c3010 highway engineering
TRANSCRIPT
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Name : Azman Bin Hasan
Address : Civil Engineering Department
Politeknik Kuching Sarawak
Km 22, alan !atang,
"#$%$ Kuching, Sarawak&
'elephone No& : $(2)*2(+" e-t&22#
e)mail : r.nosorus/hotmail&com
0uali1ications : Sc& Civil Eng& 3 45'!6
!Ed 4 'echnical 6 3 45'!6
Position : Pol.technic 7ecturer
Name : Norazila Binti Abdul Aziz
Address : Civil Engineering Department
Politeknik Kuching Sarawak
Km 22, alan !atang,
"#$%$ Kuching, Sarawak&
'elephone No& : $(2)*2(+" e-t&22#
e)mail : /hotmail&com
0uali1ications : Diploma Civil Eng& And Education 45'!6
Position : Pol.technic 7ecturer
1
BIODATA OF MODULE WRITERS
C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
CURRICULUM GRID
The curriculum grid of this module is based on the curriculum used by
Malaysian Polytechnics.
No. TOPIC UNIT Total
Hours
1 Introduction Of Highway
Engineering
1
( H!
Hours
2 Planning Techni"ue and
Pre#$onstruction %oad
&or'
2
( H!
( H!
Hours
Pa)ement Material
*
( H !
+
( H ! Hours
*$onstruction Of ,le-ible
Pa)ement
( H ! Hours
+
$onstruction Of %igid
$oncrete Pa)ement
/
( H ! Hours
0rainage
( H ! Hours
/Traffic $ontrol nd
%oad ,urnitures
3
( H !
14
( H ! Hours
5asic $haracteristic
%oad 6ystems
11
( 2 H !
12
( 2 H !
1
( H !/ Hours
3,le-ible Pa)ement
0esign
1*
( H ! Hours
14 %oad Maintenance1+
( * H !* Hours
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
1.4 Introduction1.1 History of Highway Engineering
1.2 $haracteristic of 6ome Im7ortant Early %oads
UNIT 2 PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONTRUCTION
ROAD WOR! " Part 1 #
2.4 cti)ities of Planning Techni"ue and Pre#$onstruction %oad &or'
2.1 6ite In)estigation
2.2 6ur)ey &or' and 6etting Out
UNIT $ PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-CONTRUCTION
ROAD WOR! " Part 2 #
.4 Introduction
.1 Earth &or' O7eration
.2 6ide 6lo7e O7eration
UNIT % PA&EMENT MATERIAL " Part 1 #
*.4 Introduction
*.1 6oil nd Its $haracteristic
*.2 Effect of Moisture on The Performance of 6oils
*. Effect of 0ensity on The Performance of 6oils
*.* %oad ggregate
UNIT ' PA&EMENT MATERIAL " Part 2 #
+.4 Introduction
+.1 ,unction of 5ituminous Material
+.2 0efinitions
+. 6ources of 5ituminous 5inder
+.* Pa)ing s7halt
UNIT ( CONTRUCTION OF FLE)I*LE PA&EMENT " Part 1 #.4 Introduction
.1 6tructure of ,le-ible Pa)ement
.2 ,unctions of ,le-ible Pa)ement
. ,le-ible Pa)ement $onstruction Process
.* Material Pre7aration for ,le-ible Pa)ement %oad 6urface
*
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
UNIT + CONTRUCTION OF RIGID,CONCRETE PA&EMENT
/.4 Introduction
/.1 d)antages and 0isad)antages of $oncrete %oads
/.2 $lassification of $ement $oncrete %oads
/. 6tructure of $ement $oncrete %oads/.* $onstruction 6te7 of $ement $oncrete 6lab Pa)ement
/.+ 8oint in $ement $oncrete %oads
UNIT DRAINAGE
.4 Introduction
.1 Effect of Im7ro7er 0rainage
.2 Highway 0rainage %e"uirement
. 6urface 0rainage.
.* 6ide 0itches for 6urface 0rainage.+ 0rainage 6ystem
UNIT TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURE " Part 1 #
3.4 Introduction
3.1 Traffic $ontrol 0e)ice
3.2 Pur7ose of Traffic $ontrol 0e)ice
3. $haracteristic of Traffic $ontrol 0e)ice
3.* Traffic 6ign
3.+ %oad Mar'ing
UNIT 1/ TRAFFIC CONTROL AND ROAD FURNITURE " Part 2 #
14.4 Introduction
14.1 %easons for 9ongitudinal 0elineation
14.2 Ty7es of 0elineator
14. %oad 6tud
12.1 0elineators
12.2 6ign 5oard
UNIT 11 *AIC CHARACTERITIC ROAD YTEM " Part 1 #
11.4 Introduction
11.1 %oad 6ystem $haracteristic
11.2 Im7ortant $haracteristic of 0ri)ers
11.1 Influential ,actor
11.2 :ehicle $haracteristic
+
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
11. :ehicle O7erating $haracteristic
11.* cceleration and 0eceleration
11.+
UNIT 12 *AIC CHARACTERITIC ROAD YTEM " Part 2 #
12.4 Introduction12.1 Term of :olume ,low
12.2 Traffic :olume $haracteristic
11.1 $alculation for Traffic :olume
UNIT 1$ *AIC CHARACTERITIC ROAD YTEM " Part $ #
1.4 Introduction
1.1 67eed
1.2 67eed Measurement Method
1. 67ot 67eed 0ata nalysis1.* 0efinition of 0ensity
1.+ $alculation of 0ensity
UNIT 1% FLE)I*LE PA&EMENT DEIGN
1*.4 Introduction
1*.1 ,actors ,or 0esign
1*.2 ,le-ible Pa)ement 0esign Method ;
0esign
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
MODULE GUIDELINE
To achie)e ma-imum benefits in using this module? students must follow the instructionscarefully and com7lete all the acti)ities.
1. This module is di)ided into 1/ units.
2. Each 7age is numbered according to the sub@ect code? unit and 7age number
C$/1/ , UNIT 1 ,
6ub@ect
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
nswers to the "uestions in the acti)ity section are gi)en here
ELF-AEMENT
6elf#assessment e)aluates your understanding of each unit.
FEED*AC! OF ELF-AEMENT
This section contains answers to the acti)ities in the self#
assessment.
1. Bou ha)e to follow the units in se"uence.2. Bou may 7roceed to the ne-t unit after successfully com7leting the unit
and you are confident of your achie)ement.
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
GENERAL AIM
This module is 7re7ared for students in the third semester ( 0i7loma ! and fourthsemester ( certificate ! who are following the $ertificate0i7loma 7rogrammes in
Malaysian Polytechnics. It aims to e-7ose students to the Highway Engineering conce7t
in each unit and to lead them towards self#directed learning or with guidance from their
lecturers.
PREREQUIITE !ILL AND !NOWLEDGE
The 7rere"uisite for this module is at least a 7ass in module 51441? 52441? $1441 and
$2441
GENERAL O*0ECTI&E
t the end of this module? students should be able to A
1. understand the de)elo7ment and trans7ortation system in Malaysia.2. state methods? 7rocedures and techni"ues about road 7lanning and 7re#
construction wor'.
. define materials used in road construction.
*. understand fundamental conce7ts in road structures.+. e-7lain the drainage and ground water le)el
. list and define the road furniture and traffic control e"ui7ments./. describe the differences between fle-ible 7a)ement and rigidconcrete
7a)ement
. recogni>e the characteristics of road systems
3. determine the traffic flow? s7eed? density and analysis14. calculate the design of fle-ible 7a)ement
11. understand general items about road maintenance
TEACHING AID AND REOURCE NEEDED
1. $alculator.
2. 8=% 6tandard for 8=% %oad Pa)ement 0esign.
3
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C3010 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
REFERENCE
1. %oad &or' ; Theory and Practical? &ignall and P.6 =endric'.
2. Highway Engineering ( :olume 1 C 2 !? OD,laherty.
. 5itumen in %oad 6urfacing? 6hell.
*. s7halt $oncrete? 6hell.
+. 5ritish 6tandard.
. %oad ote 23 and 1? T%%9.
/. Pengenalan Pembinaan 8alan %aya? 5erbitumen? Meor Othman Ham>ah 0an
9ain#lain? 05P.
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Introduction of Hi hwaHighway Engineering C3010 / UNIT1/
INTRODUCTION OF HIGHWAYENGINEERING
OBJECTIVES
General Objective
To understand the development and transportation system in Malaysia.
Specific Objectives
At the end of the unit you should be able to :-
state the construction structure used in transportation system.
identify the related profession in the road construction development.
describe the history of road development.
describe the road category. identify the related agencies involved in road construction.
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UNIT 1
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!"Intr#$%cti#n
For rapid economic, industrial and cultural growth of any country, a good
system of transportation is very essential. Transportation system comprises of
good network of roads, railways, well developed water ways and airways.
Airways and water ways although help to some etent in transportation within the
country, but they are the modes of transport mainly with foreign country.
!ailways and highways also to some etent help in transport with foreign
countries but their main concern is within the country itself.
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IN&UT
CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURE FORTRANS&ORTATION
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!"! Different '#$es #f transp#rtati#n
Man has always been curious for new inventions. "n the early days
of civili#ation it was thought that the movement of any human being can
be on the earth only. $o one thought of flying in air or cruising in large-
oceans.
Modes of transportation can be classified as follows :
a. roadways or highwaysb. railways
c. water ways
d. airways
The science which covers designing, maintenance and operation of
the roads, for convenience of the road traffic, is called highway
engineering. The science dealing with planning, designing, operation and
maintenance of railway track, wagons, coaches, locomotives, is called
railway engineering.
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%eeing birds flying, man must have
thought of flying and that may probably be
the starting point of modern aeronautics.
%imilarly, seeing fishes cruising in the sea
or river, man must have thought of rowing
in water, and that may probably be a
starting point in the development of water
ways and designing of ships and boats.
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%imilarly planning, designing, operation, control and maintenance
of water ways, airways and their connected machinery are respectively
called harbour engineering and airport engineering.
&esides the above stated four ma'or modes of transportation, fluids
are mainly transported through pipes. &elt conveyors, cable cars,
monorails are some other minor systems of transportation, but they are
used for specific purposes. (ooking to the transport characteristic of each
type of transportation system, it can easily be appreciated that roads and
railways are economical and easy for internal transportation, while airways
and waterways are main economical for transportation with foreign
countries. Airways are gaining importance even in internal movement
these days, because they cause saving in time of travel.
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!"!( R#a$ transp#rt c)aracteristics
)hile going to railway station, harbour or airport, roads is the first
mode which is going to lead you to these places. *ence it can be said that
out of all types of transport systems, road is the nearest to the man.
+haracteristics of road transport are given as follows :
a. !oads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock
carts, carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and
lorries, etc. They are eually useful for pedestrians also.
b. !oads can lead to any remote place.
c. "nvestment on road transport by government is
comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also
cheaper than rail-track, docks, harbours and airports.
d. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to
another according to the reuirements.
e. (ocal communication among villages, villages and towns
is only possible through roads.
f. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case ofrailways or airways.
g. !oad transport is the only mode of transport that offers
itself for the service of whole community alike.
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! HISTORY OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Traces of early roads have been found since the recorded history of the
man kind. The first and oldest mode of travel obviously was foot path. &efore
invention of wheel, people used to move on foot, thus creating foot paths. Men
and material must have been transported either on backs of men or animals.
The historical road development can be divided in to the following era :
arly &asic roads
!oman roads
Modern roads
!! Earl* r#a$s
After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be
the popular mode of transport for uite a long time. This necessitated in
providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was
discovered in Mesopotamia at about /011 &.+. Archeological findings
street were paved in Mohan'odaro at about /011 &.+.
There are signs of pucca roads were used during the construction
of "llahun pyramids in gypt between /111 - 2011 &.+. This would be due
to the transportation of huge limestone blocks.
!!( R#'an r#a$s
"n the ancient !ome era, more intensive system of roads was
developed. The road radiating in many directions from !ome. %ome of
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those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction. Many of the
!oman roads are still in eistence even after 2111 years. !omans were
considered to be the pioneers in road construction. )ith the fall of !oman
mpire, the road building techniue became a lost art.
!!+ ,#$ern r#a$s
"n eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads
again began to develop. Mr. 3ierre Tresauet developed an improved
method of construction in 4567 in France. At the time when Mr. 3ierre
Tresauet was busy in developing his road construction method, Mr. 8ohn
Metcalf was engaged in his development in ngland. Metcalf constructed
about 291 m road in northern region of ngland. %ince Metcalf was blind,
his work was not recorded and thus got lost.
Telford and Macadam were the pioneers in road development in
ngland. Telford believed in using heavy foundation stones over the soil
sub-grade, while Macadam advocated the use of compacted crushed
aggregate layer at the bottom. Macadam;s method of road construction isstill in used and is named after his name.
!( CHARACTERISTIC OF SO,E I,&ORTANT EAR-Y ROADS
"mportant early roads include:
a. !oman roads construction
b. Treseuet roads construction
c. Metcalf;s roads construction
d. Telford;s roads construction
e. Macadam roads construction
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!(! R#'an r#a$s
!oman;s developed very elaborate system of roads mainly for the
purpose of military movement. They constructed in all about one lakh
kilometers of road, etending in whole of their empire. An "mportant road
constructed by !omans in /42 &.+ called Appian way is still in eistence
in !ome.
The main characteristics of !oman roads were as follows:
4. They weary very thick. Total thickness of the road varied
from about 1.5 m to as much as 4.2 m.
2. They were straight, without any regard for gradient. 3robable
reason for straightness may be their main use for army.
/. !oads were not built on soft soil formations but on hard
stratum reached after ecavation.
,et)#$ #f c#nstr%cti#n f#r R#'an r#a$s
First of all loose soil was used to be removed from the site of the
road and a trench, eual to width of carriage way ecavated to depth so
that hard stratum is reached. At the bottom of the trench one or two layers
of large stones were laid in lime mortar. The thickness of this foundation
layer ranged from 41 < 21 cm. =ver this, 20 < 71 cm thick layer of lime
concrete with large si#e broken stone aggregate was laid. Another layer
again 20 to 71 cm of lime concrete but using comparatively small si#e
broken stone aggregate was laid over the previously laid layer. (astly 41
to 40 cm thick dressed large stone blocks, set in lime mortar were used as
wearing course. %eeing thickness of the road, it is obvious that these
roads must be very strong, but they cannot prove economical, when
compared with modern design methods.
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!(!( Tresa.%et/s r#a$s
Mr. 3ierre Tresauet was inspector general of roads in France from
4550 to 45>0. *e developed an improved method of road construction.
The main feature of his work was that the thickness of the road was about
/1 cm. *e also made consideration of sub-grade moisture and drainage
from the surface. *e also emphasi#ed the need for continuous
maintenance of road to keep it in good shape. At the time of $apoleon,
uite elaborate road system was developed in France mainly for use of
military adventures.
,et)#$ #f c#nstr%cti#n f#r Tresa.%et/s r#a$s
=n the prepared sub-grade a layer of large foundation stones was
laid, keeping all the stones on edge. At the edges of the road, a large si#e
stone was laid length wise to give lateral support to the foundation layer.
The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with stoneaggregate of smaller si#e. +ompacted thickness of this layer was about >
cm. (astly the top wearing course was laid of walnut si#ed stones and
compacted to a thickness of about 0 cm. A cross slope of about 4 in 70
was used to be developed in the road surfaced by ad'usting thickness
mainly in top and intermediate layers. (astly, shoulders were also given
suitable cross slope, away from the edges of carriage way.
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!(!0 1#)n ,etcalf r#a$s 23345"6
*e was working in ngland at the time when Tresauet was busy in
France. *e eperimented road construction with a graded miture of earth
and gravel. %ince Mr. Metcalf was blind, his work could not be recorded.
&ut it is believed that he was following the procedure outlined by !obert
3hilips in 45/5. !obert 3hilips method consisted of laying gravel layer
upon a well drained and dried sub-grade. ?ravel layer was used to be
compacted in due course of time, by the action of the traffic using road.
Metcalf constructed about 291 m of road in northern parts of ngland.
Telf#r$ r#a$s 237345+06
Thomas Telford was %cottish road engineer and founder of the
institution of civil engineers. *e used big si#e stones in foundation wearing
from 45 < 22 cm to develop a firm base. *e also provided cross drains
under foundation layer to keep the sub-grade in dry condition. *e
proposed provision of cross drains at intervals of about 91 m. Total
thickness of road advocated by him was about /> cm.
C#nstr%cti#n ,et)#$ f#r Telf#r$ r#a$s
A level sub-grade which may be on embankment or cutting was
prepared in the reuired width. Telford adopted 9 mm width of the road.
=n the prepared sub-grade a layer of large si#e stone boulders, varying in
si#e from 45 cm near the edges to a maimum si#e of about 22 cm at the
centre of the width of the road was laid. (aying of the stones was done by
packing. &y using smaller si#e stone near the edges and larger si#e near
centre, a cross slope, of 4 in 70 in road surface was developed. The
interstices in this boulder foundation layer were filled with smaller stones
and chippings and properly compacted.
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$ow central width of about 0.0 m @ 4>; of road was covered with
intermediate coating consisting of two layers. The compacted thickness of
first layer was about 41 cm and consisted of 6.0 cm si#e stone aggregate.
The compacted thickness of second layer was about 0 cm and consisted
of about 7 cm si#e stone. These layers were used to be rammed initially,
but allowed to be compacted under traffic. $o water was sprinkled during
compaction. =nly rain water was used to help compaction and
consolidation of these layers.
=ver the intermediate coat, 7 cm thick gravel layer was used to act
as blinding and wearing layer. The finished surface used to have a cross
slope of 4 in 70. The remaining width of the foundation left untreated by
intermediate coats @two layers, on either side, was treated by lime
concrete. (ime was mied with broken stone aggregate about 41-40 cm
si#e to prepare lime concrete, to be laid on either side of the road. This
treatment provided lateral stability to the road structure.
!(!7 ,aca$a' R#a$s 2 37845+5 6
*e, for the first time put forward entirely new concept of road
construction in 4>25. *e was a %cottish engineer and was surveyor
general of roads in ngland. "mportant characteristic of his concept are as
follows:
"t was he who for the first time recogni#ed the importance of sub-
grade compaction and drainage. To affect speedy surface drainage
he recommended suitable cross slope for the sub-grade.
"t was he who reali#ed for the first time that heavy foundation
stones are not at all necessary. "f sub-grade is prepared properly
and kept well drained it can be very well bear the traffic load
transmitted to it through foundation layer, having smaller
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compacted thickness of small si#e broken stones. *e was of the
opinion that a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain mush heavier load than a thick layer of big si#e stones.
%i#e of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was decided
according to reuirements of stability under the effect of vehicles.
,et)#$ #f C#nstr%cti#n f#r ,aca$a' r#a$s
%ub-grade was prepared and compacted to the reuired
width of the road. 3repared sub-grade was given the same camber,
as to given to the finished road surface. +onstruction of road
according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,
foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.
Foundation layer was 41 cm thick @compacted and was made from
0 cm si#e aggregate. "ntermediate layer was also 41 cm thick
@compacted but made from aggregate passing 71 mm sieve.
(astly, wearing surface was made 0 cm thick @compacted using
aggregate passing 21 mm sieve. +ross slope of finished surface
was kept as 4 in /6.
"n those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough
compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be
achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that net layer
could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly
compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on
modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of the
world, though with certain modifications.
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!+ C#'paris#n 9et:een ,aca$a' an$ Telf#r$ R#a$s
a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.
b. "n the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept hori#ontal due
to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. "n the case of
Macadam construction sub-grade was given 4 in /6 cross slope. This
aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.
c. (arge si#e stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. %i#e of
stone varied from 45 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the road.
"n the case of Macadam roads 0 cm was the maimum si#e of the
aggregate used for foundation layer.
d. +ross slope in Telford using smaller si#e stones at the edges and large
si#e stones at the centre of the width-developed roads. Thicknesses of
subseuent intermediate and surfacing layers, is kept constant for the
full width of the road. "n Macadam roads, reuired camber was given to
the sub-grade itself and all the subseuent layers of aggregate
including foundation layer of uniform thickness for the whole of the
width of the road.
e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundationlayer, two layers of intermediate coat and 7 cm thick wearing top layer.
Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers each of 4/
cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 0 cm thick surfacing
layer.
f. "n Telford roads, camber given was 4 in 70 while in Macadam it was 4
in /6.
g. Telford;s foundation layer, being of larger si#ed stones, behaved like
semi fleible road but Macadam;s base was yielding type and hence
Macadam roads behaved like fully fleible roads.
h. Total thickness of road structure was about 71 cm in case of Telford
but only about 20 cm in case of Macadam.
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TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING&F=! B=C +=$T"$C )"T* T* $DT
"$3CTE.
4. Gescribe briefly the contribution of Tresauet , Metcalf, Telford and
Macadam to road improvement of a scientific nature.
2. )rite short notes on the history of:
a. arly basic roads
b. !omans roads
c. Moderns roads
/. Giscuss the comparative specifications of Telford and Macadam road
crust construction.
14
ACTI;ITY
GOOD -UC
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4. 3ioneers contributions are :
a! Tresa.%et
Geveloped an improvement method of road construction
which feature of his work was that the thickness of the road
was about /1 cm.
The interstices of the foundation stone layer were filled with
stone aggregate of smaller si#e and compacted thickness
of this layer was about > cm.
Top wearing course was laid of walnut si#ed stones and
compacted to a thickness of about 0 cm.
A cross slope of about 4 in 70 was used to be developed in
the road surfaced by ad'usting thickness mainly in top and
intermediate layers.
b! ,etcalf
perimented road construction with a graded miture of
earth and gravel.
Method consisted of laying gravel upon a well drained and
dried sub-grade. "t used to be compacted in due course of
time, by the action of the traffic using road.
15
FEED9AC< ONACTI;ITY
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c! Telf#r$
Csed big si#ed stones in foundation wearing from 45-22 cm
to develop a firm base
3rovided cross drains under foundation layer to keep the
sub-grade in dry condition
(evel sub-grade on embankment or cutting was prepared in
the reuired width.
$! ,aca$a'
Csing entirely new concept of road construction.
!ecogni#ed the importance of sub-grade compaction and
drainage
Csing a broken stone layer of few centimeter thickness can
sustain much heavier load than a thick layer of big si#e
stones
%i#e of the aggregate to be used in wearing course was
decided according to reuirements of stability under the
effect of vehicles.
2.
a! Earl* r#a$s!
After invention of wheel, animal drawn bullock carts continued to be
popular mode of transport for uite a long time. This necessitated
providing hard surface for wheeled carts. The first hard surface was
discovered in Mesopotamia at about /011 &.+. Archeologicalfindings in Mohan'odaro indicate that about /011 &.+ %treet was
paved.
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b! R#'ans r#a$s!
"n the ancient !ome era, more intensive system of roads was
developed. The roads radiating in many directions from !ome.
%ome of those roads are said to be a very elaborate construction.
Many of the !oman roads are still in eistence even after 2111
years. !omans were considered to be the pioneers in road
construction. )ith the fall of !oman mpire, the road building
techniue became a lost art.
c! ,#$ern r#a$s!
"n eighteenth century, improved construction methods for roads
again began to develop. Mr. 3ierre Tresauet developed an
improved method of construction in 4567 in France. At the time
when Mr. 3ierre Tresauet was busy in developing his road
construction method, Mr. 8ohn Metcalf was engaged in his
development in ngland. Metcalf constructed about 291 m road in
northern region of ngland. Telford and Macadam were the
pioneers in road development in ngland. Telford believed in using
heavy foundation stones over the soil sub-grade, while Macadamadvocated the use of compacted crushed aggregate layer at the
bottom. Macadam;s method of road construction is still in use and
is named after his name.
/. +omparison between Telford roads and Macadams roads are :
a. Telford roads are costlier than Macadam roads.
b. "n the case of Telford construction, sub-grade was kept hori#ontal
due to which drainage of sub-grade was not proper. "n the case of
Macadam construction sub-grade was given 4 in /6 cross slope.
This aspect helped in better sub-grade drainage.
c. (arge si#e stones were adopted by Telford for foundation. %i#e of
stone varied from 45 cm near edges to 22 cm at the centre of the
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road. "n the case of Macadam roads 0 cm was the maimum si#e of
the aggregate used for foundation layer.
d. +ross slope in Telford roads was developed by using smaller si#e
stones at the edges and large si#e stones at the centre of the width.
Thicknesses of subseuent intermediate and surfacing layers, is
kept constant for the full width of the road. "n Macadam roads,
reuired camber was given to the sub-grade itself and all the
subseuent layers of aggregate including foundation layer of
uniform thickness for the whole of the width of the road.
e. Telford construction is carried out in four layers namely foundation
layer, two layers of intermediate coat and 7 cm thick wearing top
layer. Macadam construction is done in three layers. Two layers
each of 4/ cm compacted thickness as foundation layers and 0 cm
thick surfacing layer.
f. "n Telford roads, camber given was 4 in 70 while in Macadam it
was 4 in /6.
g. Telford;s foundation layer, being of larger si#ed stones, behaved
like semi fleible road but Macadam;s base was yielding type and
hence Macadam roads behaved like fully fleible roads.h. Total thickness of road structure was about 71 cm in case of
Telford but only about 20 cm in case of Macadam.
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4. Gescribe brie the characteristic of road transport..
2. Gescribe the method of construction for Macadam roads.
/. +lassify the modes of transportation used in Malaysia.
19
Huestion
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4. The characteristics of road transport are as follows :
i. !oads can be used by all sorts of vehicles like bullock carts,
carriages, bicycles, scooters, cars, buses and lorries, etc.
They are eually useful for pedestrians also.
ii. !oads can lead to any remote place.
iii. "nvestment on road transport by government is
comparatively small. Maintenance of roads is also cheaper
than rail-track, docks, harbors and airports.
iv. There is complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicles from one lane to another, or from one road to
another according to the reuirements.
v. (ocal communication among villages, villages and towns is
only possible through roads.
vi. Movements on roads are not time bound, as in case of
railways or airways.
vii. !oad transport is the only mode of transport that offers itself
for the service of whole community alike.
2. Method of +onstruction for Macadam roads
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Answer
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%ub-grade was prepared and compacted to the reuired
width of the road. 3repared sub-grade was given the same camber,
as to given to the finished road surface. +onstruction of road
according to Macadam method consists of three layers, namely,
foundation layer, intermediate layer and wearing surface layer.
Foundation layer was 41 cm thick @compacted and was made from
0 cm si#e aggregate. "ntermediate layer was also 41 cm thick
@compacted but made from aggregate passing 71 mm sieve.
(astly, wearing surface was made 0 cm thick @compacted using
aggregate passing 21 mm sieve. +ross slope of finished surface
was kept as 4 in /6.
"n those days, there were no rollers to affect thorough
compaction and interlocking, and hence, this action was used to be
achieved by means of traffic. This was the reason that net layer
could not only be laid once the previously laid layer gets thoroughly
compacted. Macadam method was first scientific method based on
modern concepts and hence is still in use in most parts of theworld, though with certain modifications.
/. Modes of transportation can be classified as follows:
a. roadways or highways
b. railways
c. water ways
d. airways
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TECHNIQE IN PLANNING AND PRE-
CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD WORKHighway Engineering C3010 / UNIT2
i
TECHNIQUE IN PLANNING AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION
OF ROADWORK
OBJECTIVES
General Objectie
To understand the planning activities and all pre-construction works
S!eci"ic Objectie#
At the end of the unit you should be able to :-
describe the planning objective.
state the procedures to identify a new road. state the procedures for site investigation describe the method of site exploration.
describe the survey works.
UNIT $
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TECHNIQUE IN PLANNING AND
PRE-CONSTRUCTION
ROADWORKS
$%& TECHNIQUES IN PLANNING AND PRE-CONSTRUCTION
ROADWORK%
A construction of a new road must under go an extensive planning,
accurate land surveying and economic planning.
$%&%' Plannin( Re)*ire+ent#
A modern highway construction would include:-
. A collection of a tabulated information on the existing transportation
facilities in the area.
!. The determination of the general inter-relation of all branches of the
transportation system and their effect on each other.
". The determination of the ade#uacy or otherwise of the existing
facilities as per present needs and the improvement and extension
of these facilities for anticipated future needs for a certain period.
$. %ethods of financing the projects and the duration of the
construction.
&. An estimation of construction and maintenance.
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Any highway planning study can be sub-divided into :-
. 'oad inventory study.
!. Traffic studies.
". (conomic planning studies.
$. )inancial planning studies.
$%&%$ Pre!arati,n an Plannin( Sc.e+e ," a Ne/ R,a%
*lanning expertise, evaluation on survey work, knowledge
on geology and experience on civil engineering area are essentially
needed in constructing of a new road. The traffic needs, the
purpose on planning at certain route and approximate cost thus
become very vital information to be considered before constructing
a new road.
The synopsis of procedures that is used for identifying,
planning and constructing a new road are listed in the followingpage. +owever, not all new roads follow these procedures. ome of
the procedures are valid for certain terms and conditions only.
elow is set of procedure that is used for identifying,
planning and constructing a new road. The procedures are
. /dentify the problem in traffic congestion, accident and
environment by making a research on transportation and
problematic areas.
!. /dentify the maintenance and new construction work needed.
". /dentify the organi0ation and %inistries that are responsible with
the construction work such as 12', T3 etc.
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$. 4ollect the information for briefing.
&. *repare the following plans: -
a. Topography plan.
b. 5sage land plan.
c. 6eology plan.
d. Agriculture area plan.
e. 7omestic plan.
f. Traffic flow plan.
g. Town 4onsult planning document.
8. 7raw a temporary layout sketch and include related
suggestion.
9. 6et information on
a. 1unctions.
b. 'iver and drainage.
c. urvey information.
d. The latest traffic data.
e. 6round evel.
;. *repare a detailed layout with consideration to environmentalimpact.
9. %ake a valuation.
10. 4hoose the best road to be constructed. +owever, the
alternative road should be e#ually prepared in the planning.
.3egotiate with other related group such as :-
a. %inistry of cience and (nvironment.
b. %inistry of Transportation.
c.
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".Analy0e the problems faced by the public.
$.*repare the preliminary report based on the above information
and submit it to the planning division.
&.the identified road?.
b. tart planning the alternative roads.
c. tart purchasing the important materials.
9.6et the information from the public on the suggested road and
the other roads involved. et a panel that consists of external
lawyers and other professionals to conduct a survey.
;.ubmit the report to the respective %inistry and wait for the
approval.
@.*repare the financial report based on the cost benefit analysis
to determine the advantages will bring to the public.!=.Advertise a tender notice and the selected contractor will then
need to prepare and submit the #uotation of the contract plan
and document.
!.Accept the tender and start the construction work.
There are " stages in planning the construction of a new road :-
. tage - *repare a preliminary report.
!. tage ! - ubmit the preliminary report.
". tage " - )inali0e the report.
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$%&%0 Sta(e '- Pre!arin( a !reli+inar1 re!,rt%
/n this stage, it includes all the preliminary reports and
information that are received during the ensuing stage >refer to
!.=.!, *rocedure $?. They are: -
a. Traffic surveying work.
b. (valuation on the information and planning. 4onsider
suggestion if there is another useful choice.
c. 7esign using 8 : mile scale.
d. udget of the construction and its advantages.
e. /dentify the certain road.
f. 'eport on the alternative road, which includes the
topography, geology and traffic flow, soil consuming and
historical places.
g. Bbtain cooperation from the related group such as town
council and state government.
h. /f the project is over budgeted the ministry must be informand no further work shall be proceed.
$%&%2 Sta(e $ - S*b+ittin( t.e !reli+inar1 re!,rt%
/n the preliminary report, it explains about the proposal and its
alternatives of the identified project. /t then is submitted to the
person in-charged to obtain permission. +owever, the following
#uestions need to be considered.
a. Are the suggestions fulfilled the planning needs at the
national level.
b. Are the advantages acceptedC
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c. Are the suggested solution accepted in term of
political or environmental aspect.
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$%&%5 T.e c,ntent ," t.e Preli+inar1 Re!,rt
The preliminary report which includes the plan must contain the
following aspects:-
a. The existence situation E which is on physical shape and
scheme objective of the existence road.
b. The traffic situation E based on the latest data >not more
than " years?. A report should include content the total of
traffic user.
c. The alternative roads, which include the costing,
advantages and the environmental impact.
d. 'oad classification E identify the road classification that is
to be built highway or ordinary road.
e. 3egotiation on the report and the result.
f. udget the total of roadwork cost, bridges work and
earthwork approximately !=F from the previous budget.
The cost report should comprise the following:'oadwork:-
- ite clearing cost.
- (arthwork cost.
- *avement construction and road shoulder work
cost.
- 'oad furniture work.
- )acilities service work.
- 4ontingency stretch cost.
g. Galuation is to see the economical aspect of the project.
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h. (nclosed plans E plan with 8: mile scale is used for
new scheme. )or the city or village area a bigger scale is
used. *lan must show the following:-
a. The plan of the approved alternative roads.
b. The type of junction and its location.
Avoid using the existence plan. eside the, the activities
which would be included in the planning and pre-
construction road work are as follow:
. ite investigation.
!. urvey works and setting out.
". ite clearing and top soil deletions.
$. (arth works.
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TEST 6OUR UNDERSTANDING()B'( HB5 4B3T/35(
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. The objective of planning is to provide a highway system which
would give maximum transportation facilities at a minimum cost.
!. The other activities in planning and pre-construction roadworks be
as follows :
. ite investigation.
!. urvey works and setting out.
". ite clearing and top soil deletions.
$. (arth works.
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$%' SITE IN7ESTIGATION
'oad structures are the structure which is supported by the ground.
The interaction between the structure and the soil beneath it is complex,
and therefore knowledge of the site and soil condition is important.
$%'%' Pr,ce*re# ," t.e ine#ti(ati,n
$%'%'%' C,+!act #ite#
/n the case of compact sites for road structure, the
investigation re#uires deep and closely speed borings. The
actual number and position of borings depend on the types
of structure and nature of sites. +owever, the number of
bore hole should be such as to given a clear picture of all
significant variations in the soil over the site, and the depth
of such bore hole should be such as to reach all strata
likely to influence the stability of the works.
$%'%'%$ 9et., ," #ite e:!l,rati,n
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!. %edium to large scale works E borings up to "=m
deep
". Gery large scale works E a combination of deep
boring, pits and insitu examination from heading and
shafts.
/t must be noted that the above is only guide: the
detailed methods of exploration would depend on the types
of the construction and the site involved.
a% Trial !it#
This is the cheapest form of exploration in shallow
depth above " m deep the cost increases rapidly compared
with boring. The main advantage is that soils and rocks can
be exposed and examined insitu. This method shows
changes in strata much more clearly than by boring. The pits
are dug out either by local labour or by a small tractormounted excavator. The plan si0e of a pits depends on
method of excavation, but approximately .! x .! m and
should be dug at distances !=m apart in either direction.
*roblem occurs in water bearing soils, particularly
sands, and therefore the economies of shoring and pumping
pits may outweigh the savings gained against specialist
borings. /n dry condition these pits are particularly valuable
since they allow hand cut sample to be taken, thereby
minimi0ing the disturbance of the sample and maximi0ing
the condition for accurate testing. 7eeper trial pits maybe
used for investigation of rock fissures or to explore layer of
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weak rock which cannot be removed intact in normal boring
operations. uch deep pits are costly to construct and would
be used only a large scale exploration. Trial pits are the best
method of exploring back filled areas and side overlain by
variable natural deposit.
b% 8,rin(#
All boring should be should be spaced sufficiently
closed together to prevent false deduction concerning the
uniformity of hori0ontal strata. The deeps of boring will be
determined by the type of loading involved but account must
be taken of any slope in the strata and variation in their
thickness. /n particular, when boring through glacial
deposits, care must be exercised to insure that borders are
not mistaken for bedrock.
There are three main factors which govern the depthof exploration:
. The depth to which the soil is to be significantly stressed.
!. The depth to which weathering is likely to affect the soil.
". The depth at which impermeable strata occur.
c% Wa#. 8,rin(#%
The soil is loosened and removes from the bore hole
by mean of a strong jet of water or drilling mud. The li#uid is
jetted through a steel tube which is work up and down the
hole. The li#uid disintegrates the soil and carries it up the
annular space between the tube and casing.
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the advantage that the soil is not disturbed by blows of a tool
or shell, but it is limited to soil which do not contain boulders
or large gravels. %ud such as bentonite, allows boring to be
carried out without linings is non-cohesive soils. The soil in it
settled-out state can be dried and use for identification
purposes.
$%$ SUR7E6 WORK AND SETTING OUT
$%$%' Preli+inar1 S*re1
The preliminary survey consist in running a accurate
traverse line, usually called the ase ine along the route already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to
obtain sufficient data for final location. imilar traverses may also
be run along the secondary routes, if any. The preliminary survey
shall help gather all the physical information which might affect the
final location of the highway. The traverse being an JBpen one,
adjustment cannot be made as in the case of closed traverse sothat in order to ensure some standard of accuracy, certain
precaution especially in the measurement of angels and chaining,
etc., are necessary.
After establishing the ase ine, important topographical
features may also be recorded. These features include swamps,
lakes and any other features which affect the final location and
design of the highway. All the information collected by preliminary
survey work is used in preparing a map, often called the basic plan
or *reliminary urvey *lan.
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The next step after recording all the available details on the
basic plan is to locate the center line of the proposed highway on it.
A number of trial lines are drawn on the plan, avoiding valuable
property, obstruction and difficult areas such as water-logged
areas, etc. +aving thus selected the center-line on the plan, the
next step consist in transferring on to the field.
$%$%$ Settin( O*t
The first task is to establish a ase ine from which the
whole of the road can be set out. The position of this line must be
clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time.
etting out was done by plotting the construction boundaries after
being referred from the previous survey on *reliminary urvey *lan
and ase ine.
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TEST 6OUR UNDERSTANDING()B'( HB5 4B3T/35(
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. a. Trial pits
b. orings
!. There are three main factors which govern the depth of
exploration:
. The depth to which the soil is to be significantly
stressed.
!. The depth to which weathering is likely to affect
the soil.
". The depth at which impermeable strata occur.
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.
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The procedures to identify a new road include:-
!a. Preli+inar1 S*re1
The preliminary survey consist in running a accurate
traverse line, usually called the ase ine along the route already
recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey, in order to
obtain sufficient data for final location. imilar traverses may alsobe run along the secondary routes, if any. The preliminary survey
shall help gather all the physical information which might affect the
final location of the highway. The traverse being an JBpen one,
adjustment cannot be made as in the case of closed traverse so
that in order to ensure some standard of accuracy, certain
precaution especially in the measurement of angels and chaining,
etc., are necessary.
After establishing the ase ine, important topographical
features may also be recorded. These features include swamps,
lakes and any other features which affect the final location and
design of the highway. All the information collected by preliminary
Answer
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survey work is used in preparing a map, often called the basic plan
or *reliminary urvey *lan.
The next step after recording all the available details on the
basic plan is to locate the center line of the proposed highway on it.
A number of trial lines are drawn on the plan, avoiding valuable
property, obstruction and difficult areas such as water-logged
areas, etc. +aving thus selected the center-line on the plan, the
next step consist in transferring on to the field.
!b. Settin( O*t
The first task is to establish a ase ine from which the
whole of the road can be set out. The position of this line must be
clearly marked on-site so that it can be re-established at any time.
etting out was done by plotting the construction boundaries after
being referred from the previous survey on *reliminary urvey *lan
and ase ine.
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pits are the best method of exploring back filled areas and side
overlain by variable natural deposit.
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THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
PRE-CONSTRUCTION ROAD WORKHighway Engineering C3010 / UNIT3
THE TECHNIQUE OF PLANNING AND PRE-
CONSTRUCTION ROAD WORK
( Part 2 )
OBJECTIVES
General Obe!t"#e
To understand the earth work operation and its problems occurred.
S$e!"%"! Obe!t"#e&
At the end of the unit you should be able to :-
describe the earth work operation.
state the highway machinery state the types of slope. state the problem and its solutions. describe the method of slope protection.
UNIT '
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THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
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PLANNING TECHNIQUE AND PRE-
CONSTRUCTION
ROAD WORK ( Part 2 )
'* INTRODUCTION
The sub-grade soil is prepared by bringing it to the desired grade andcamber and by compacting adequately. The sub-grade may be either in
embankment or in excavation, depending on the topography and the finalied
vertical alignment of the road to be constructed.
'+ EARTH WORH OPERATION
The earth work quantities are estimated based on longitudinal and transverse
section along the alignment of the road. !n order to reduce the cost of
construction, it is necessary to plan the movement of materials from cuts to the
nearest fills. !t is necessary to decide the limits of economical haul and lift. !t is
advantageous to plot a mass haul diagram to compute the haulage details. The
swelling and shrinkage factor may also be considered in the excavation and
compaction of earth.
INPUT
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'++ E,!a#at"n
"xcavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth
including rock from its original position, transporting and dumping it as a fill or
spoil bank. The excavation or cutting may be needed in soil, soft rock or even in
hard rock, before preparing the sub-grade. The selection of excavation
equipment and the cost analysis is made based on the stiffness of the materials
to be excavated.
"arth excavation work may be divided as excavation or cutting, grading
and compaction. The depth of the excavation is decided, among other factors, on
requirement of vertical profile of the road. The slope to be provided is governed
by the type of soil including stratification, if any, and the depth of the cutting. The
stability computations may help in arriving at maximum permissible slope for the
complex problems. #owever highway cuts much flatter slopes are preferred from
other considerations including aesthetics construction of side drains also require
excavations along road side.
a E,!a#at"n e./"$0ent
The excavation equipment commonly used in highway pro$ects includes
bull doers, scrapers, power shovels, draglines, clamshells and hoes. #owever,
in small pro$ects excavation is carried out manually using hand tools.
The machines that used are:-
" 1/ll 3er an &!ra$er
%ull doer and scraper may be used for shallow excavation work
and for hauling the earth for relatively short distances. %ull doer is
considered to be versatile machine for many construction pro$ects as it
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may be used for clearing site. !t can used for opening up pilot roads,
moving earth for short haul distances of about &''m and also in several
other $obs. (craper is considered as one of the useful earth-moving
equipment as it is self operating - it can dig, haul and discharge the
material in uniformly thick layers. #owever scrapers are not capable of
digging very stiff material.
)igure *.&: %ull doer
"" P4er &5#el
+ower shovel used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except
rock and to load it into wagons. +ower shovels may be mounted on
crawler tracks and so they can move at low speeds. )igure *. shows the
operation and basic parts of a power shovel, these including the mounting,
cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line. The power shovel can
effectively operate the excavate earth from a lower level where it stands
and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.
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""" Dra6l"ne
ragline is used to excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearly
banks or to load into wagons. ragline may also be mounted on crawler. !t
can operate on natural ground while excavating from a pit with the bucket,
thus it is not necessary for the dragline to go into the pit in order to
excavate. The basic parts and operation of a dragline are shown in figure
*.*. The bucket is thrown out from the dragline on the top of the earth tobe excavated and then pulled back towards the base of the machine.
)igure *.: +ower (hovel
)igure *.*: ragline
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"# Cla0&5ell
lamshell consists of a bucket of two halves or shell which is
hinged together at top. The shells may be attached to the shovel-crane
units or at the boom of a drag line. The open clam-shell bucket is thrown
on the top of the loose material to be dug and as the bucket is lift, the two
halves close en trapping the material into the bucket. )igure *./ shows the
clamshell bucket. This equipment is useful for excavation of soft to
medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground surface.
# He
#oe is an excavating equipment of the power-shovel family. #oe is
meant to excavate below the natural surface where the machine is
stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of excavation
at close range work 0see figure *.12. #oe can exert high tooth pressures
and hence can excavate stiff material which normally can not be
excavated by dragline.
)igure *./: lamshell
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The excavation equipment is selected depending on the natural of the
material, the distance, to be hauled and the method of disposal. At times the
selection may be made based on the availability also.
'+2 E0ban70ent
3hen it is required to raise line of a highway above the existing ground
level it becomes necessary to construct embankments. The grade line may
raised due to any of the following reasons:
i. to keep the sub grade above the high ground water table.
ii. to prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary
water.
iii. to maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the
vertical alignment.
The design elements in highway embankments are:
i. height
ii. fill material
iii. settlements.
)igure *.1 #oe
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THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
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iv. stability of foundation, and
v. stability of slopes
a He"65t
The height of the embankments depends on the desired grade line of the
highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some
times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is
week.
b F"ll 0ater"al
4ranular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. (ilts
and clays are considered less desirable. 5rganic soils, particularly peat are
unsuitable. The best of the soils available locally is often selected with a view to
keep the lead and lift as lowers possible. At times light-weight fill material like
cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation soil is weak.
! Settle0ent
The embankment may settle after the completion of construction either
due to consolidation and settlement of the foundation or due to settlement of the
fill or due to both. !f the embankments foundation consists of compressible soil
with high moisture content, the consolidation can occur due to increase in the
load. The settlement of the fill is generally due to inadequate compaction during
construction, and hence by proper compaction this type of settlement may bealmost eliminated. 3hatever be the type of settlement, it is desired that the
settlement is almost complete before the construction of saturated. )oundation
clay, vertical sand drains are sometimes constructed. These are vertical columns
of sand installed in the compressible foundation like marshy soils in order to
decrease drainage path and thus accelerate the rate of consolidation. The
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vertical sand columns may be of *' to 6' cm diameter and .1 to 6 meter
spacing, arranged in hexagonal pattern. A horiontal sand blanket, /' to 6' cm
thick is placed at the top of the drains extending across the entire width of
embankment at its bottom. This helps the water to flow out with ease.
Stab"l"t8 O% F/nat"n
3hen the embankment foundation consists of weak soil $ust beneath are
at a certain depth below in the form of a weak stratum, it is essential to consider
the stability of the foundation against a failure. This is more essential in the case
of high embankment. The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of
safety is estimated by any of the following approaches.
i. Assuming a certain failure surface such as a circular arc or
any other composite shape and analying it with (wedish circular
arc analysis or method of wedges. As the case may be.
ii. "stimating the average shear stress and strength at the
foundation layers by approximate methods and estimating the
factor of safety.iii. 7sing theoretical analysis base on elastic theory.
The factor of safety in the case of compressible soil foundation is likely to be
minimum $ust after the completion of the embankment. 8ater due to
consolidation of foundation and consequent gain in strength there will be an
increase in the foundation factor of safety. Thus it is evident that in such
compressible foundation soils, the vertical sand drains would be useful also to
increase the rate of gain in strength. %y proper design of vertical sand drains, it
is possible to limit the decrease in foundation factor of safety due to the
construction, within the allowable value.
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THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
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e Stab"l"t8 O% Sl$e&
The embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the
possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other conditions. #ence the
stability of the slope should be checked or the slope should be designed
providing minimum factor of safety of &.1. 5ften much flatter slopes are
preferred in highway embankment due to aesthetic and other reasons.
'+' Cn&tr/!t"n % e0ban70ent
The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin
layers or by hydraulic fills. The former is called rolled-earth method and is
preferred in highway embankments. "ach layer is compacted by rolling to a
satisfactory degree or to a desired density before the next layer is placed.
ompaction is carried out at optimum moisture content so as to take advantages
of maximum dry density using a specified compacting effort and equipment. The
thickness of the layers may vary between &' and *' cm depending on various
factors such as soils type, equipment, specifications etc.
The practice of dumping the earth without compacting properly and
allowing the fill to get consolidated under weather during few subsequent
seasons should be avoided as the settlement will continue for a very long period.
!f pavement is constructed before the settlement of the fill is almost complete, the
pavement is likely to become uneven and also fail later-on. ompaction of soil is
discussed separately in topic (oil ompaction.
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Lets test your understanding before we continue to
the next input. GOOD LUCK.
'+ Eart5 4r7 $erat"n !an be "#"e "nt t4 !ate6r"e& Na0e t5e4r7 b8 %"ll"n6 "n t5e !5art bel4
'2 9at!5 t5e e,!a#at"n e./"$0ent l"&te bel4 4"t5 "t& e&!r"$t"nT5en /n"te t5e 4r& "n t5e b,e& $r#"e
HOE CLAMSHELL
POWER SHOVEL BULLO!ER/SCRAPPER
RA"LINE
EARTH WORK OPERATION
ACTIVITY 3A
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9!m used for shallow excavation workand for hauling the earth for relativelyshort distances.;
9!m used primarily to excavate earth ofall classes except rock and to load itinto wagons.;
9!m used to excavate soft earth and todeposit it nearby banks or intowagons.;
9!m useful for excavation of soft tomedium materials and loose materialsat or below existing ground surface.;
9!m useful to excavate below naturalsurface.;
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'' C0$lete t5e !5art % e&"6n ele0ent& "n 5"654a8 e0ban70ent&bel4
HEIGHT
DESIGN ELE9ENTS
IN HIGHWA:E91ANK9ENTS STA1ILIT:
OF SLOPE
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'+
'2
9!m used for shallow excavation workand for hauling the earth for relativelyshort distances.;
BULLDOZER/SCRAPPER
9!m used primarily to excavate earth ofall classes except rock and to load itinto wagons.;
POWER SHOVEL
9!m used to excavate soft earth and todeposit it nearby banks or intowagons.;
9!m useful for excavation of soft tomedium materials and loose materialsat or below existing ground surface.;
9!m useful to excavate below naturalsurface.;
DRAGLINE
CLAM SHELL HOE
EARTH WORK OPERATION
E;CA
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''
HO DO !OU "#$D %H& 'C%#(#%#&)* "U$ '+&$%
%H&!* L&%) ,+OC&&D %O %H& $&-% #$,U%..
HEIGHT
DESIGN ELE9ENTSIN HIGHWA:
E91ANK9ENTS STA1ILIT:OF SLOPE
FILL9ATERIAL
SETTLE9ENTS
STA1ILIT: OFFOUNDATION
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'2 SIDE SLOPE OPERATION
There are two types of side slope in #ighway "ngineering. Alignments of
highways through hilly and rolling topography result in many cut and fill slopes of
exposed soil. #ighway construction until recently has been simply a matter of
location and design.
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)igure *.: ut slope for variable soil strata.
T8$e % &"l C/tt"n6 e$t5 &l$"n6
(olid rock &:'.* = &:'.'
>ock &:'.1 = &:&.
(and &:'.1 = &:&.'
(andy soil ' = 1 &:'.? - &:&.ompact earth 1-&' &:&.' = &:&.
(and, loose 1-&' &:&. = &:&.1
lay soil '-&' &:'.? = &:&.
lay-stone 1-&' &:&. - &:&.1
Table *.&: Table for safety slope cutting
'2++ Prble0& "n !/t &l$e
(and 4ranular >ock
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There are several problems that will be stated in cut slope.
a Lan&l"e
8and slide is a problem that always happens in the work of slope cutting. !t
is because the cut of soil influence the stability of the soil. There are a few ways
to overcome the problem.
i. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.
ii. Turfing the slope areas to maintain the soil stability
iii. #ydro @seeding is use to plant the plant on the alkali soil.
iv. %y using 4eofabric or geotextile to avoid the diffusion of ground
water.
>ock slope is dangerous because the area of cutting does not have stable
binding ability. !f the failure of stone happen, it will cause the accident and
dangerous for us. There are some methods which had being used in our country
to overcome the problems.
i. %uild the fencing along the slope areas.
ii. 7se a net.
iii. 4abion block.
b Water In%"ltrat"n
3ater infiltration in soil also influences the soil stability. (torey and soildrainage system are important. (ub-soil drains are always used to control the
flow of infiltration.
'22 E91ANK9ENT SLOPE
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(lope embankment takes place when the original soil is under the level of
new road formation to be built. "mbankment slope is built by equivalent
or different types of materials depend on soil strata.
)igure *.*: "mbankment by equivalent materials
)igure *./: "mbankment by different materials
Tables *.: of safety sloping degree in soil banking
T8$e& % 0ater"al He"65t ( 0 ) Sl$e= Hr T
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6 = &1 &:&.? = &:.'
0 poorly graded sand 2 ' = &' &:&.? = &:.'
>ock' = &'
&' = '
&:&.1 = &:.'
&:&.? = &:.'
lay ' - 6 &:&.? = &:.'
'22+ Prble0& "n &l$e ban7"n6
There are several problems that are related to the embankment slope.
Lan&l"e
There are some ways to overcome the problem.
i. Turfing - +lanting the plants for slope protection
ii. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.
iii. 7se 4eofabric and geotextiles to avoid the diffusion of
ground water.
Er&"n
(oil erosion happens because of infiltration and the flow of water
run-off. To prevent the erosion, a few methods can be used:
i. +repare the drainage system to let the water flow easily.
ii. 4row plants to cover the slope surface.
ACTIVITY 3B
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THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
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Lets test your understanding before we continue to
the next input. GOOD LUCK.
*./ There are two types of side slope in #ighway "ngineering. ame thetypes by filling in place below.
'> 9at!5 t5e t4 t8$e &l$e a& t5e an&4er %r0 ./e&t"n '? 4"t5 "t&e&!r"$t"n Wr"te t5e 4r& "n t5e b,e& $r#"e
'@ Na0e t5e $rble0& % t5e %%%e0ban70ent &l$e b8 %"ll"n6 t5e !5art
bel4
!ts take place when the
original soil is under the
level of new road formation
to be built.
!ts takes place when the
original soil level
higher then the
level of new road
formation to be
built.
Two types of slopesB
CCCCCCCC
CCCCCCCC
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"mbankment (lope
FEEDBACK TO
ACTIVITY 3B
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'?
'>
'@
The answers areC..
ut (lope"mbankment (lope
!ts take place when the
original soil is under the
level of new road formation
to be built.
"mbankment (lope
!ts takes place when the
original soil level
higher then the
level of new road
formation to be
built.ut (lope
"mbankment (lope
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HO DO !OU "#$D %H& 'C%#(#%#&)* "U$ '+&$%
%H&!* L&%) ,+OC&&D %O %H& $&-% #$,U%..
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The excavation equipment commonly used in highway pro$ects. escribe
about the machine as listed below.
a. %ulldoer and scraper.
b. +ower shovel.
c. #oe.
escribe all the problems in slopes and the solution to overcome the
problem.
There are several factors that contribute to the increase of design. "xplain
briefly two factors that contribute to the increment.
Duestion * - &
Duestion * - Duestion * -
Duestion * - *
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THE TECHNIQE OF PLANNING AND
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a 1/ll 3er an &!ra$er
%ull doer and scraper may be used for shallow excavation work
and for hauling the earth for relatively short distances. %ull doer is
considered to be versatile machine for many construction pro$ects as it
may be used for clearing site. !t can used for opening up pilot roads,
moving earth for short haul distances of about &''m and also in several
other $obs. (craper is considered as one of the useful earth-moving
equipment as it is self operating - it can dig, haul and discharge the
material in uniformly thick layers. #owever scrapers are not capable of
digging very stiff material.
b P4er &5#el
+ower shovel used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except
rock and to load it into wagons. +ower shovels may be mounted on
crawler tracks and so they can move at low speeds. )igure & shows the
operation and basic parts of a power shovel, these including the mounting,
cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line. The power shovel can
effectively operate the excavate earth from a lower level where it stands
and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too shallow.
Answer *.&
)igure &: +ower (hovel
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! He
#oe is an excavating equipment of the power-shovel family. #oe is
meant to excavate below the natural surface where the machine is
stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of excavation
at close range work 0see figure 2. #oe can exert high tooth pressures and
hence can excavate stiff material which normally can not be excavated by
dragline.
+ Prble0& "n !/t &l$e
Answer *.
)igure : #oe
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There are several problems that will be stated in cut slope.
a Lan&l"e
8and slide is a problem that always happens in the work of slope cutting. !t
is because the cut of soil influence the stability of the soil. There are a few ways
to overcome the problem.
i. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.
ii. Turfing the slope areas to maintain the soil stability
iii. #ydro @seeding is use to plant the plant on the alkali soil.
iv. %y using 4eofabric or geotextile to avoid the diffusion of ground
water.
>ock slope is dangerous because the area of cutting does not have stable
binding ability. !f the failure of stone happen, it will cause the accident and
dangerous for us. There are some methods which had being used in our country
to overcome the problems.
i. %uild the fencing along the slope areas.
ii. 7se a net.
iii. 4abion block.
# Water In%"ltrat"n
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3ater infiltration in soil also influences the soil stability. (torey and soil
drainage system are important. (ub-soil drains are always used to control the
flow of infiltration.
2 Prble0& "n &l$e ban7"n6
There are several problems that will be stated in embankment slope.
Lan&l"e
There are some ways to overcome the problem.
iv. Turfing - +lanting the plants for slope protection
v. +repare the slope with suitable slanting degrees.
vi. 7se 4eofabric and geotextiles to avoid the diffusion of
ground water.
Er&"n
(oil erosion happens because of infiltration and the flow of water
run-off. To prevent the erosion, a few methods can be used:
iii. +repare the drainage system to let the water flow easily.
iv. 4row plants to cover the slope surface.
a He"65t
Answer *.*
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The height of the embankments depends on the desired grade line of the
highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill is some
times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the foundation soil is
week.
b F"ll 0ater"al
4ranular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment material. (ilts
and clays are considered less desirable. 5rganic soils, particularly peat are
unsuitable. The best the soils available locally is often selected with a view to
keep the lead and lift as lowers possible. At times light-weight fill material like
cinder may be used to reduce the weight when foundation soil is weak.
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ROADS CONSTRUCTIONMATERIALS & TESTING
Highway Engineering C3010 / UNIT4
ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
OBJECTIVES
General Obje