C83SPE RevisionC83SPE Revision

Theory of Planned BehaviourTheory of Planned Behaviour

Expectancy-value Models of Attitudes and Subjective Norms

Behavioural beliefsBehavioural beliefs Salient referentsSalient referentsGood companionshipGood companionship ParentsParents

Weight controlWeight control GrandparentsGrandparents

Benefit overall healthBenefit overall health SiblingsSiblings

Take too much timeTake too much time FriendsFriends

Have funHave fun SchoolteachersSchoolteachers

Stay in shapeStay in shape

Improve skillsImprove skills

Get an injuryGet an injury

Makes you hot and sweatyMakes you hot and sweaty

Theory of Planned Behaviour in ExerciseTheory of Planned Behaviour in Exercise

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

Source: Ajzen (1985, 1991)

PerceivedBehavioural

Control

Behaviouralbeliefs xvalues

Normativebeliefs xvalues

Controlbeliefs xpower

Perceptions regarding level of volitionalcontrol “I have control…” and “easy-difficult”

• A meta-analysis (Hagger et al., 2002) have shown the TPB to predict more variance in exercise behaviour than TRA• Attitudes and perceived behavioural control have a strong impact on exercise intentions but not subjective norms• TPB is more effective in explaining intentions and behaviour that the HBM or PMT (Quine et al., 1998)• Control beliefs predict direct measures of perceived behavioural control but vary according to population (Hagger et al., 2001; Godin et al., 1991)

Summary of TPB Research in Exercise

Expectancy-value Models of Perceived Behavioural Control

Young populationsYoung populations Adult populationsAdult populations Older populationsOlder populations

Bad weatherBad weather Bad weatherBad weather AgeAge

Being no good at itBeing no good at it CostsCosts Fear of heart attackFear of heart attack

Doing homeworkDoing homework FatigueFatigue Heart painHeart pain

Going out with friendsGoing out with friends No timeNo time

Having other hobbiesHaving other hobbies

Interventions Based on the TPBInterventions Based on the TPB• Interventions based on the TPB should target attitudes and perceived behavioural control in particular (Hagger et al., 2002)• Modal, salient beliefs i.e. beliefs about the behaviour that are important to the individuals in the target population and are most frequently cited should be targeted (Ajzen, 1991)• Open ended questionnaires used to obtain modal beliefs (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980)• Persuasive communications should target these beliefs in putting forward the ‘case’ for exercise that is meaningful to the person• Recent research suggests that an intervention based on the TPB is effective in an exercise context (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2005)

Interventions Based on the TPBInterventions Based on the TPB Example of an intervention ‘script’ for a TPB intervention in exercise:

“Participating in regular exercise has many benefits. You might learn how to play a new game or sport as well as improving your general level of fitness and well-being at the same time. Exercise can also be great fun. It does not necessarily cause injuries or make you feel uncomfortably hot and sweaty if you exercise as an intensity you feel comfortable with”

Self-EfficacyPerceived

ControllabilityPerceived

Control

AffectiveCognitive

DescriptiveNorms

InjunctiveNorms

Intentions

Bozionelos & Bennett (1999)

Rivis & Sheeran (2003)

Attitudes

SubjectiveNorms

Extensions of the TPBExtensions of the TPB

ExerciseBehaviour

Activity

Conscientiousness

Personality

Attitudestrength/

ambivalence

Moderates

Attitude

Eagly & Chaiken, 1993Conner et al., 2003

Trafimow & Finlay (1996)

AnticipatedRegret

MoralNorms

Norms

Social support

Courneya et al. (2000)

Conner & Abraham (2001)Courneya et al. (2002)

Moderates

Trafimow & Sheeran (1998)

Control

Terry & O’Leary (1995)Armitage & Conner (2001)

Normativelycontrolledindividuals

Cognitive Evaluation Cognitive Evaluation TheoryTheory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Classic Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Classic Research on Intrinsic MotivationResearch on Intrinsic Motivation

Deci (1971, 1972)Deci (1971, 1972) College students offered money for College students offered money for solving problems, while another group of students just solving problems, while another group of students just solved the problems without any external rewardsolved the problems without any external reward unpaid students spent more time solving the problems unpaid students spent more time solving the problems in free timein free time

Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973)Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) effect of extrinsic effect of extrinsic rewards on children's’ intrinsic interest and motivationrewards on children's’ intrinsic interest and motivation

MethodMethod One group of children asked to drawOne group of children asked to draw pictures and rewards promised forpictures and rewards promised for the best drawing (reward condition)the best drawing (reward condition) Another group drew pictures,Another group drew pictures, without the promise of a rewardwithout the promise of a reward (non- rewarded condition)(non- rewarded condition) Another group Another group drew picturesdrew pictures and given a surprise reward (unexpectedgiven a surprise reward (unexpected reward condition)reward condition) 0

5

10

15

20

Expected

Unexpected

None

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Rewards and Intrinsic MotivationRewards and Intrinsic Motivation

Results suggest that IM is undermined Results suggest that IM is undermined by extrinsic, tangible rewards by extrinsic, tangible rewards (‘undermining effect’ – Deci and Ryan, (‘undermining effect’ – Deci and Ryan, 1980)1980)

““When a behaviour is controlled by When a behaviour is controlled by events such as rewards, the behaviour events such as rewards, the behaviour only tends to persist so longs as the only tends to persist so longs as the controlling events are present”controlling events are present”

Deci and Ryan (1987)Deci and Ryan (1987)

Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic MotivationMotivation

Positive feedback i.e. encouragement, praise Positive feedback i.e. encouragement, praise is important because it enhances is important because it enhances COMPETENCECOMPETENCE and SELF-ESTEEM and SELF-ESTEEM

Results are mixed: some show that positive Results are mixed: some show that positive feedback intrinsic motivations, others say it feedback intrinsic motivations, others say it undermines it or has no effect (Vallerand & undermines it or has no effect (Vallerand & Reid, 1984)Reid, 1984)

Ryan (1982) suggests that positive Ryan (1982) suggests that positive reinforcement can assist ONLY when it is reinforcement can assist ONLY when it is presented in an autonomy supportive way – presented in an autonomy supportive way – avoid ‘controlling language’ like ‘should’ and avoid ‘controlling language’ like ‘should’ and ‘must’ ‘must’

Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Positive Reinforcement and Intrinsic Motivation in Sports ContextsMotivation in Sports Contexts

Vallerand and Reid (1984, 1988) conducted Vallerand and Reid (1984, 1988) conducted experiments using a stabliometer (motor task)experiments using a stabliometer (motor task)

Task presented in either:Task presented in either: Positive feedback condition: “It looks like you have a Positive feedback condition: “It looks like you have a

very natural ability to balance and it shows in your very natural ability to balance and it shows in your performance”performance”

Negative feedback condition: “This is an easy task but Negative feedback condition: “This is an easy task but your progress is quite slow. Try to perform as well as your progress is quite slow. Try to perform as well as you can”you can”

Results indicated that IM was higher among Results indicated that IM was higher among those in the positive feedback condition and this those in the positive feedback condition and this was consistent for males and females was consistent for males and females

Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation TheoryIntrinsic motivation, context (autonomous-controlling) and Intrinsic motivation, context (autonomous-controlling) and content of feedback (competence enhancing-not enhancing) content of feedback (competence enhancing-not enhancing) combined to form a theorycombined to form a theory

External locus of causality

Intrinsicmotivationdecreases

Cause ofbehaviour liesoutside person

Intrinsicmotivationincreases

Cause ofbehaviour liesinside person

Internal locus of causality

Positivecompetenceinformation

Intrinsicmotivationdecreases

Increasedperceived

competence

Intrinsicmotivationincreases

Decreasedperceived

competence

Negativecompetenceinformation

Co

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Asp

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Rew

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Info

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Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory How the recipient perceives rewards is critical in How the recipient perceives rewards is critical in

determining whether their intrinsic motivation will determining whether their intrinsic motivation will be enhanced or diminished (Deci & Ryan, 1985)be enhanced or diminished (Deci & Ryan, 1985)

Rewards that are perceived to control an athlete’s Rewards that are perceived to control an athlete’s behaviour (i.e., perceived as emanating outside a behaviour (i.e., perceived as emanating outside a person) or suggest that an individual is not person) or suggest that an individual is not competent decrease intrinsic motivationcompetent decrease intrinsic motivation

Rewards that are perceived as emphasising the Rewards that are perceived as emphasising the informational aspect (i.e., perceived as coming informational aspect (i.e., perceived as coming from inside the individual) or provide positive from inside the individual) or provide positive feedback that supports competence increase feedback that supports competence increase intrinsic motivationintrinsic motivation

Roles and role Roles and role performance in sportperformance in sport

Roles and Team PerformanceRoles and Team Performance A role is a “pattern of behaviour expected of an A role is a “pattern of behaviour expected of an

individual in a social situation” – c.f. group normsindividual in a social situation” – c.f. group norms Types of roles:Types of roles:

Formal: within team e.g. marker, attacker, defender, captainFormal: within team e.g. marker, attacker, defender, captain Informal: e.g. spokesperson, team policeman, joker etc.Informal: e.g. spokesperson, team policeman, joker etc.

Formal roles are important to cohesion and a key Formal roles are important to cohesion and a key outcome is effectiveness of performance in outcome is effectiveness of performance in assigned role (role performance)assigned role (role performance)

Role performance is affected by three factors:Role performance is affected by three factors: Role conflict – inability to meet demands of assigned roleRole conflict – inability to meet demands of assigned role Role ambiguity – a lack of understanding of the demands of the Role ambiguity – a lack of understanding of the demands of the

rolerole Role efficacy – estimate of ability to perform to demands of roleRole efficacy – estimate of ability to perform to demands of role

Model of Role PerformanceModel of Role Performance

Formal roles Informal roles

Role conflict

Role performance

Role ambiguity Role efficacy

Source: Beauchamp (2004)

Roles and Team PerformanceRoles and Team Performance

Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflictlead to role conflict

Model of Role PerformanceModel of Role Performance

Formal roles Informal roles

Role conflict

Role performance

Role ambiguity Role efficacy

Source: Beauchamp (2004)

Roles and Team PerformanceRoles and Team Performance

The study also indicated that the effect of The study also indicated that the effect of role ambiguity on role performance was role ambiguity on role performance was mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002)al., 2002)

Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflictlead to role conflict

Model of Role PerformanceModel of Role Performance

Formal roles Informal roles

Role conflict

Role performance

Role ambiguity Role efficacy

Source: Beauchamp (2004)

Roles and Team PerformanceRoles and Team Performance

The study also indicated that the effect of The study also indicated that the effect of role ambiguity on role performance was role ambiguity on role performance was mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et mediated by role efficacy (Beauchamp et al., 2002)al., 2002)

Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a Beauchamp et al. (2002) found that if a rugby player was unsure of the nature of rugby player was unsure of the nature of his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) his/her role in the team (role ambiguity) and had low role efficacy it was likely to and had low role efficacy it was likely to lead to role conflictlead to role conflict

Emphasises need to promote high role Emphasises need to promote high role efficacy and reduce role conflictefficacy and reduce role conflict

C83SPE ExamC83SPE Exam

Specimen Exam Paper FormatSpecimen Exam Paper FormatAnswer Answer TWOTWO questions in total. questions in total. ONEONE question question

from Section A and from Section A and ONEONE question from question from Section B.Section B.

Section A: Social Psychology of ExerciseSection A: Social Psychology of Exercise1.1. Compare and contrast two social cognitive approaches aimed at Compare and contrast two social cognitive approaches aimed at

understanding exercise behaviour.understanding exercise behaviour.2.2. What strategies can exercise promoters use to increase a person’s What strategies can exercise promoters use to increase a person’s

exercise behaviour?exercise behaviour?3.3. What factors contribute to the development of eating disorders in sport What factors contribute to the development of eating disorders in sport

and exercise performers?and exercise performers?

Section B: Social Psychology of SportSection B: Social Psychology of Sport4.4. How have advances in social psychological theory contributed to our How have advances in social psychological theory contributed to our

understanding of the effects of stress and anxiety in sport?understanding of the effects of stress and anxiety in sport?5.5. How does cognitive evaluation theory help to understand the role of How does cognitive evaluation theory help to understand the role of

rewards in sports participation?rewards in sports participation?6.6. What factors affect whether the presence of an audience will facilitate What factors affect whether the presence of an audience will facilitate

sports performance?sports performance?

Section A: Social Psychology of Section A: Social Psychology of ExerciseExercise

Question 1: Compare and contrast two social cognitive approaches Question 1: Compare and contrast two social cognitive approaches to the understanding of exercise behaviourto the understanding of exercise behaviour

Source: Chapters 2 – Social Cognitive ApproachesSource: Chapters 2 – Social Cognitive Approaches Contextual sentenceContextual sentence ‘‘Abstract style’ first paragraph – identify the theoriesAbstract style’ first paragraph – identify the theories Define the TWO theories you have chosen e.g. HBM, PMT, Define the TWO theories you have chosen e.g. HBM, PMT,

TPB/TRA, TTMTPB/TRA, TTM Define their common elements;Define their common elements;

For all theories:For all theories: Identify ‘what’ – key variablesIdentify ‘what’ – key variables Show ‘how’ - mechanisms (paths) to exercise behaviourShow ‘how’ - mechanisms (paths) to exercise behaviour

Certain theories:Certain theories: Similar variables e.g. self-efficacy in PMT, and control in TPBSimilar variables e.g. self-efficacy in PMT, and control in TPB

Define and contrast their differencesDefine and contrast their differences Differences in their purposeDifferences in their purpose

E.g. Stage theories like TTM show how people’s behaviour changes in E.g. Stage theories like TTM show how people’s behaviour changes in ‘stages’, TPB, HBM, PMT focus on motivation to engage in specific bouts ‘stages’, TPB, HBM, PMT focus on motivation to engage in specific bouts of behaviourof behaviour

Differences in their ability to predict exercise behaviourDifferences in their ability to predict exercise behaviour

Section A: Social Psychology of Section A: Social Psychology of ExerciseExercise

Question 2: What strategies can exercise promoters Question 2: What strategies can exercise promoters use to increase a person’s exercise behaviour?use to increase a person’s exercise behaviour?

Source: Chapters 2 & 3 – Theories of intention and Source: Chapters 2 & 3 – Theories of intention and implementationimplementation Identify the strategies and compare them, don’t just Identify the strategies and compare them, don’t just

describedescribe Attitudinal/control-based interventions (changing Attitudinal/control-based interventions (changing

beliefs/intentions)beliefs/intentions) Implementation intentions (increasing int-beh link)Implementation intentions (increasing int-beh link) Decision making – cost vs. benefit, changes beliefs Decision making – cost vs. benefit, changes beliefs

(TTM)(TTM) Motivational interviewing – changes intrinsic motivation Motivational interviewing – changes intrinsic motivation

and self-efficacy, individualised approachand self-efficacy, individualised approach

Section A: Social Psychology of Section A: Social Psychology of ExerciseExercise

Question 3: What factors contribute to the development Question 3: What factors contribute to the development of eating disorders in sport and exercise performers?of eating disorders in sport and exercise performers?

Source: Chapter 4 – The physical self, eating disorders Source: Chapter 4 – The physical self, eating disorders and activity disordersand activity disorders

Identify the factors and evaluate them, don’t just Identify the factors and evaluate them, don’t just describedescribe Dispositions – personality – obligatory behavioursDispositions – personality – obligatory behaviours Coach and peer pressureCoach and peer pressure Demands of sport e.g. weight restrictions c.f. boxingDemands of sport e.g. weight restrictions c.f. boxing Sociocultural factors – e.g. media, sport climateSociocultural factors – e.g. media, sport climate Performance demands – leanness and performancePerformance demands – leanness and performance Judging criteria e.g. bodybuilding, gymnastics, skating etc.Judging criteria e.g. bodybuilding, gymnastics, skating etc.

Give some idea as how they can be counteracted e.g. Give some idea as how they can be counteracted e.g. CBT, recommendations of coachesCBT, recommendations of coaches

Section B: Social Psychology of Section B: Social Psychology of SportSport

Question 4: How have advances in social psychological Question 4: How have advances in social psychological theory contributed to our understanding of the theory contributed to our understanding of the effects of stress and anxiety in sport?effects of stress and anxiety in sport?

Source: Chapter 6 – Emotion and anxiety in sportSource: Chapter 6 – Emotion and anxiety in sport Introduce theoriesIntroduce theories Discuss the ‘evolution’ of the anxiety theoriesDiscuss the ‘evolution’ of the anxiety theories Drive theoryDrive theory→Inverted ‘U’/Optimal arousal →Inverted ‘U’/Optimal arousal

→Facilitative_Debilitative Anxiety/Catastrophe theory→Facilitative_Debilitative Anxiety/Catastrophe theory Give an ‘opinion’ – which best describes our Give an ‘opinion’ – which best describes our

understanding?understanding? Mention: Yerkes and Dodson, Martens, Jones and Mention: Yerkes and Dodson, Martens, Jones and

Swain, HardySwain, Hardy

Section B: Social Psychology of Section B: Social Psychology of SportSport

Question 5: How does cognitive evaluation theory help Question 5: How does cognitive evaluation theory help to understand the role of rewards in sports to understand the role of rewards in sports participation?participation?

Source: Chapter 5 – Motivation in sportSource: Chapter 5 – Motivation in sport Describe important aspects of CET – intrinsic Describe important aspects of CET – intrinsic

motivation, external rewards, undermining effect, motivation, external rewards, undermining effect, context of reward, competencecontext of reward, competence

Discuss ‘optimal’ situation – reward should have an Discuss ‘optimal’ situation – reward should have an internal locus of causality and ‘informational’ internal locus of causality and ‘informational’ feedback associated with itfeedback associated with it

Conclude: CET rewards are most effective if they are Conclude: CET rewards are most effective if they are not the sole purpose of the activity and they are not the sole purpose of the activity and they are presented with positive feedbackpresented with positive feedback

Mention: Deci and Ryan; VallerandMention: Deci and Ryan; Vallerand

Section B: Social Psychology of Section B: Social Psychology of SportSport

Question 6: What factors affect whether the Question 6: What factors affect whether the presence of an audience will facilitate sports presence of an audience will facilitate sports performance?performance?

Source: Chapter 7 – Group processes in sportSource: Chapter 7 – Group processes in sport Factors affecting the social facilitation effectFactors affecting the social facilitation effect Level of sports performerLevel of sports performer Whether the skill has been performed before and is Whether the skill has been performed before and is

‘well learned’ i.e. ‘reinforces a dominant response’‘well learned’ i.e. ‘reinforces a dominant response’ Evaluation apprehension vs mere presenceEvaluation apprehension vs mere presence Cognitive vs drive explanations of social facilitationCognitive vs drive explanations of social facilitation Nature of audience – knowledge, partisan etc.Nature of audience – knowledge, partisan etc. Also: Location of activity – home vs. away matchesAlso: Location of activity – home vs. away matches Mention – Tripplett, Zajonc, Cottrell, Carron, LatanMention – Tripplett, Zajonc, Cottrell, Carron, Latanéé