CAN CRIME EVER BE FUNCTIONAL?

Learning Objectives

To be able to explain how crime can be functional

To be able to analyse Merton’s strain theory

To be able to evaluate functionalist explanations of crime and deviance

Key Terms

Anomie – A feeling of moral confusion that weakens your commitment to shared values and rules, thus encouraging crime and deviance.

Starter: Thinking back to

AS, what is the organic

analogy?

Why was there less crime in pre-industrial England?

The family was a powerful agency of socialisation

Religion was a strong force of social control

This meant there was consensus and community

Whereas in the city crime rates are higher as the complexity of modern life undermined the authority of religion and the family.

Consensus, community and social control are weaker leading to anomie.

Durkheim argued that crime is:• Functional• Universal• Relative• Inevitable

How can crime be functional?

• Can provoke positive social change by highlighting aspects of the social structure or law which are inadequate

• Some crimes cause public outrage which reinforces social solidarity against the offenders

• Pursuit, trial and punishment of offenders reassures people that society is functional, while reminding them of acceptable social boundaries of behaviour

• Minor crimes can act as safety valves preventing more serious crimes

Can you think of an example to go with each point. The pictures are

all clues!

Evaluation of Durkheim

• He never explains why certain social groups commit higher rates of crime

• He ignores the fact some crimes are always dysfunctional

• Marxists and Feminists argue that he underestimates the levels of conflict and inequality in modern societies

Strain theory

TYPE Goal of Success

Means Type

Conformity Accepts Legitimate Most of the population cope by doing their best and making the most out of what society offers them

Innovation Accepts Illegitimate Commitment to cultural goals may remain strong, but some people turn to crime to achieve them

Ritualism Rejects Legitimate Some people give up on achieving their goals, but stick to the means

Retreatism Rejects Illegitimate Drop outs from society who give up all together

Rebellion Rejects for alternative

Illegitimate They reject the existing social goals and means, but substitute new ones to create a new society

Merton developed a functionalist theory to explain where crime and deviance come from. He believes we all have shared goals (American dream- financial success, having a home and consumer goods) and approved means of achieving these (working in paid employment). However, as society is unequal, we might not all be able to achieve these goals through the approved means- this leads to strain and anomie. He says there are five responses to this (one accepted way, one criminal and three deviant)

A02 Application

Can you think of any other examples?

Classify each of the following as one of Merton's five modes of adaptation and explain your

reasons:

TYPE Type

Conformity Most of the population cope by doing their best and making the most out of what society offers them

Innovation Commitment to cultural goals may remain strong, but some people turn to crime to achieve them

Ritualism Some people give up on achieving their goals, but stick to the means

Retreatism Drop outs from society who give up all together

Rebellion They reject the existing social goals and means, but substitute new ones to create a new society

• A successful banker

• A drug dealer• A monk living in a

monastery• A person cheating

on their exams

• A teacher who

has given up caring about students success

• A shop lifter• A drug addict• An indifferent job

centre clerk

Evaluation of Merton

Negative• He does not explain why some

choose to commit crime while others conform, retreat or rebel

• His theory explains crime which has an economic gain, but not many violent or sexual crimes

• White collar and corporate crimes arise from access to opportunities not a lack of opportunity

• He fails to notice who benefits most from the capitalist system (whereas Marxist Box suggests the capitalist class benefits the most from the way the law is organised)

Positive• Sumner argues that Merton has

uncovered the main cause of crime in modern societies, which is the alienation caused by the disillusionment derived from the impossible goals of capitalism

Quick Check… K+U (A01)

1. Identify two ways in which crime and deviance can have positive functions.

2. Explain the difference between ritualism and retreatism.

3. In what sense is Merton’s theory deterministic?

4. Why does Durkheim see crime as inevitable?5. Explain the difference between means and

goals

Tweet me!

You have 140 characters to summarise either Durkheim or Merton's theory on crime and

deviance.

#Functionalism

Assess the role of anomie in causing

crime and deviance (21 marks)

9 marks = A01 (knowledge and understanding)

12 marks = A02 (interpretation, application, analysis and evaluation)

In pairs plan how you would structure an answer to this question

What are the key terms that you must include in this exam answer?

WHAT DID MARX THINK ABOUT CRIME AND DEVIANCE?!

L/O: To be able to explain the key features of the Traditional and Neo Marxist perspectives on crime

Lets recap…Marxism is a structural perspective (this means they think society is structured in a certain way).

It is also a conflict perspective. They think this conflict occurs between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The bourgeoisie own the means of production, while the proletariat only own their own labour power.

L/O: To be able to explain the key features of the Traditional and Neo Marxist perspectives on crime

So what did Marx say about crime?

He argued that: Laws are one of the ways the ruling class keep the proletariat in check Laws therefore reflect the interests of the ruling class The working class commit crime due to feelings of alienation and

status frustration People have unequal access to the law (e.g. money to get a good

lawyer) Your class affects the punishment you receive for your crime

L/O: To be able to explain the key features of the Traditional Marxist perspective on crime

Your class affects your experiences in the criminal justice system

Marxism on crime

Key idea

The Law and the criminal justice system is another tool used by the ruling class to serve their interests and maintain a position of power.

Criminolgenic Capitalism

Crime is inevitable in Capitalism. The working class commit crimes because of poverty, constant advertising, alienation and a lack of control. Even the ruling class feel the pressure to commit crime and get ahead.

You are essentially forced into crime by capitalism

The state and law making All laws serve the ruling class.

Most law is based on protecting private property.

The working class and ethnic minorities are punished harshly while the crimes of the powerful go unnoticed.

Ideological functions of law

Laws don’t just punish but perform functions to keep capitalism stable. Health and safety laws keep the working class able to work. Seeing crime as a working class problem diverts it away from capitalism. Seeing criminals as disturbed also disguises the true nature of crime.

Strengths

Shows a link between law and the interests of the ruling class.

Highlights selective enforcement.

Weaknesses Very deterministic, not all working class commit crime.

Switzerland and Japan are capitalist but have low crime rates.

Prosecutions against companies and the ruling class do happen.

Left Realists say most working class crime is committed against working class people not the state.

Ignores the relationship between crime and other variables

What are the strengths of this

perspective?

What are the weaknesses of

this explanation of crime?

Lets add some theorists to these ideas…

• Crimes like robbery are inevitable in capitalism because there are such extremes of poverty and wealth

• In fact, Gordon suggests these crimes are a rational response to inequality

Bonger

• The capitalist class commit crimes which harm, kill, maim and steal from the proletariat, but these are not always judged as seriously as some other crimes e.g. health and safety law is civil law

Box

• The criminal justice system is an ISA, it legitimises class inequality and perpetuates the values of capitalism

Althusser

• Found that vagrancy laws introduced in 1349 and 1530 appeared to reflect the needs of the working class, but in fact were far more beneficial to the middle class

Chambliss

• The government is often reluctant to pass laws which regulate businesses or limit their profitability

Snider

• Crimes committed more commonly by the middle class are often under policed and under punished

Reiman

• Capitalism encourages crime in its values, for example: materialism, consumerism and competition all result in greed and self interest

Gordon

• White collar crime often has the opportunity to make far more money than theft or robbery, however it is not regarded as as serious an issue

Croall

Read page 238 in Sociology A2 for

A2 and summarise the 5 elements

which can weaken the bonds of

capitalism and cause people to

commit crime

Neo MarxismWHY THEY AGREE WITH TRADITIONAL MARXISTS

• Society is based on class conflict and exploitation- and this is key to understanding crime

• The law supports the interests of the ruling class and criminalises the working class

• A classless society would have less, or maybe no crime

WHY THEY CHALLENGE THEIR THEORIES

Taylor says:• Marxism is too deterministic- we do have

personal choice• Crime may often have a political motivation

e.g. redistribution of wealth or challenging societies obsession with property. Gilroy agrees saying black boys are politically motivated to commit crime due to the history of slavery, societal racism and police harassment

• Diversity is an important aim- we should not label acts as ‘deviant’ as capitalists do (this label is given to acts which challenge the status quo- and therefore may challenge capitalism)

L/O: To be able to explain the key features of the Traditional and Neo Marxist perspectives on crime

In pairs, discuss: How can we criticise the Neo-Marxist

perspective?How can we support it?

Critique

• Left realists say Neo Marxists romanticise the working class as modern robin hoods

• Hopkins Burke agrees saying this theory is too idealistic to practically explain crime

• Most crime by the working class is against the working class (so does not challenge the status quo)

• How does ‘political motivation’ explain domestic violence, rape and child abuse? (this theory cannot fully explain the cause of crime- so is only a partial theory)

L/O: To be able to explain the key features of the Traditional and Neo Marxist perspectives on crime

Exam Question

Examine some of the ways Marxists explain crime (21 marks)

Tip:

9 marks are for AO1 and 12

marks are for AO2Want extra help?

Look on page 91 in the blue text book for

support

L/O: To be able to explain the key features of the Traditional and Neo Marxist perspectives on crime

You have 28

minutes

Plenary

Create your own finger

art to summarise one of the

key Marxist arguments.

Once you are finished, see

if other people can guess what you have drawn.

Feminist Theories of Crime

Society is Patriarchal and as such:

> Society discourages deviancy amongst women (social control)

> Society generates crimes by men against women (social

control)The Invisibility of Women

> Gender issues & female offending have been ignored in the

study of crime.

> Studies have generally been about male offenders and

deviants

> Female victimisation is largely ignored in particularly in

relation to domestic violence & sexual violence.

Heidensohn (1996) points out such a problem in Cohen’s

study of delinquency which begins with the…. ‘the delinquent

is the rogue male’. This and other studies show how the

sociology of crime is MALESTREAM.

Heidensohn suggests the following reasons for the ‘Invisibility’ of females in the sociology of crime:

1) Academics & researchers were/ and are still

predominantly are men

3) There is actually less female crime to study as

there is a low crime rate amongst females and

the nature of their crimes is often trivial and

invisible (less detectable).

2) ‘Malestream’ middle-class sociologists exaggerate

and are preoccupied by the notion that working-

class ‘macho’ males should be focused on in the

study of deviance

Task:1. What does the term ‘Patriarchal’ mean?

2. Why has the sociology of crime & deviance been accused of being

‘Malestream’?

3. What sorts of crimes might females commit that might be deemed as

trivial?4. Why might female crime be less detectable?

Aileen Wuornos

Myra Hindley

The Growth of Feminist Criminology

Feminism is one of the key areas of the sociology

of crime and deviance - It is growing and becoming

more and more popular.

Feminists focus on:

> Female Offending

> Women’s Treatment by the Criminal

Justice System

> Female Victimisation

> The Gender gap in Offending

Susan Atkins, Leslie Van Houten and Patricia Krenwinkel

Feminists try to apply traditional ‘malestream’ theories

of crime to females whilst highlighting the bias and

shortcomings of ‘Male-Centred’ theories of crime.

Task:Discuss: Is it important to highlight gender differences within crime?

Explain your answer

Constance Kent

Much of feminism revolves around the study of

GENDER IDENTITY and EXPRESSION which moves

away from traditional Structural explanations of

crime and deviance and more towards individuals

at the micro level.Task:1. What is meant by Gender Identity?

2. What is meant by a ‘Structural Theory’ of Crime?

3. What is the ‘opposite’ of structural theory?

4. Why might looking at individual circumstances be more useful than

looking at structural theories of crime?

5. Are structural theories of crime any use when examining gender and

crime? Give reasons for your answer

Feminist contributions to the study

of crime: > Considers many areas of female

criminology: Offending, Victimisation, The

Justice System

> Considers existing theories of crime and

offers a new critique on them.

> A new focus on

different types of

victimisation

(particularly in terms

of control & power

relationships).

Breaks down the notion that women are simply victims of crime &

should be studied in their own right as offenders also.

Domestic Violence

Dobash and Dobash (1979) studied domestic violence

using informal interviews with victims of domestic

violence but also the people who had worked with and

helped the victims e.g. social workers.

Discuss: Why might informal interviews be useful when studying

domestic violence?

Feminists argue that men are able to use the façade of the family

in order to exercise power and control over women by both

physical and mental abuse.

Women’s Aid (2009) often quote the following statistics:

> 1 in 4 women will be a victim of domestic violence in their

lifetime – many of these on a number of occasions.

> One incident of domestic violence is reported to the police

every minute. 

> On average, 2 women a week are killed by a current or former

male partner. Why might it be easy to criticise the feminist view on domestic violence?

Issues such as gender differences in offending and

victimisation are explored more fully in the Gender & Crime

Topic of this Module.

Why might feminists question the validity of crime statistics?

What might Marxist Feminists add to the general feminist approach

to crime and deviance?

Are there any major problems with the feminist approach to crime and

deviance?

General Questions

Plenary

With your partner, write a plan for this essay:• What theorists would you include? • How would you evaluate?

Homework

Essay: Assess the contribution of Feminism to the study of crime and deviance. (21 marks)

Left and Right Realism on Crime

Learning Objectives

To be able to explain, analyse and evaluate realist approaches to crime and deviance in society.

Homework

Essay: Outline realist explanations of crime and deviance. (21 marks)

Outline of Realism

Realism

They want to focus on the

reality of crime

They are really

interested in victims

They want real solutions

to crime in society

Partially supportOfficial

CriminalStatistics

Realism

There are two branches of realism, both of which have separate theories and ideas.

Realism

Left Realism

Jock Young - New Criminologist

Criminals – Victim of Capitalism

Three Causes of Crime:

Marginalisation, Relative Deprivation,

Subcultures

Right Realism

New Right IdeasMurray & Cornish and

Clarke

Four Causes of Crime: Bio-Social,

Cultural, Opportunity and Choice

Left Realism

Left realism provides a causal explanation for crime.

Left realists look at the individual and the causes which could have led them to commit crime.

This stemmed from Jock Young who was a New Criminologists until he realised that the criminals (victims) need to be considered and after he saw criminals to be the victims of capitalism left realism began to look at what caused individuals to commit crime.

Left Realism

Left realist theory identifies three causes of crime.

Cause One: Marginalisation

This refers to the individuals who live on the margins of society and therefore cannot take part in society.

Gibbs and Merighi (1994) argues that the black community are marginalised in terms of poverty, housing, education and jobs = anger and frustration Crime

Cause Two: Relative Deprivation

This refers to some individuals being relatively deprived in comparison to others and this therefore leads to a sense of injustice and resentment.

Lea and Young (1992) found that ethnic minorities feel resentment due to relative deprivation as they see there to be unfair and biased policing in their community.

Cause Three: Subcultures

This refers to groups of young people, often ethnic minority groups, who form sub-cultural groups in inner city areas.

Messner and Golden (1992) found that where racial discrimination existed deep violent subcultures flourished.

Solutions to Crime

Left realists want to reduce crime in society by way of more community based improvements yet not using

harsh punishments such as imprisonment.

Solutions to Crime

Solutions

to Crime

CommunityPolicing

Community Service

CommunityCentresCCTV

Ethnic Minority

Police Officers

Right Realism

Right realism comes from a New Right perspective which looks at the causes of crime and what can be put in place to deter criminals.

Charles Murray is an example of a right realist.

What you can remember about Charles Murray in relation to family?

Right Realism

Right realism identifies the following four causes to influence crime:

Causes of

Crime

1. Bio-Social

2. Cultural

4. Choice

3. Opportunity

Muscular Low

IntelligentMales

- WelfareDependency

- Poor Schools-Lack of Community

Greater opportunityto commit crime exists

in some areas

People chooseto commit crime by

weighing up the pros and cons.

Muscular Low

IntelligentMales

Solutions to Crime

Solutions to

Crime

CCTVMore Police

Officers

ZeroTolerancePolicing

Harsher Punishmen

ts

E.g. USA3 Strikes

Plenary

Create a two pictures showing a typical criminal, one from the perspective of a left realist and one from a right realist perspective.

Label the key information about what causes them to commit crime

6

0

3

Start Timer

Control Theory

Learning Objectives

To be able to explain, analyse and evaluate control theory as an explanation of crime and deviance in society.

Homework

Create revision resources on all theories of crime and deviance we have covered

Hirschi (1969)

This theory can be used to support functionalism as it assumes that society is based on value consensus & social solidarity.

Control theory differs from other theories of crime as it does not look at why people commit crime but looks at why some people do not commit crime.

Question:

Why might people not

commit crimes?

Control theorists believe that people are less likely to commit crimes if they have strong social bonds with others who encourage them to exercise self-control and tie them to conformity. If bonds are weak – people turn to crime.

Hirschi identified fours social bonds that encourage conformity:

1) Belief

2) Attachment

3) Commitment

4) Involvement

Question:

What might Hirschi mean by each of these

social bonds?

CRIME: Social Bonds pull

people away from crime that they

would otherwise commit

BELIEF: People share moral beliefs, norms

and values & as such follow laws to reinforce

these.

INVOLVEMENT: People are involved & kept busy with various groups. Therefore there is little opportunity

ATTACHMENT: People are committed to conventional activities like working, going to school, family etc. This means they must conform or risk it all.

COMMITMENT:

People are committed to

each other,

their communities

and society at

large & thus

avoid crime as

this questions

their commitment.

Hirschi & Gottfredson (1990) later suggested that social bonds were not enough to explain why some people do not commit crime and added that the opportunity to commit crime also matters (Link to Right Realism)

Task: Identify all of the Social Bonds that you think prevent you

from committing crime.> How could Control Theory explain juvenile delinquency?

Question:

> How might Control Theory be criticised?

> Is control theory useful in any way?

Doesn’t actually explain why some people have weaker/

stronger social bonds than others

Ignores various types of crime and

deviance

Assumes that individuals are all

naturally bad

You can have tight social bonds and still be deviant (labelling

theory)

Labelling Theory

Learning Objectives

To be able to explain, analyse and evaluate labelling theory as an explanation of crime and deviance in society.

Homework

Create revision resources on all theories of crime and deviance we have covered

Labelling as a

form of Social

Control:Stan Cohen (1972/80): ‘Folk Devils & Moral

Panics’…

Cohen was interested in the truth behind the ‘Mods

vs. Rockers’ media hype in the late 1960s. According

to the media the violence between the ‘Mods’ and

‘Rockers’ was a national problem that represented

the decay (atrophy) of society.

Cohen reached very

different conclusions

compared to what the

media was reporting…….

Cohen found the following in his

research (which contradicted the

media stories)…..

> The ‘Violence’ that the media reported was

actually minimal.

> The majority of young people at the

seaside during these so called ‘riots’

were not Mods or Rockers.

In order to understand why this occurred (occurs), Cohen suggests we need to understand the concepts of Social Control, Folk Devils & Moral Panics .

> The media seemed to have painted a skewed

picture of events & sensationalised the clashes

between these two groups.

What is a Moral

Panic?The process of arousing social concern over an issue—usually the work of

MORAL ENTREPENUERS. This inevitably involves the creation of a FOLK

DEVIL.Who are these Moral

Entrepreneurs?A Moral Entrepreneur is a person, group or organisation with the power to

create or enforce rules & impose their morals, views & attitudes on to others

e.g.

> Politicians

> Teachers> Parents> Religious Leaders

What is a Folk

Devil?Over simplified, ill-informed

generalisations of particular people/

social groups who Moral Entrepreneurs

wish to demonise e.g

Mods & Rockers

Hoodies Lone-parent Families

Immigrants

Young Muslims Paedophiles Football Hooligans

Travellers etc……….

By labelling groups and creating Folk Devils – as well as exaggerating the

extent of these ‘problems’ in society through the Media, Moral

Entrepreneurs are able to generate Moral Panics within society:

What does a Moral Panic Involve?

Muncie (1987):

> Simplification of an insubordinate/ subversive

minority.

> Simplification of Cause

> Stigmatisation of those involved (Labelling).

> Generation of trepidation amongst the public

> A ‘Stamp Down’ on these groups

Why would these Moral Entrepreneurs do this i.e. why would they

misrepresent crime & deviance by generating Folk Devils & Moral Panics?

……..Hegemony…

……Hall (1976) ‘hegemony refers to the process by which the ruling class is able

not only to coerce a subordinate class to conform to its interests, but to

exert ‘hegemony’ or ‘total social authority’ over subordinate classes.

The ‘Hegemonic Image of Crime’ is that it is ‘street related, in public and

committed by strangers….this is not a true representation of what’s really

going on.

What are the effects of this Hegemonic Image of Crime on the Public i.e.

YOU?!

Fragments the working classes and turns them on one-another and

thus justifies the use of repressive control.

Justifies inequalities in society and reasserts the power of those in

the higher echelons of society i.e. Labelling being used as a form of

SOCIAL CONTROL.

The problem continues however as by generating such folk devils and moral

panics, the crime rate actually goes up…………………

Jock Young (1967/9) ‘Deviance Amplification

Spiral’Labels, Folk Devils & Moral Panics actually generate more

crime!

E.g. Drug Takers in Notting Hill…..

Police in Notting Hill are susceptible to media stories & stereotypes and as

such target these typical ‘folk devils’ regardless of what they have or have

not done: > Police arrest drug marijuana smokers for minor offences

> In response to these stories, the police crack

down even harder on these folk devils.

> This pushes the ‘Drug Takers’ ‘underground’ – this raises police suspicion

& pushes the price of drugs up – the police crack down even more harshly

(More Media Coverage).

> The ‘Drug Taker’s’ start resisting arresting arrest, turn to new types of

drugs and have to organise themselves better (MORE DEVIANCE)

> The media sensationalise these stories and thus have their Folk Devil ‘The

Drug Taker’ and begin to generate a Moral Panic about ‘Drug Takers’.

The more people read about drug related

problems the more likely they are to see for

themselves what all the fuss is about.

Moral Panics about Knife Crime means that more people are

fearful of being attacked in the streets and therefore start

carrying knives themselves. It is a fact that you are more

likely to be stabbed or stab someone else if you get into an

argument/ scuffle if you are carrying a knife

yourself……………………

Moral Panics lead to Deviance Amplification.

Summarise what you have learned about

Labelling, Social Control & Deviance

Amplification.

Evaluation

Can lead to necessary changes in the law- e.g. Sarah’s Law (against paedophilia)

Explains the media’s role in creating crime and deviance

Links with Marxism- as both see capitalists as having an ultimate say in who is deviant

Doesn’t explain why people commit crime in the first place

Doesn’t explain crime where there is no moral panic e.g. white collar crime

Subcultural Theory(this links to Functionalist theories)

Learning Objectives

To be able to explain, analyse and evaluate subcultural theory as an explanation of crime and deviance in society.

Homework

Create revision resources on all theories of crime and deviance we have covered

Question:In what ways might the working-classes be denied status & success?

These groups develop their own set of values that tend to be in direct opposition to

the mainstream value consensus (which has denied them status). This is largely due

to the want of revenge on society. Status is gained in peer-groups through deviant

behaviour such as joy riding, vandalising, fighting and substance abuse.

Questions:> Is there any reality in Cohen’s argument that working-class

youths develop deviant subcultures?

> How does his theory support Functionalist ideas?

> How can this theory be criticised?

Albert Cohen (1971)

Cohen argues that certain groups in society experience more

‘frustration’ over their lack of status than others. Cohen focuses

on how the working-class youth are denied status in society.

Question:

How might this argument be evaluated?

Miller (1962)

Miller argues that the W/C have specific focal concerns such as masculinity,

resentment for authority, being tough, immediate gratification and a yearning for

excitement and thrills. These values oppose the general value consensus of society

and as such W/C individuals are more likely to experience anomie, strain and

frustration and therefore they turn to deviancy.

Cloward & Ohlin (1960)

This argument suggests that Cohen is over-generalising. Cloward &

Ohlin argue that not although the W/C are likely to form deviant sub-

cultures, different W/C groups will react differently according to their

particular social circumstances. As such there are three main types of

deviant subcultures:

VALUE CONSENUS

Sometimes individuals will ‘Drift’ out of

society’s value consensus (DEVIANCE!)

Eventually they will re-enter

the value consensus and

reinforce social solidarity

TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALISATION – Why do people feel

guilty and try to take the blame of themselves if they are so

different to normal people? – They must share common

values with wider society e.g. Mother’s Birthday Present

Matza (1964)

Although Matza adopts a functional approach to crime he suggests

that, unlike other functionalist thinking, deviants are no different to

‘normal’ people who respect value consensus within society.

Matza simply suggests that sometimes people will ‘Drift’ out of

society’s value consensus but will ultimately drift back in

(suggesting they agree with value consensus deep down).

Evaluation

What are the strengths an weaknesses of this approach?

Homework

Create revision resources on all theories of crime and deviance we have covered

Next weekAssessed essay on theory of crime and deviance- REVISE

You will

only

succeed

if you

revise