c u lt u r e a n d h i s t o r y our coast: a …...• south african museum, p.o. box 61, cape town...

Healing powers for the soul

The coast has a remarkable affect on people’s well-being. It has

the ability to relax, refresh and entertain one with its continual

variety, movement and smells. The soothing sound of distant

waves, the mewling of seagulls, the wind, the sun and beautiful

views, provide a perfect holiday venue. South Africa’s 3 200 km

of coastline is very varied, encompassing the subtropical

Maputaland coast with warm waters and dune forests, the

Wild Coast of rolling hills, aloes, intimate beaches and rugged

rocky promontories, the Garden Route with lagoons, Tsitsi-

kamma forest with its re f reshing walks and bathing, and the

Cape with its sharply contrasting mountains and sea. And then

there is the sparsely populated rugged west coast, hot during

the day, dry and yet frequently engulfed in fog banks that

envelop the kelp forests, saturating the air with the characteristic

smell of the sea. These are all experiences that have been

enjoyed in the past and uplift one today. The question is; will

the next generation be taught to appreciate and protect this

g reat outdoor and will it be as splendid in the next millennium?

Over the last three hundred years alone, how much has our

coastal heritage changed?

Natural Heritage

South Africa has an amazing diversity in the sea with over

10 000 species of marine plants and animals, many of which

are endemic (occurring only in this region). The fact that the

country is bathed by two mighty oceans with vastly different

characteristics, temperatures and currents has led to different

climates on land and three distinct biogeographical zones;

subtropical east coast, the intermediate south coast and the

cold temperate Namaqua zone of the west coast. On the west

coast cold water wells up from the depths, bringing fertilising

nutrients to the surface. The greatest amount of upwelling in the

world, ten times that in California or Chile, occurs along the west

coast and fuels rich plankton meadows, vast kelp forests, shoals

of fishes and birds, seals and whales that feed on them.

Scientific discoveries The natural heritage of the country

was harvested in a small way by strandlopers and Khoi-San

and there seemed to be an endless supply of fishes, whales,

seals and birds, many of which were given strange names:

seals were called ‘sea wolves’ and gannets ‘mad geese’.

How has it changed?

Scientists have made many discoveries. First, taxonomists

set about describing and naming the abundance of life, then

by experiment and observation they recorded the fascinating

biology and adaptations of these animals. Then came the

period of ecological work when scientists tackled whole eco-

systems. They traced energy transfer through the kelp forest

inhabitants and looked at the whole Benguela ecosystem,

sandy beaches and rocky shores, intertidal zonation, coral

reef ecology and the dynamics of estuaries. The migration of

wading birds, whales and turtles have also been studied.

Sustainable utilisation In recent years the importance and

impact of humans as part of the marine environment has been

highlighted. From being a curiosity and a source of food, fuel

and fertiliser our marine life has become a multi-billion Rand

source of income to the country and an essential source of

food and employment to a burgeoning population. Improved

methods of harvesting have led to over-exploitation of many

resources such as some fish, rock lobsters, whales and birds.

Due to the decline in the supply, management plans have had

to be implemented to ensure sustainable utilisation of marine

resources. To achieve this, it is essential to gain scientific

knowledge about population dynamics and to be able to

make informed predictions determining allowable catches

that will indeed be sustainable for many generations to come.

Education It is important to educate people of all ages and

walks of life so that they are aware, appreciate and care for

our coastal and marine life.

Cultural Heritage

Diverse people South Africa is a rich rainbow nation of many

cultures. Each group of people; stone age dwellers, Khoi-

San, amaBantu, European explorers, those from India and

Malaysia, migrants from other parts of Africa and tourists of

the world have all contributed in their dress, customs, language,

cuisine and buildings. Take a look at the common names of

fishes or places, such as snoek, perlemoen, kreef, seneni (red

bait), poenskop, bokkoms (dried fish) and Port Elizabeth for

evidence of our diverse cultural heritage.

The history and influence of these peoples is a heritage to

cherish and preserve.

Prehistory Archaeologists have in the last 100 years

discovered many caves and middens giving a clue to the life

style and gathering habits of stoneage people and strandlopers.

Stone tools, rock paintings and bones all tell a story of life in

heritage is something that is passed down

from one generation to the next. When we

consider South Africa’s magnificent coast with all

its beauty, wealth, diversity and history as a

national heritage it is a challenge to determine

what will be passed on to our children.

AOur Coast: A National Heritage

P E O P L E A N D T H E C O A S T : C U LT U R E A N D H I S T O R Y

2A

the past. Recent excavations of caves on Robberg Peninsula

at Plettenberg Bay have revealed how early Khoi-San people

spent the summer inland and moved to the coast in winter to

find food along the shore. Fossil records also show how the

marine life itself has changed and evolved along with the

changes of sea level that leave ancient raised shorelines many

kilometres inland. Huge bivalves, sabre-toothed cats, short-

necked giraffes and giant buffalo, with 3-metre horn-spans,

once roamed the coast-line and have left their fossilised

remains near Saldanha Bay.

Shipwrecks Early Portuguese explorers planted crosses at

significant points along the coast during their search for a

passage to the east. The sheer coastline of South Africa and

the tempestuous seas have been an inhospitable challenge

to seafarers and fishers through the ages. Over 3000 ships

have floundered along these shores and each tells a story.

Accounts of the fate and survival of shipwrecked sailors have

been recorded in a number of books covering the early East

Indiaman sailing ships, the disappearance of the Waratah and

the recent sinking of the Treasure. The Shipwreck museum at

B redasdorp captures some of the drama and displays objects

salvaged from ship wrecks. Diving and looking for treasure

around old shipwrecks can be a rewarding past-time. The

recent demise of the Apollo Sea, a Chinese ship that broke

up and sank near Dassen Island in 1994 brought only grief

and expense. Nothing was found of the 32 crew members

while the huge oil slick that enveloped the Cape coast and

nearby islands caused the death of thousands of penguins

and cost R25 million to clean up.

Buildings Different groups of people have left their mark

along the coast in the form of buildings. Some of these are

protected as national monuments. The Cape Town castle

was once a fort on the seafront and is now a museum some

distance inland, due to reclamation of land along the fore s h o re .

The old post house at Muizenberg, Rhode’s cottage at St.

James, fisher’s cottages around Agulhas and Arniston, Cape

Dutch homesteads, 1820-settler dwellings and buildings at

Grahamstown and Port Elizabeth, Transkei dwellings, Zulu

huts and San reed huts in Namaqualand all remind us of our

diverse cultural heritage. It is important to recognise significant

buildings and make sure that they are preserved. Lighthouses

too, are of great interest and historical significance and, of

course, an essential safety measure for shipping.

Coastal development One of the potentially most-damaging

human influences on our coast is that of development as the

whole topography can be changed for ever. The tidal flow of

many estuaries has been obstructed by the building of weirs

and bridges, with the result that salt marshes and reed beds

dry up and change. Building of houses and roads on dune

systems and even the stabilising of dunes have dramatically

changed adjacent beaches and their marine life. The south

coast of KwaZulu-Natal and developments around the eastern

b o rders of the Cape Peninsula illustrate how high-rise flats and

hotels can destroy the views of older dwellings and create an

artificial environment where the sea is confined by cement

walls and lawns. In order to cater for all needs it is essential

to have management plans for the coast that identify areas to

be set aside as reserves with no development, areas for

recreation with controlled development, areas for industry,

fisheries and commercial harbours as well as high density

nodes for housing and hotels.

Everyone has seen changes Everyone who has spent any

time in South Africa will be able to cite changes and talk about

the good old days of swimming off the pier at the end of

Adderley Street or when fish were plentiful and crayfish could

be lifted out of knee-deep water at rustic Seapoint. But they

will also be able to marvel at amazing ships, sleek sailing

vessels, the transformation of once unattractive harbour are a s

into vibrant waterfronts. Divers have greater access to the

underwater world where photographers and scientists have

revealed wonders that were never dreamed of. We cannot

turn back the clock but let us make sure that as we move

into the future we take with us an attractive, viable, diverse,

living coastal heritage.

Author: Margo Branch September 2000

FURTHER INFORMATION: • South African Museum, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town Tel 021-24 3330 Fax 021-424 6716

• Port Elizabeth Museum P.O. Box 13147, Humewood Tel 041-561051 • Shipwreck Museum Bredasdorp• Branch G. M., Griffiths C.L., Branch M. L. & Beckley L.E. 1994. Two Oceans A guide to the Marine Life of Southern Africa. David Philip, Cape Town.

• Kench J.E. 1984. The Coast of Southern Africa . Struik, CapeTown

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Lighthouses • Marine Biodiversity • Sustainable Use of Coastal Resources • Marine Protected Areas • Islands • Maputaland Coast • West Coast • Wild

Coast • Garden Route • Birds and Oil Spills

For more information, please contact: The Coastal Management Office, Marine and Coastal Management, Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Private Bag X2,Roggebaai 8012, Cape Town, South Africa. Tel: +27 (0)21 402-3208 Fax: +27 (0)21 418-2582 e-mail: [email protected] Website: http://sacoast.wcape.gov. z a

Excavating middens

Digging holes in middens in search of interesting artefacts or

skeletons is destructive as these cannot be re l i a b l y dated if the

strata of the midden have been disturbed. Information can only

be gained by the careful excavation of middens, accompanied

by detailed re c o rding, statistical analyses and the dating of the

layers. Conservation of these important sources of information

is vital if we are to build up a larger picture of how our coast-

line has been used through prehistory.

Ancient dune formations of the west coast, especially those

w i th high calcium content derived from shell particles, have

preserved the remains of bones and stone artefacts for

500 000 years or m o re. Sandveld archaeology has made a

significant contribution to our understanding of the history of

humans in Africa. Scientists have discovered that the ratio

of the chemicals argonite to calcite in limpet shells is

determined by the temperature in which they were laid down.

By examining the composition of limpet shells in middens they

have been able to confirm the last ice age and even discover

whether shells were harvested in winter or summer.

Early man on the west coast

There is widespread agreement that people separated from

their nearest relatives (the ancestors of today’s gorillas and

chimpanzees) some 5-8 million years ago and that this occurre d

in Africa. The earliest stone tools were made about 2.5 million

years ago. At Langebaanweg a rich fossil site was revealed

during phosphate mining operations. Five million years ago

now-extinct bears, sabre-tooth cats, short-necked giraffes,

three-toed horses and a huge ostrich roamed the area. In

addition there are deposits containing numerous fishes, a

giant megatooth shark, frogs and tortoises, penguins, seals

and dolphins – evidence that the coast was nearby. Although

there were six species of hyena there is no sign of early

humans in this part of the country at that time. At some time

between 1.5 and 0.5 million years ago people moved from

tropical Africa into the temperate regions. The Elandsfontein

site near Hopefield is clearly younger than Langebaanweg,

containing far fewer extinct forms but does include short

necked giraffe, giant buffalo with a 3-m horn span and giant

baboons, hartebeest, zebras and springbok, as well as the

skull and a few limb bones of ‘Saldanha man’. Archaeologists

believe that the Elandsfontein watering hole was used

between 700 000 and 400 000 years ago. Other sites like

he question is often asked, “Who are the

Strandlopers?” They include virtually all the

people who have roamed the coast, harvesting the

intertidal resources and feeding on stranded whales

and seals, but more especially the term was used for

prehistoric Stone Age man and included the San

(the Bushmen hunter-gatherers) and the Khoekhoe

(herders) but it is no longer used. The coast of South

Africa is littered with large mounds of shells. These

build up through several agents: by storm, by seagulls

and by humans. Shell middens are the accumulations

o f shells discarded where prehistoric people lived and

f e d for extended periods. Shell middens may contain

stone tools, shards of pottery, and even bits of bone,

fish hooks made of bone and stone sinkers. Some of

the oldest shell middens in the world, dating back

as much as 120 000 years, occur along the Cape

coast. Middens can provide valuable information

about changes in climate, animal and plant life and

the lifestyles of Strandlopers.

TStrandlopers and Shell Middens


2A

this are common on the calcareous sand at Duinefontein,

Melkbos, Elands Bay, and Swartklip on the False Bay coast.

‘Eve’s footprints’ on the sands of Langebaan

There are only four sets of fossilised human footprints in the

world. The oldest, 117 000-year-old footprints, dubbed ‘Eve’s

footprints’ because they are likely to have been made by a

woman, were discovered in 1995 at Langebaan. Because

of the threat of erosion and vandalism the slab of rock

containing the prints was pre-treated, carefully chiselled free

and transported to the SA Museum in Cape Town.

Exploiting shells – A first for South Africa

The earliest recognisable shell middens (as a result of human

collecting and disposal) are in South Africa. At Sea Harvest and

Hoedjiespunt near Saldanha there are middens with shell, bone,

stone tools and ostrich-egg shell pieces that are more than

40 000 and perhaps 100 000 years old. At Klaasies River

Mouth near Humansdorp similar shell middens in large coastal

caves have been dated to 100 000 to 120 000 years old.

Peers cave

Peers Cave overlooks the Fish Hoek valley on the Cape

Peninsula and was the site of a sensational find by Victor Peers

and his son Bertram in the 1920s – a complete skeleton,

known as ‘Fish Hoek Man’. It was estimated to be some

15 000 years old but unfortunately, because of their crude

methods of extraction the levels of the cave deposits were

disturbed, making precise dating impossible.

Nelson Bay Cave at Robberg

Between 1964 and 1971 the Nelson Bay cave on the Robberg

Peninsula near Plettenberg Bay was fully re c o rded in a

s c i e ntifically controlled dig by the Universities of Cape To w n ,

C h i c a g o (USA) and Louvain (Belgium). This commodious

Khoi-San residence is 20 m at the mouth and 30 m deep. A

n a r row cutting was made to plumb the full depth of the deposit

on its floor. In the upper layers over a million fish remains were

found as well as the bones of seals, seabirds, antelope, wild

pig and buff a l o . At deeper levels relicts of now-extinct species

such as the quagga, giant buffalo, and giant hartebeest were

discovered. Throughout the deposit were stone tools and

quartzite flakes used for cutting and scraping skins. The

skeleton of a child was found and radiocarbon-dated at about

700 BC. The Nelson Bay cave may have been occupied as

early as 70 000 years ago, but the bulk of the remains come

f rom about 800 to 3 000 years ago.

Like detectives, scientists used the evidence to determine

climate changes and information about the behaviour of

people. During the great ice age the sea was probably about

80 km further offshore of Robberg so that the cave was

surrounded by grassland, where animals grazed. As the ice

melted between 18 000 and 12 000 years ago the sea level

rose and people harvested seals, fish and countless shells

near the cave. This warming of the climate is further indicated

by the fact that the cold-water black mussels prevailed in lower

strata of the midden and then about 8 000 years ago it was

gradually replaced by the brown mussel, which is a warm-

water creature. From evidence of limpet shell structure and

the size of seal pups it was deduced that these Strandlopers

spent the summer inland and only harvested the shore in

winter when game was less plentiful. The larger limpets were

gradually removed leaving much smaller shells in the upper

layers of the midden – is this an intriguing example of early

over-exploitation of marine resources?

Visvywers – ancient fish traps

Also along our coast are prehistoric fish traps known as

‘visvywers’. These were constructed up to 2000 years ago

and some are still in use today. They consist of a wall of

stone built to enclose a portion of bay. When the tide rises

and floods over the wall the fish swim into the enclosure. As

the tide falls and the water seeps away between the rocks

the fish are trapped in the shallows and easily caught or

speared. All fish traps over 50 years old are protected by law.

These can be seen at Skipskop on the way to Cape Agulhas,

as well as at Stilbaai and elsewhere around the Cape coast.

What you can do

Be aware of the rich archaeological heritage buried beneath the

sandy landscape of the shore and on the floors of caves. It

would be tragic if what nature has preserved for many millennia,

people were to destroy in a few decades by driving over

dunes, building on shell middens, removing middens for the

lime they contain or digging up artefacts without using proper

methods and records. Author: Margo Branch September 2000

FURTHER INFORMATION: • S.A Museum, P O Box 61, Cape Town. Tel (021) 4243330 Fax (021) 4246716• Archaeology Dept. University of Cape Town, Rondebosch Cape Town. • Albany Museum, Grahamstown. • Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg.

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Marine Fossils • Traditional Fishing Methods • Mussel Harvesting


Traditional fishing equipment

Fishers variously use a rod and line, bow and arrows, fishing

spears and woven grass or reed scoops or plunge baskets

and a range of fish traps. Following a long tradition, people

have learnt the behaviour of the fishes. The Thonga fishermen

have built 80 or so fish kraals in the mouth of the estuary at

Kosi Bay. Each fish kraal consists of a stick fence that directs

the fish into a funnel-like reed trap. The central channel of the

estuary is kept free of fences so that the fish swim in on the

rising tide and then spread out into the estuary, and are

trapped as the tide falls. The fishermen then spear the fish in

the trap. In the Phongolo flood plain umono valve traps made

of reed are set into gaps in a stick barrier. A similar method is

employed on the Okavango river but there is no tidal flow to

bring the fish in and out, instead the Sintunga corral traps are

built with an opening on one side, where the fence curls

inwards making it difficult for fish to leave the trap. These

people also use large conical sikuku fish baskets into which

the fish swim. Some of the basket traps are quite simple in

design while others, that are left in the water, may have a

complex one-way valve, funnelling fish easily into the trap but

preventing them from escaping back to the entrance.

Fish drives

Groups of men and women often combine to drive fish into

bays and backwaters where they can be easily caught in

fonya thrust baskets. The amaThonga living on the Phongola

floodplain have a number of cultural traditions involving fishing.

The children capture small fish with home-made seine nets

and adults use valve fish traps. When the water is low the

headman, in consultation with sangomas,

will organise a massive fonya drive

in which hundreds of people

participate. Laughing and

chatting, over 200

ish have been caught from the rivers of

Southern Africa for as long as mankind has

been in the area. Across the country, the discarded

remnants of these catches built up in middens that

archaeologists can now analyse to get a glimpse of

prehistoric fishing activities. Riverside middens of

early Khoi-San cultures frequently contain the

bones and scales of fishes and occasionally stone

sinkers and fish hooks made of bone. On the coast

the main catch has been mussels and limpets that

were simply harvested at low tide with the help of

a sharp rock or, in recent years, a metal blade or

screwdriver. Crustaceans such as crabs and

crayfish are snapped up using stealth and fleetness

of hand. Other shellfish and urchins are also

harvested and many are used by sangomas

(traditional healers). Fish are usually caught in

shallow bays, estuaries, lakes and lagoons. However

only in the tropical regions of Southern Africa

where people have tended to concentrate and

where there are enough fish, have traditional

fishing activities endured. The best examples

are found in the lowlands and estuaries of

Mozambique and Maputaland, and the flood

plains of the Zambezi and Okavango rivers in

Angola, Zambia, Namibia and Botswana.

FTraditional Fishing Methods


2A

Fish are herded into shallow

water and caught in fonya

thrust baskets

people form a continuous line and wade through the waste-

deep water. Thrusting down with large conical ‘fonya’ baskets,

they trap the fish being driven ahead of them into the shallows.

The fish are removed through the hole in the top of the basket.

On the Save river the people walk through the water holding

a Hlengwe palisade fence of reeds and drive the fish before

them and into the shallows.

Flooding the floodplain for fish

Along the eastern foot of the Lebombo Mountains in northern

Zululand, lies the Phongolo floodplain, covering over 120 km2.

Before the building of the Phongolopoort dam at Jozini 30

years ago, seasonal floods filled the plain’s unique series of

89 pans. Now the optimal timing and size of simulated floods

is important for the people, crops, cattle, wildlife and fish.

Fish form a major part of the diet of more than 80 000 people

who live in the floodplain. Many species of fish are dependent

on floods to spawn. Water authorities, scientists and the local

communities have all taken part in the planning, conservation

and management of the area.

Coastal fish traps – Visvywers

In the sea, inventive fishers built large stone fish traps known

as visvywers. Some of them date back to prehistoric times.

They consist of a curved stone wall built to enclose a small

bay. When the tide rises it tops the wall and many fish enter

the bay to feed in the shallows. As the tide drops the water

seeps away between the rocks leaving the fish trapped in a

confined area where they can be speared. In some visvywers

the stone kraal is almost solid and there is a palisade gate

where the water flows away.

Conservation and traditional fishing

Traditional fishing is not generally as damaging to the ecosystem

and fish stocks as many forms of commercial fishing, but

i n c reased populations and poverty can intensify fishing and have

a negative affect. Illegal gill netting also poses a threat to many

of these areas. In an attempt to protect this important cultural

way of life and to use the source of food sustainably, the

communities and conservation authorities, scientists and

government bodies have been consulted and various plans

put into action. For example in Kosi Bay the use of gill nets is

restricted and the fish fences are allocated and owned by local

families who agree to limit the number of traps. The catch fro m

the traps is monitored to continually assess the resource. It is

important to demonstrate that controlled harvesting can bring

immediate benefits to rural and disadvantaged communities

and that legal fishers develop a sense of custodianship of the

fish resources.

Author: Margo Branch September 2000

FURTHER INFORMATION:• Skelton P. 1993. A complete Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of Southern Africa. Southern Book publishers, Halfway House, S Africa.

• J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, P Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140. Tel (046) 636 1002.• Bruton, M & Cooper, K. H. Eds. 1980. Studies on the Ecology of Maputaland . Wildlife Society of Southern Africa.

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Standlopers and Shell Middens • Kosi Bay • St. Lucia • Mussel Harvesting • Dwesa and Cwebe Nature Reserves.


Umona valve trapsset in a fence

Shore-based whaling

The Inuit (Eskimo) people of the Arctic Circle were among the

first to hunt whales from boats, harpooning their quarry from

kayaks. In Europe, the Basques of Spain were hunting whales

from small open boats in the Bay of Biscay as early as the

12th century, and by the 1600s the French, English, Dutch,

Danes, Norwegians, Germans and Portuguese were also

whaling in their coastal waters. By the early 1700s, whaling

had spread to the east coast of America.

In the late 18th century French, American and British whalers

began working their way down the west coast of Africa, and

by 1791 a British fleet of 32 ships was operating out of St.

Helena Bay, taking about 1200 whales over two years. Most

of these were southern right whales, which are slow swimmers,

float when dead, and produce a high oil yield, so were

considered the “right” whale to hunt. The oil was used as an

illuminant and lubricant, while the tough but flexible “whale-

bone” or baleen was exported to England and used for such

diverse products as chair springs, hairbrush bristles, corset

stays, skirt hoops, umbrellas and shoe horns.

The local inhabitants were eager to share in these riches, so

in 1792 the Dutch East India Company opened whaling to the

citizens of the Cape. However, the industry only expanded

after the second British occupation in 1806, when operations

were established in St. Helena Bay, Table Bay, Simonstown,

Fish Hoek, Kalk Bay, Gordon’s Bay, Mossel Bay, Plettenberg

Bay and Algoa Bay. Open boats were used to row out to

southern right whales in these sheltered bays. Although the

numbers taken were small compared to the large-scale factory

ship whaling that would later develop in the Southern Ocean.

This practice was particularly damaging to the stock as it

targeted adult females about to calve or with dependant

young. As a result, southern right whale numbers declined

rapidly, and the whalers began targeting humpbacks instead.

However, humpbacks fetched only £20-£200 compared to

£400-£600 for right whales, so the industry became sub-

economic and some stations were forced to close.

hales have been exploited for centuries

– archaeological evidence indicates that

even the inhabitants of southern Africa, the Khoi-

San, made use of beached whales for their meat, oil

and bones, the latter as a building material for

rudimentary shelters. In those days, before the

advent of commercial exploitation, large numbers

of southern right whales, which visit sheltered bays

along the south coast to mate and give birth, and

humpback whales, which migrate up the east and

west coasts of southern Africa to their tropical

breeding areas, would have occurred close inshore.

Natural mortality and occasional beach strandings

would have put this resource within reach of the

Khoi-San.

WHistory of Whaling


2A

Whaling was often a bloody and violent event, causing much suffering to the animal and danger to the whalers

Ship-based whaling

Modern whaling, using harpoon cannons mounted on steam-

driven catcher boats, came to South Africa in 1908. Two

Norwegian businessmen set up the South African Whaling

Company and opened a whaling station on the Bluff, Durban.

In 1909 they opened a second station at Donkergat in

Saldanha Bay, and at both stations the catch was mainly

humpbacks. The problem of these whales sinking when

dead had been overcome by the development in the late

19th century of a harpoon that had an explosive head and

was attached by a line to the boat.

The success of the company stimulated the whaling industry’s

growth, and by 1913 there were 11 floating factories and

17 land stations operating between Gabon and central

Mozambique, taking a total of 10 135 whales in that year.

At the same time whaling activities developed rapidly in the

whales’ feeding grounds in the south-western Atlantic.

Soon the numbers of humpbacks migrating up the African

coast dwindled, and this, together with the onset of World

War I, led to the closure of many whaling stations. Those

companies that did continue whaling, or resumed after the

war, were forced to venture further offshore in the search for

humpacks, where they encountered other species. Off

Saldanha, blue and fin whales dominated the catch between

1914 and 1930, while about 39% of the Natal catch during

this period was made up of sperm whales.

In the mid-1920s the first factory ship, with a stern slipway

through which whales could be hauled for on-board

processing, began operating in Antarctica. By the 1930/31

season there were 41 such ships involved in “ice-whaling”,

with a combined catch of over 40 000 whales, three-quarters

of them blue whales. This soon flooded the market and led to

a drop in oil prices, with the result that most shore-based

stations in southern Africa closed.

In 1931 the League of Nations produced a Convention for the

Regulation of Whaling, adopted by 26 nations. This banned

the catching of all right whales, as well as calves, sexually

immature whales and lactating females of other species. Author: Sue Matthews September 2000

FURTHER INFORMATION: • Bruton, M. 1998. The Essential Guide to Whales in Southern Africa. David Philip Publishers, Cape Town.

• Payne, A. I. L., Crawford, R. J. M. & Van Dalsen, A. 1989. Oceans of Life off Southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town.

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Southern Right Whale • Humpback Whale • Baleen and Toothed Whales

• Baleen Whales seen around our Coast • Rare and Endangered Baleen Whales • Sperm and Beaked Whales • Killer and Pilot Whales


International Whaling Commission

In December 1946, South Africa was one of 15 nations to

sign the International Convention for the Regulation of

Whaling, which came into effect in 1948 and established an

International Whaling Commission. Although it was at first

ineffective, the IWC eventually introduced total prohibitions on

the killing of humpback and blue whales in 1963 and 1967

respectively. Quotas were set for sperm whales in 1974, and

in 1973 the IWC agreed to phase out fin-whaling in the

southern hemisphere within three years.

In 1982 member countries of the IWC voted in favour of a

moratorium on commercial whaling to allow scientists to

conduct a comprehensive review of whale stocks. This

moratorium, effective from 1 January 1986, is still in place

today, and is observed by all countries except Japan and

Norway. While Japan uses a loophole that allows for “scientific

research” to continue whaling in Antarctica, Norway continues

to exploit whales in the north-east Atlantic on the legal

grounds of its objection to the moratorium.

Both countries target minke whales, which have a global

population of approximately 750 000 and thus could support

a sustainable harvest. At the 1994 IWC meeting, the

organisation’s scientific committee presented a Revised

Management Procedure that would allow quotas to be issued

for minke whales while guaranteeing total protection of heavily

depleted species. However, at the meeting the IWC voted in

favour of a Southern Ocean Sanctuary for whales, covering an

area of 28 million square kilometres and to be reviewed every

10 years (an Indian Ocean Sanctuary had been declared in

1992.) Japan was the only member country to vote against the

sanctuary, and has continued to take up to 440 minke whales

from Antarctic waters each year for “scientific research”,

although the meat is sold in Japan where it fetches high prices

as a delicacy.

In 1656 Jan van Riebeeck instructed that a signal fire be lit on

Robben Island to warn mariners of this shipping hazard as they

a p p roached the Cape Colony settlement on the shores of Ta b l e

Bay. Wood fires were later followed by coal fires, and it was

not until the 18th century that these bonfire beacons were

replaced by specially designed lamps burning animal or

vegetable oil, or even banks of candles, as maritime

navigation devices. Later still, in the mid-19th century,

p e t roleum-based oils were introduced, but today all lighthouses

are fully automated and have electric lamps. Only 12 of the

45 existing lighthouses along our coast are still manned by

lighthouse keepers.

Lighthouses have a revolving lamp and

lens system that concentrate the beam

and produce a flash when its direction

coincides with the observers’ line of

vision. An international system of

timed revolutions and flashes

was developed that allows each lighthouse to be identified at

night according to its characteristic flashing pattern. The

intensity of the beam is measured in terms of Candle Power

(CD). Lighthouses are also painted different colours so that

they can be recognised during the day. Many have foghorns,

radar reflectors and radio beacons as extra navigational aids.

The last South African lighthouse to be commissioned was the

one at Groenriviermond on the West Coast, as recently as

1988. With the introduction of sophisticated global positioning

systems (GPS), the role of lighthouses in maritime navigation

has been reduced, but they nevertheless represent an

important historical facet of our coastal heritage.

Green Point lighthouse

The first formal lighthouse to be built on the South African coast

was the one at Green Point in Cape Town (not to be confused

with the lighthouse of the same name near Aliwal Shoal in

KwaZulu-Natal). It was commissioned in 1824 and has

undergone numerous changes during its lifetime. Apart from

i m p rovements to the optics, the lighthouse has changed colour

several times in an attempt to make it stand out against the

surrounding structures in this built-up area. Today it is painted

with red and white diagonal stripes. A diaphone-type foghorn

was installed in 1926, despite opposition from local

residents, who feared that it would disturb their sleep.

This was replaced by an electrically operated nauto-

p h o n e in 1986. The lighthouse beam has a range

of 25 nautical miles and an intensity of 850 000

CD, with one flash every 10 seconds.

n the days when the seas around the southern

tip of Africa represented a vital trade route to

and from the East, countless ships ran aground

along South Africa’s treacherous coastline. Indeed,

the challenge of rounding the Cape Peninsula was

dreaded by generations of sailors, who dubbed it

the Cape of Storms and longed for the sheltered

waters of Table Bay.

ILighthouses


2A

On 1 July 1966, when the SA Seafarer was wrecked on the

rocks just off Green Point during a north-westerly gale, the

rotating beam of the lighthouse was stopped and focussed

on the ship to provide illumination as the crew

were winched to safety by helicopters.

The second lighthouse to be built in

South Africa was at nearby Mouille

Point in 1842. It was dismantled in the

1920s because it was considered unsatisfactory

by masters of ships entering and leaving Table Bay, and by this

time the Robben Island lighthouse was operational (1865).

Cape Agulhas lighthouse

This lighthouse stands on the southernmost tip of the African

continent. It was the third South African lighthouse to be

commissioned, in 1849, following a spate of shipping accidents

on the area’s dangerous reefs. Indeed, between 1673 and

1990 over 124 ships have been wrecked within an 80 km

radius of Cape Agulhas, testimony to the fact that this is the

most hazardous section of the South African coast to navigate.

The lighthouse was declared structurally unsafe in the 1960s

and was decommissioned when it was replaced by a lantern

on an adjacent aluminium tower in 1968. However, during the

1980s it was restored and equipped for fully automatic

operation. Today the beam has a range of 30 nautical miles

and an intensity of 7 500 000 CD. It flashes once every five

s e c o n d s . The building is painted in red and white bands.

The lighthouse was declared a National Monument in 1973,

and has also been included in the recently proclaimed

Agulhas National Park. It houses a lighthouse and maritime

museum. At nearby Bredasdorp there is a shipwreck museum

with a fascinating collection of artefacts from ships that

foundered off Agulhas.

Cape Recife lighthouse

This lighthouse, at the entrance to Port Elizabeth’s Algoa Bay,

was the fourth lighthouse to be commissioned by the Cape

colonial government, in 1851. The tower is octagonal in

shape and since 1929 has been painted in black and white

bands, although it was initially red and white. The original

optic apparatus is still in use, and includes a red sector that

warns mariners of the shipping hazard imposed by Roman

Rock. It was electrified in 1938.

Another lighthouse in Algoa Bay is the one on Bird

Island, a small rocky island with large gannet

and penguin colonies. The initial wooden

lighthouse commissioned in 1852 was

replaced by a masonry tower in 1873.

Today it is painted red and white.

The Hill Lighthouse

This lighthouse stands on the Donkin Reserve on the slope

above the port, was withdrawn from service in 1973 because

its beam could not be clearly distinguished from the lights of

the densely built-up area surrounding it. It was built in 1861

alongside the Pyramid, a monument built by Sir Rufane

Donkin to his late wife.

Facts about South African lighthouses:

• Strongest beam: Cape Point lighthouse, Cape Peninsula

(10 000 000 CD)

• Most isolated manned lighthouse: Dassen Island

lighthouse, West Coast (11 km offshore)

• First lighthouse to be automated: Green Point lighthouse,

Kwazulu Natal (1961)

• Only diaphone-type fog signal still in operation: Cape

Columbine lighthouse, West Coast

• Tallest lighthouse tower: Slangkop lighthouse, Cape

Peninsula (100 ft / 30,5 m)

• Northernmost lighthouse: Jesser Point, KwaZulu-Natal

• Only lighthouse on a rock: Roman Rock, False Bay,

Western Cape

• Only female lightkeeper: Mrs Coward, St Lucia lighthouse,

KwaZulu-Natal (1940s)

• Most unique colour: Cape Vidal lighthouse, KwaZulu-Natal

(yellow)

Author: Sue Matthews September 2000

FURTHER INFORMATION: • Portnet Lighthouse Services, Cape Town. tel. (021) 449 5171, fax 449 3663.

• Williams, H. 1993. Southern Lights: Lighthouses of southern Africa. William Waterman Publications, Rivonia.

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Safety at Sea • Ocean Hazards • Our Coast: A National Heritage


The Legend of Hole in the Wall

Xhosa mythology tells of the water or sea people, semi-deities

who resemble humans but who have supple wrists and

ankles and flipperlike hands and feet. They are generally kind

people, although they have been known to be mischievous

and delight in teasing mere mortals. As legend would have it,

t h e re was once a beautiful girl who lived in a village on the Wi l d

Coast. Her village was situated near a large lagoon which

was cut off from the sea by a huge cliff. She was so fair that

one of the water people fell in love with her and persuaded

her to come and live with him in the sea. But, when her angry

father discovered this unnatural liaison he forbade her to see

her lover or to leave the village. One night, when the tide was

high, the water people came to the sheer cliff which towered

above the shores of the lagoon, bringing with them a great

fish. Using its enormous head, this mighty creature rammed a

gaping hole in the wall, and through this breach poured the

water people, singing and shouting. All the villagers hid in

fear, except for the lovesick girl who rushed down the shore

into the arms of her lover. She was never seen again.

With the passing of time, the sea eroded the walls of the cliff,

but the hole breached by the fish remains. The amaXhosa

who live there today call the place esiKhaleni (the place of the

sound); they say that on certain nights the voices of the water

people can still be heard as they stream through their hole on

their quest for the young girl.

How The Mountain Got Its Table Cloth

A legend of European origin is the story of the ‘table cloth’ that

frequently covers Table Mountain. It is said that the confirmed

old smoker and re t i red pirate, Van Hunks, still haunts the clump

of rocks on the saddle of land that connects Table Mountain

to Devil’s Peak. Legend has it that Van Hunks, calabash pipe in

hand and a keg of the finest shag tobacco cradled between

his legs, once challenged the devil to smoke more than he

could at one sitting. Together they sat, high on the mountain,

puffing away until the sun went down over the ocean and the

moon rose over the Tygerberg. By morning the entire top of

Table Mountain was hidden beneath billowing clouds. Although

Van Hunks grew red and sweaty, his companion was in a far

worse state; he finally rolled off his boulder begging for a

drink. The devil was so angered by his defeat that, after

revealing his identity to Van Hunks, he disappeared in a great

blaze of lightning, taking the gnarled old smoker with him.

From that day on, when the southeaster blows, those who

are old and wise will look up at the tumbling white cloud and

exclaim: ‘The devil and Van Hunks are at it again!’

ythology goes far beyond the telling of tall

stories; it is through myths that human

m i n d s are able to confront the mystery of the

universe and the riddles of life. Little wonder

then that South Africans of all colours and creeds

have stories to tell about the wonders of the sea

and seashore. These are some of them:

MMyths and Legends


2A

Stories that wash up on beaches

T h ree of the more unusual items that wash up on South African

beaches are so loved by beach strollers, shell collectors and

even traditional healers, that they have been aff o rded legendary

status. These are the seabean, the paper nautilus and the

pansy shell.

The glossy brown s e a b e a n is found on beaches f rom KwaZulu-

Natal to Cape Point. The bean is round, flat and shiny and quite

often encrusted with coralline algae, barnacles and other marine

organisms. The seabean is the seed of the creeper Entada gigas

which g rows along river banks in the forests of Mozambique

and other parts of East Africa. To propagate itself, the creeper

drops its seeds into rivers which carry them down to the sea.

The seeds wash up on our beaches after spending years at

sea. It is not uncommon to come across the seabean in

curio shops where they are fashioned into necklaces or

even keyrings. But traditional healers value the seabean for

its magical properties, using it in

bone-throwing ceremonies and other practices.

True nautiluses do not occur in southern African

waters, but the paper nautilus, A r g o n a u t a argo, a

relative of the octopus, is common in our waters.

The delicate, paper-like shells of these animals fre-

quently wash up on our shores and are highly sought

after by collectors. According to legend, the nautilus

shells sailed on the sea like Jason’s ship the Argo –

hence their scientific name, Argonauta. (Jason, a figure of

classical mythology, sailed a fifty-oared ship to fetch the gold-

en fleece from Colchis.) It was believed that two of

the animal’s long tentacles, which can be spread out into

iridescent fans, were held aloft like sails to catch the breeze.

The pansy shell (Echinodiscus bisperforatus) is commonly

found on the beaches of Plettenberg Bay and has become a n

emblem for the town. The fragile shells have a perfect five-petal

pansy-like design on its upper surface. The pansy shell is closely

related to the sea urchin. When alive it is purple in colour and

covered with short, thin spines that give it a furry appearance.

When the animal dies the spines fall off and the shell is bleached

white – producing the pansies that are washed onto the beach.

The pansy shell lives in shallow lagoons, bays and estuaries

and is a prized collectors piece. The ‘sand dollar’ is a closely

related species found along the coast of Californ i a. The

Plettenberg Bay tourism authorities cleverly market their town’s

emblem, saying that when one finds a pansy shell one

becomes part of the town. And, when a pansy shell is given as

a gift, the recipient is welcomed as a special visitor to the town.

The story of the Abelungu

The arrival of white men caused great consternation among

some of the amaZulu people. They believed the newcomers to

be cannibals who had risen up out of the sea to seek human

prey ‘Here comes the white animal to eat you!’ was a threat

which was guaranteed to subdue the wildest child. The story

of the sea animals persisted for many years as an eff e c t i v e

method of chastising children. The pre s e n t term for white men

is still abelungu, meaning sea creatures.

The legend of Old Tiptoes

This story originates in Kalk Bay, a fishing village

on the Cape Peninsula. Here a fishermen was

nicknamed ‘Old Tiptoes’ because of his peculiar

manner of walking. When asked why his heels

never touched the ground, he would feign deafness

and turn away. The following story explains why…

T h e re lived in Kalk Bay a snoek fisherman, Gamat,

and his wife, Radiwa. Gamat sold the snoek that

he caught for a living, but only after his wife had

chosen the best of the catch to salt and eat. One night

the most select of these fish, which were hung on her

stoep to dry, was stolen, and the following night, another.

When her snoek continued to go missing and the police

were unable to catch the thief, Radiwa consulted a

sorcerer called Jamut. After hearing her story Jamut

p ronounced that the thief would come once more, for the last

time. When another snoek d i s a p p e a red a few days later and

Radiwa reported this to Jamut, he asked her to accompany him

to the harbour. The boats were at the jetty and the fishermen

w e re unloading their catches and selling to the crowds. Jamut

pointed out the offender to Radiwa: “There he is,” he said,

“but leave him, he has already been punished.” Radiwa saw

a man called Wari whom she knew quite well. As she looked at

him, he moved away – jerkily and on his toes. The expression

of misery and guilt on his face made it only too clear that he

was the culprit. Whatever the cause of this peculiar change in

Wari, it is certain that he never walked normally again.

Author: Claire Attwood September 2000

FURTHER INFORMATION: • Miller, P. 1979. Myths and Legends of Southern Africa. T.V. Bulpin Publications (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town.

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • Sea Urchins • Cephalopods • Wild Coast • Snoek


Seabean

Paper Nautilus

Pansy shell

PortEl izabeth

EastLondon

Durban

RichardsBay

MosselBay

Cape Town

Bokpunt

0 200 400km

Historical Context

A rchaeological evidence in the form of hand axes and cleavers

reveal that the area now known as South Africa was populated

in the Early Stone Age, between 2 million and 125 000 years

ago. These stone tools are found mainly along river banks,

near springs, and in hollows between coastal sand dunes.

Tools characteristic of the Middle Stone Age, the period from

125 000 to 20 000 years ago, reveal that people later lived in

caves along the coast. The remains of shellfish, seals and

seabirds in the caves indicate that these resources were an

important part of the diet of these coastal dwellers.

During the last ice age from about 50 000 years ago there is a

gap in evidence of the prehistoric occupation at the coast. This

is probably because the sea level was lower and the coasts

further away. About 15 000 years ago people of the Late Stone

Age were utilising marine re s o u rces, as indicated by numero u s

shell middens along the coast. Most are located within 300 m

of the high water mark, although some occur up to 5 km fro m

the coast. While middens consist primarily of shellfish re m a i n s ,

they have also yielded marine and terrestrial mammal re m a i n s ,

stone artefacts, bone tools and pottery. These middens are

often referred to as Strandloper sites, but it is unlikely that the

coastal dwellers were a separate ethnic group, as the San,

Khoekhoe and the first black agriculturalists all made use of

marine resources for at least part of the year.

Some 2 000 years ago the San hunter-gatherers turned to

pastoralism by acquiring livestock from Bantu tribes migrating

southwards. The Khoekhoe migrated down the west coast,

where they were the first indigenous people encountered by

the Dutch settlers who colonised the Cape in 1652. On the

other side of the continent, Bantu tribes who had been living

south of the Limpopo River for the previous 1500 years

migrated southward and eastward. The Nguni (Zulu, Xhosa,

Swazi and Ndebele) occupied what is now KwaZulu-Natal

and the Eastern Cape.

The settlement of people from Europe and Asia increased

substantially during the nineteenth century, and gave rise to

expanding cities around the ports of Durban, East London,

Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. In the 1860s Indian labourers

arrived to work on the sugar plantations of KwaZulu-Natal.

During the middle and late twentieth century, apartheid policy

explicitly denied economic resources and social services to

“homeland” regions and other designated black areas, leaving

these regions undeveloped and with inadequate infrastructure .

The economic centre of the country was concentrated in the

interior, with the coastal cities playing a supportive role.

The transition to a democratic Government in 1994 allowed

all South Africans to enjoy equal rights of access to the coast

and its re s o u rces. Our coast is now divided into four pro v i n c e s

outh Africa has one of the highest coastal

population densities in Africa – about 81

people per square kilometre, compared to the average

density for Africa of 55 per square kilometre.

SPopulation around the Coast


2A

Thirteen coastal regions defined for the purposes of the Coastal Management Policy Programme

NAMAQUALAND: low population, semi-desertarea, diamond-mining.

WEST COAST: low population, arid, small fishing towns, industrialdevelopment at SaldanhaBay.

CAPE METRO: Densepopulation around CapeTown, over 2.5 million people, port in Table Bay.

AGULHAS COAST:Scenic, small growingtowns, retirement centre, seasonal holiday andtourism.

MAPUTALAND COAST:Poor rural, under-development, subsistence activities.

ZULULAND COAST: Poorrural, Richards Bay port,light and heavy industry,mining, sugar-cane andtimber.

DOLPHIN COAST: Rapidlydeveloping region, holidayand tourism, agriculture,light industry and woodproducts.

DURBAN METRO:Expanding urban centre,over 2,5 million people,tourism, industry, port.

HIBISCUS COAST: Coastalstrip well-developed forseasonal tourism andrecreation, hinterland rural,large unemployed population.

GARDEN ROUTE:Scenic, small growing towns,Mossgas refinery atMossel Bay, seasonalholiday and tourism.

SUNSHINE COAST:Few urban centres, undevelopedcoastal areas, eco-nomic and industrialcentre at PortElizabeth.

BORDER-KEI: Ruralarea, East Londonmain centre, smalltowns and resorts.

WILD COAST: Poorrural, few towns andresorts, subsistenceagriculture and fishing, income frompensioners andmigrant labourerworking outside theregion.

– Northern Cape, We s t e rn Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-

Natal – but much of the present social character can be re l a t e d

to the previous political divisions, namely the previously white-

governed Cape Province and Natal Province and the former

black homeland areas of Ciskei, Transkei and KwaZulu.

Population and Culture

It is currently estimated that 30% of South Africa's population

live within 60 km of the coast. According to available 1996

census data, the South African population is made up of

approximately 38 million people, of whom about 20% live in

KwaZulu-Natal, 15.5% in the Eastern Cape, 11% in the

Western Cape and 2% in the Northern Cape.

The coastal population can be divided into four major language

groups. While the west coast is mainly Afrikaans-speaking,

the Eastern Cape is mainly Xhosa-speaking and KwaZulu-

Natal mainly Zulu-speaking; English is commonly spoken in

urban centres along the coast. This simple breakdown does

not, however, convey the rich diversity of cultures and traditions

among coastal communities. Many of our coastal towns and

cities are characterised by a variety of language and cultural

backgrounds.

Cities and Towns

Most of the coastal population is concentrated in the cities of

Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban, which

together are inhabited by over 6 million people. All four cities

are experiencing rapid population growth, their populations

likely to double in the next 25 to 30 years. This will result not

only in an increase in population density, but an expansion of

urban areas along the coast as well as inland. The cities of

Cape Town and Durban already serve vast hinterlands, with

growing urbanisation.

Other emerging coastal cities include Saldanha Bay, Richards

Bay and Mossel Bay. While Mossel Bay on the south coast has

grown around its small fishing harbour and, more recently,

o ff s h o re reserves of natural gas, Richards Bay on the KwaZulu-

Natal north coast and Saldanha Bay on the west coast are

both specialised deep-water ports serving heavy industry.

Settlement Patterns

Between these major cities the coast is sparsely settled,

particularly on the west coast, which is a harsh, semi-desert

bathed by the cold waters of the Benguela upwelling system.

During holiday seasons, however, there is a large influx of

people and the population of coastal towns rises dramatically.

Population density is highest on the KwaZulu-Natal coast

because of the relative proximity to Gauteng, as well as the

area’s sub-tropical climate and warm seas owing to the

influence of the Agulhas current. Many coastal towns serve

as holiday, tourism and recreational destinations, and home-

owners are absent for most of the year.

While a number of these smaller towns evolved in association

with fishing, agriculture or mining activities, most of our coast

can be characterised as rural. The percentage of the population

living in rural areas in the coastal provinces is 63% in the

Eastern Cape, 61% in KwaZulu-Natal, 30% in the Northern

Cape and 10% in the Western Cape. Rural settlements

include farmsteads associated with commercial agriculture,

and traditional housing in former ‘homeland’ areas of the

Transkei, Ciskei and KwaZulu, where communities live in a

subsistence economy.

The boom in the outdoor recreation and tourism markets

(non-consumptive use of re s o u rces) has led to intense intere s t

in the development potential of the coast. In line with the

White Paper for Sustainable Coastal Development in South

Africa, alternative livelihoods for coastal communities and

non-consumptive use of our rich coastal resources are given

high priority by all spheres of government.

Author: Sue Matthews February 2001

FURTHER INFORMATION:• White Paper for sustainable Coastal Development in South Africa, 2000. Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism

• Lubke, R.A. & de Moor, I. (Eds) 1998. Field Guide to the Eastern & Southern Cape Coasts. University of Cape Town Press. http://sacoast.wcape.gov.za

RELATED FACTSHEETS: • National Coastal Policy • Development along the Coast • Tourism along the Coast • Value of the Coast • Strandlopers and Shell Middens

• Impacts of Human Activity on the Coast


c u lt u r e a n d h i s t o r y our coast: a …...• south african museum, p.o. box 61, cape town...

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