the tendency to SOCIALLY ENGAGE, and during social engagement may

increase the ability to READ THE EMOTIONS OF OTHERS,

especially from their eyes or pictures of their eyes

Expressing compassion may indeed heal… And there is increasing evidence that oxytocin is a component of the healing power of positive social interactions.

WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?

A PHYSIOLOGICAL METAPHOR for SAFETY??

The tip of a physiological “iceberg” of interactive systems

with effects throughout the entire

body, which is only now being

recognized

WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?

PRAIRIE VOLES, Microtus ochrogaster

Particularly helpful to our understanding of social behavior, especially SELECTIVE social behaviors and social bonds, as well as the neurobiology of OXYTOCIN have been SOCIALLY MONOGAMOUS RODENTS including -

Prairie voles can be studied in nature

And in the Laboratory

FEATURES OF PRAIRIE VOLE BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY (SOCIAL MONOGAMY)

HIGH LEVELS OF SOCIAL CONTACT and DEPENDENCE ON SOCIAL INTERACTION

PAIR BONDING (male-female)

BIPARENTAL CARE OF Y0UNG and

ALLOPARENTING (baby sitting)

HIGH LEVELS OF OXYTOCIN

A HUMAN-LIKE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM HIGH LEVELS OF VAGAL ACTIVITYHUMAN-LIKE ,

WITH HIGH LEVELS OF VAGAL TONE (Parasympathetic activity- helping to explain in part why social interactions and social bonds play a critical role in

emotional regulation)

Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involve positive social interactions,

including: Social

Engagement &

Pair bonding

Maternal Behavior

Paternal Behavior Alloparental Behavior

(pup exposure)

Sexual Behavior

Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions.

Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions,

Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions.

Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions,

But also under conditions that are negative or acutely “stressful,”

Oxytocin may be released under conditions that involved positive social interactions,

But also under conditions that are negative or acutely “stressful,”

Possibly serving as a component of a coping strategy and buffering against the stressor.

Oxytocin also may be released under conditions that are negative or acutely “stressful,” Including in response to: 1.Social challenges (esp. same-sex intruders) 2. Forced restraint/immobility 3. Immune challenge (LPS) 4. Chronic social isolation (females) Oxytocin serves as a component of an adaptive, coping strategy, buffering against stressors, with effects that in some cases differ in males and females.

Prairie voles, as an animal model, have been particularly useful in the study of the functions of peptide, including OXYTOCIN. Which kinds of social stimuli release OXYTOCIN? Adult-adult social interactions - yielding social bonds In Post Weaning or Adult Voles as little as:

10 min of Exposure to PUP Adult/Weaning-infant interactions - Presence of INFANT

a. Releases Oxytocin b. Reduces Corticosterone c. Facilitates subsequent Pair Bonding

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CONTROL OXYTOCIN

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ParentalAttack

OXYTOCIN (ICV) FACILITATES PARENTAL BEHAVIOR & INHIBITS AGGRESSION IN ADULT FEMALE PRAIRIE VOLES

Bales & Carter

Baby vole

Exposure to an infant can release oxytocin in a male prairie vole

Prairie Voles – When presented with a Pup most will show Alloparental Behavior,

Including Reproductive Naïve Females and Males

In Male Prairie Voles that have NO previous experience with young, a single brief exposure to a pup can release a brief surge of OXYTOCIN

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Empty Cage

Pup-exposed

15 min 45 min

n = 8

n = 8

n = 9 n = 8

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n = 9

n = 20 n = 18

Blood levels of OXYTOCIN increased in MALES, but NOT females immediately following 10 min PUP EXPOSURE

MALES FEMALES

15 min 45 min

*

Kenkel, Paredes, Yee, Pournajafi-Nazarloo, Bales, & Carter, JNE, 2012; and Bales, unpublished data on females.

*

1 2

Partner Stranger

Control (n=11) Pup-Exposed (n=9)

Time in Side to Side Contact

SOCIAL BOND FORMATION WAS FACILITATED IN TESTS GIVEN AFTER A PRIOR BRIEF (10 min) EXPOSURE TO A PUP

Kenkel, Paredes, Yee, Pournajafi-Nazarloo, Bales, & Carter, JNE, 2012

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Pair + V Pair + OT Isol + V Isol + OT

OT-

ir C

ell D

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$

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PAIRED PAIRED ISOLATED ISOLATED + SALINE +OXYTOCIN + SALINE +OXYTOCIN

OT

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EXOGENOUS OXYTOCIN TREATMENT (14 DAYS) INCREASED SYNTHESIS OF

ENDOGENOUS OXYTOCIN (in HYPOTHALAMUS) (especially in females living in pairs?)

*

FROM GRIPPO,, ET AL, STRESS 2012

P P I I

oxytocin

saline

Repeated injection or release of Oxytocin may “feed forward” to INCREASE SYNTHESIS OF OT in the HYPOTHALAMUS (X14)

(X14) Oxytocin-stained cells

Oxytocin-stained cells

OT

From J. Yee, et al., in prep

WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?

A PHYSIOLOGICAL METAPHOR for SAFETY??

Possibly with the capacity to amplify it’s own effects and its own release

by “feeding-forward“.

One component of a complex and interactive systems of feedback loops with effects

throughout the body, which may indeed allow us to shift to states

compatible with SOCIALITY and

HEALING

WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?

One component of a complex and interactive systems of feedback loops with effects

throughout the body, which may indeed allow us to shift to states

compatible with COMPASSION.

WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?

WHAT IS OXYTOCIN?

An important neuropeptide with broad effects on physiology and behavior, in BOTH SEXES and

during DEVELOPMENT.

WHAT OXYTOCIN IS NOT? NOT a substitute for “compassion” or “love.”

NOT well understood or studied, esp in humans. NOT something to be treated casually,

since preliminary data suggest that oxytocin has the capacity for epigenetic effects.

For example: even in animal models we do NOT KNOW

the effects of CHRONIC oxytocin on BRAIN?

BEHAVIOR? IMMUNOLOGY? etc

By understanding the causes and consequences of mammalian sociality and the “social nervous system,” we are gaining a deeper understanding of the biology of human emotion, and natural factors, such as “compassion” that contribute to human health and well being.

Because of the fundamental role of sociality in human behavior, concepts like “social support” or “social bonds” translate into a sense of SAFETY. A concept that may be permissive for the expression of compassion, and which is at the heart of enduring loving relationship and also most successful therapies - of all kinds. A perceived sense of safety is necessary to allow the body to grow, heal and restore itself in the face of the “stress of life”.

OXYTOCIN may play a critical, central role in sociality - allowing the human nervous system to feel safe, and thus permitting the expression of and benefits of compassion to emerge.

Is the expression of Compassion “good medicine” and if so how does it work?

Science does not have all the answers.. But it does help us to ask new and potentially important questions