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C++ For Artists


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C++ For ArtistsThe Art, Philosophy, and Science of Object-Oriented Programming

Pulp Free PressFalls Church, Virginia

RicK Miller


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Pulp Free Press, Falls Church, Virginia 22042www.pulpfreepress.com

[email protected]

2003 Richard Warren Miller & Pulp Free Press All Rights Reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without prior written permission from the publisher.

First edition published 2003

16 14 12 10 08 06 04 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Pulp Free Press offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information regarding

sales contact [email protected].

The eBook/PDF edition of this book may be licensed for bulk distribution. For whole or partial content licensing

information contact [email protected] .

Publisher Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Prepared by Pulp Free Press

Miller, Rick, 1961 -C++ For Artists: The Art, Philosophy, and Science of Object-Oriented

Programming.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN: 1-932504-02-8 (pbk)

1. C++ (Computer program language) 2. Object-Oriented Programming(Computer Science) I. Title.QA76.73.C153M555 2003005.13'3--dc21 2003093826

CIP

The source code provided in this book is intended for instructional purposes only. Although every possible measure

was made by the author to ensure the programming examples contain source code of only the highest caliber, no

warranty is offered, expressed, or implied regarding the quality of the code.

All product names mentioned in this book are trademark names of their respective owners.

C++ For Artists was meticulously crafted on a Macintosh PowerMac G4 using Adobe FrameMaker, Adobe Illustra-

tor, Macromedia Freehand, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Acrobat, Embarcadero Technologies Describe, ObjectPlant,

Microsoft Word, Maple, and VirtualPC. Photos were taken with a Nikon F3HP, a Nikon FM, a Nikon CoolPix 800,

and a Contax T3. C++ source code examples prepared using Metrowerks CodeWarrior for Macintosh, Apple OSX

developer tools, and Tenon Intersystems CodeBuilder. Java code examples prepared using Suns Java 2 Standard

Edition (J2SE) command line tool suite. Assembly language examples prepared using Microsoft Macro Assembler(MASM).

ISBN 1-932504-00-1 First eBook/PDF Edition

ISBN 1-932504-01-X First CD ROM Edition

ISBN 1-932504-02-8 First Paper Back Edition


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To Coralie and Kyle for their eternal patience


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C++ For Artists

2003 Rick Miller All Rights Reserved

vii

Preface

Welcome And Thank You! .................................................................................................................................xlviiTarget Audience ...................................................................................................................................................xlviiApproach ............................................................................................................................................................xlviiArrangement ........................................................................................................................................................xlviii

Part I: The C++ Student Survival Guide ................................................................................................... ...........................................xlviii

Chapter 1: An Approach To The Art Of Programming .......................................................................................................................................................xlviiiChapter 2: Small Victories: Creating Projects With IDEs ..................................................................................................................................................xlviiiChapter 3: Project Walkthrough: An Extended Example .....................................................................................................................................................xlviiiChapter 4: Computers, Programs, and Algorithms ............................................................................................................................................................xlviii

Part II: C++ Language Fundamentals ....................................................................................................................................................xlix

Chapter 5: Simple Programs................................................................................................................................................................................................xlixChapter 6: Controlling The Flow Of Program Execution..................................................................................................................................................xlix

Chapter 7: Pointers And References....................................................................................................................................................................................xlixChapter 8: Arrays................................................................................................................................................................................................................xlixChapter 9: Functions ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................xlixChapter 10: Toward Problem Abstraction: Creating New Data Types................................................................................................................................xlixChapter 11: Dissecting Classes .............................................................................................................................................................................................lChapter 12: Compositional Design......................................................................................................................................................................................lChapter 1 3: Extending Class Functionality Through Inheritance..........................................................................................................................................l

Part III: Implementing Polymorphic Behavior ........................................................................................... ........................................... l

Chapter 14: Ad Hoc Polymorphism: Operator Overloading .............................................................................................................................................lChapter 15: Static Polymorphism: Templates ........................................................................................................................................................................lChapter 16: Dynamic Polymorphism: Object-Oriented Programming .................................................................................................................................li

Part IV: Intermediate Concepts ............................................................................................................................................................li

Chapter 17: Well-Behaved Objects: The Orthodox Canonical Class Form..........................................................................................................................liChapter 18: Mixed Language Programming .........................................................................................................................................................................liChapter 19: Three Design Principles....................................................................................................................................................................................liChapter 20: Using A UML Modeling Tool .........................................................................................................................................................................li

How To Read C++ For Artists ...........................................................................................................................liiPedagogy .............................................................................................................................................................liii

Chapter Layout ....................................................................................................................................................................................liii

Learning Objectives..............................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiIntroduction.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiContent ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiQuick Reviews ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiSummary ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiSkill-Building Exercises .........................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiSuggested Projects...............................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiSelf-Test Questions ................................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiReferences.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................liiiNotes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................liii

CD-ROM .............................................................................................................................................................livSupportSite Website ........................................................................................................................................livProblem Reporting ..............................................................................................................................................livAcknowledgements ...............................................................................................................................................lv

Part I: The C++ Student Survival Guide

1 An Approach To The Art Of Programming

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................4

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The Difficulties You Will Encounter Learning C++ .................................................................................................... .........................4

Required Skills .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................4The Planets Will Come Into Alignment..................................................................................................................................................................................4How This Chapter Will Help You ........................................................................................................................................................................................5

Project Management .............................................................................................................................................5

Three Software Development Roles ......................................................................................................................................................5

Analyst ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5Architect...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................5Programmer .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

A Project Approach Strategy ......................... ............................................................................................................ .........................6

You Have Been Handed A Project Now What?...............................................................................................................................................................6Strategy Areas of Concern..................................................................................................................................................................................................6Think Abstractly....................................................................................................................................................................................................................7

The Strategy In A Nutshell ....................................................................................................................................................................7Applicability To The Real World ............................................................................................. ............................................................. 7

The Art of Programming .....................................................................................................................................8

Dont Start At The Computer ..............................................................................................................................................................8Inspiration Strikes At The Weirdest Time ..............................................................................................................................................8Own Your Own Computer .................................................................................................................................................................8

You Ei ther Have Time and No Money, or Money and No Time ..........................................................................................................................................8The Family Computer Is Not Going To Cut It! ....................................................................................................................................................................9

Set The Mood ......................................................................................................................................................................................9

Location, Location, Location ..............................................................................................................................................................................................9

Concept Of The Flow ..........................................................................................................................................................................9

The Stages of Flow ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................9

Be Extreme ............................................................................................................................................................................................10

The Programming Cycle.......................................................................................................................................................................................................10The Programming Cycle Summarized....................................................................................................................................................................................11

A Helpful Trick: Stubbing ....................................................................................................... ............................................................. 11Fix The First Compiler Error First ......................................................................................................................................................11

Managing Project Complexity ..............................................................................................................................11

Split Even Simple Projects Into Multiple Source Code Files ....................................................................................................... .......12

Separating a Classs Interface from its Implementation .........................................................................................................................................................12Benefits of Separating Interface from Implementation ...........................................................................................................................................................12Helpful Preprocessor Directives..........................................................................................................................................................................................13The Final Word on Preprocessor Directive Behavior ........................................................................................................................................................14

Project File Format ..............................................................................................................................................................................14

Header File ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................14Implementation File................................................................................................................................................................................................................15Main File...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................15

Commenting .........................................................................................................................................................................................16

C-Style Comments.................................................................................................................................................................................................................16C++-style Comments .............................................................................................................................................................................................................17Write Self-Commenting Code: Give Identifiers Meaningful Names ........................................................................................................................................17Adopt A Convention And Stick With It...............................................................................................................................................................................19Restrict The Number of Global Variables.............................................................................................................................................................................19Minimize Coupling, Maximize Cohesion...............................................................................................................................................................................19

Textbooks, Reference Books, and Quick Reference Guides ....................................................................................19Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................20Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................20Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................21Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................22References ............................................................................................................................................................22Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................23

2 Small Victories: Creating Projects With IDEs

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................26The Program Creation Process ...........................................................................................................................26Integrated Development Environments ...................................................................................................................27

Metrowerks CodeWarrior ..................................................................................................................................................................28Microsoft Visual C++ ..........................................................................................................................................................................32Intermission ..........................................................................................................................................................................................35Tenon Intersystems MachTen CodeBuilder ........................................................................................................................................36


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Attention Linux Users ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................36Organizing Project Files......................................................................................................................................................................................................37Creating Source Files ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................37Creating makefile ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................37

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................39Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................39Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................40Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................40

References ............................................................................................................................................................40Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................41

3 Project Walkthrough: An Extended Example

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................44The Project Approach Strategy ..........................................................................................................................44The Development Cycle .........................................................................................................................................45The Project Specification .....................................................................................................................................46

Analyzing The Project Specification ...................................................................... ...............................................................................47

Requirements.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................47Problem Domain ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................48Language Features.................................................................................................................................................................................................................50

Design (First Iteration) ........................................................................................................... ............................................................. 51Implementation (First Iteration) .............................................................................................................................................................53Testing (First Iteration) .........................................................................................................................................................................55Integration (First Iteration) ..................................................................................................................................................................55Design (Second Iteration) ....................................................................................................................................................................56

Function Stubbing ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................56Other Considerations ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................56

Implementation (Second Iteration) ........................................................................................................................................................57Testing (Second Iteration) ....................................................................................................................................................................59Integration (Second Iteration) .............................................................................................................................................................60Design (Third Iteration) .......................................................................................................................................................................60Implementation (Third Iteration) ...........................................................................................................................................................60Testing (Third Iteration) ........................................................................................................................................................................62Integration (Third Iteration) .................................................................................................................................................................64

Design (Fourth Iteration) .....................................................................................................................................................................64Implementation (Fourth Iteration) .........................................................................................................................................................66Testing (Fourth Iteration) .....................................................................................................................................................................68Integration (Fourth Iteration) ..............................................................................................................................................................68Design (Fifth Iteration) .........................................................................................................................................................................68Implementation (Fifth Iteration) .............................................................................................................................................................70Testing (Fifth Iteration) .........................................................................................................................................................................70Integration (Fifth Iteration) ..................................................................................................................................................................71

Wrapping Up The Project ...................................................................................................................................72Complete Robot Rat Source Code Listing ...........................................................................................................72Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................76Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................76Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................76Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................76

References ............................................................................................................................................................77Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................77

4 Computers, Programs, & Algorithms

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................80What Is A Computer? ..........................................................................................................................................80

Computer vs. Computer System ...........................................................................................................................................................80


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Computer System..................................................................................................................................................................................................................80Processor ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................82

Three Aspects of Computer Architecture .............................................................................................................................................83

Feature Set............................................................................................................................................................................................................................83Feature Set Implementation ..................................................................................................................................................................................................83Feature Set Accessibility .......................................................................................................................................................................................................83

What Is A Program? ...........................................................................................................................................83

Two Views of a Program ........................................................................................................ .............................................................84

Concept of Observable Behavior ........................................................................................................................................................84

The C++ Program Transformation Process .........................................................................................................85

Phase 1..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................85Phase 2.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................85Phase 3 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................85Phase 4 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................86Phase 5 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................86Phase 6.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................86Phase 7 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................86Phase 8.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................87Phase 9.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................87

The Processing Cycle ...........................................................................................................................................87

Fetch ....................................................................................................................................................................................................88Decode .................................................................................................................................................................................................88Execute .................................................................................................................................................................................................88Store ....................................................................................................................................................................................................88

Memory Organization ...........................................................................................................................................88

Memory Basics .....................................................................................................................................................................................88

Memory Hierarchy ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................89Bits, Bytes, Words ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................89

Alignment and Addressability ............................................................... ................................................................................................. 90

Algorithms ..........................................................................................................................................................91

Good vs. Bad Algorithms ....................................................................................................................................................................92

Dont Reinvent The Wheel! ...................................................................................................................................................................................................94

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................94Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................94Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................94Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................95References ............................................................................................................................................................95Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................95

Part II: C++ Language Fundamentals

5 Simple Programs

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................100A Minimal C++ Program ......................................................................................................................................100

Disassembly is a Great Learning Tool ....................................................................................................... ........................................... 101

Another C++ Program ........................................................................................................................................102

Parts of the Program ...........................................................................................................................................................................103

Comments .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................103Preprocessor Directive .......................................................................................................................................................................................................103Libraries ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................103Using Directive.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................103main() function......................................................................................................................................................................................................................103Constants .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................103Variables ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................103Statements and Expressions ..................................................................................................................................................................................................103

Keywords ............................................................................................................................................................104Fundamental Types ...............................................................................................................................................104

Determining Your Data Type Ranges ................................ ............................................................................................................ .......105Determining Data Type Size with thesi zeof

Operator ..................................................................................................................106


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Literals ................................................................................................................................................................106

Integer Literals ......................................................................................................................................................................................107

Decimal.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................107Octal ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................107Hexadecimal ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................107

A Word of Caution .............................................................................................. ............................................................................... 107Character Literals ................................................................................................................................................................................108

Single Character Literals......................................................................................................................................................................................................108

Multiple Character Literals...................................................................................................................................................................................................108Escape Sequences .................................................................................................................................................................................................................109

Floating Point Literals ..........................................................................................................................................................................110String Literals ......................................................................................................................................................................................111Boolean Literals ...................................................................................................................................................................................111

Expressions ..........................................................................................................................................................111Operators ...........................................................................................................................................................113

Operator Precedence ..........................................................................................................................................................................114Use Parentheses ....................................................................................................................................................................................115Multiplicative Operators ......................................................................................................................................................................116

Multiplication Operator.......................................................................................................................................................................................................116Division Operator ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................116Modulus Operator...............................................................................................................................................................................................................117

Additive Operators ............................................................................................... ............................................................................... 117

Addition Operator...............................................................................................................................................................................................................117Subtraction Operator .........................................................................................................................................................................................................118

Shift Operators ....................................................................................................................................................................................118

Left Shift Operator ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................118Right Shift Operator ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................119

Relational Operators ............................................................................................................................................................................120

Less Than Operator..............................................................................................................................................................................................................120Greater Than Operator........................................................................................................................................................................................................120Less Than or Equal To Operator .........................................................................................................................................................................................121Greater Than or Equal To Operator...................................................................................................................................................................................121

Equality Operators ..............................................................................................................................................................................121

Equal To Operator ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................121Not Equal To Operator.......................................................................................................................................................................................................121

Bitwise AND Operator - & ..................................................................................................................................................................121Bitwise Exclusive OR Operator - ^ ......................................................................................................................................................122Bitwise Inclusive OR Operator - | ........................................................................................................... ........................................... 122Logical AND Operator - && ...............................................................................................................................................................123Logical OR Operator - || ..................................................................................................................................................................123

Conditional Operator - ? : .................................................................................................... ............................................................. 123Assignment Operators ......................................................................... ................................................................................................. 124lvalue vs. rvalue .....................................................................................................................................................................................124

Compound Assignment Operators.......................................................................................................................................................................................125

Comma Operator - , ............................................................................................................................................................................125Increment and Decrement Operators (++, --) .......................................................................................................................................125

Identifiers ............................................................................................................................................................126

Identifier Naming Conventions .............................................................................................................................................................126

Hungarian Notation .............................................................................................................................................................................................................126

Constants ............................................................................................................................................................128Variables ..............................................................................................................................................................128

Declaring .............................................................................................................................................................................................128Scope ...................................................................................................................................................................................................128

Local Scope .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................129

Function Scope....................................................................................................................................................................................................................130File Scope ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................130

Multifile Variable Usage .......................................................................................................................................131

Sharing File Scope Variables Across Multiple Files .............................................................................................................................131Limiting File Scope Variable Visibility to One File ...................................................................................................... .........................131

The main() Function ..............................................................................................................................................132

The Purpose of the main() Function .....................................................................................................................................................132Two Forms of main() ............................................................................................................................................................................132Exiting main() ........................................................................................................................................................................................133Calling Functions Upon Exiting main() ................................................................................................................................................133


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Simple Input and Output ......................................................................................................................................133

cin ......................................................................................................................................................................................................134

Trapping Bad Input ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................134

cout ......................................................................................................................................................................................................135Learning More About cout and cin .....................................................................................................................................................135

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................135Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................136

Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................137Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................138References ............................................................................................................................................................138Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................139

6 Controlling The Flow of Program Execution

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................142Statements, Null Statements, and Compound Statements .......................................................................................142

Statements .............................................................................................................................................................................................142Null Statements .....................................................................................................................................................................................142Compound Statements ..........................................................................................................................................................................143

Selection Statements ............................................................................................................................................143

if Statement ...........................................................................................................................................................................................143

if Statements and Compound Statements ..............................................................................................................................................................................144

if-else Statement .....................................................................................................................................................................................145

Nesting if-else Statements .......................................................................................................................................................................................................146

switch Statement ...................................................................................................................................................................................147

Iteration Statements .............................................................................................................................................150

while Statement .....................................................................................................................................................................................150

Controlling while Statements with Sentinel Values ...............................................................................................................................................................151Nesting while Statements .......................................................................................................................................................................................................152Doing Something Forever ...................................................................................................................................................................................................152Exiting While Loops with the break Statement .....................................................................................................................................................................152

do Statement .........................................................................................................................................................................................155

Nesting do Statements ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................155

for Statement ........................................................................................................................................................................................155

Nesting for Statements..........................................................................................................................................................................................................157break ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................157Doing Something Forever with a for Statement ..................................................................................................................................................................157

continue ...............................................................................................................................................................................................158Avoiding break and continue ........ ............................................................................................................ ........................................... 158

Writing Elegant Code ..........................................................................................................................................158Labeled Statements ...............................................................................................................................................159

goto Statement .....................................................................................................................................................................................159Advice on Using Goto .........................................................................................................................................................................................................159

Control Statement Usage Guide ...........................................................................................................................160Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................160Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................161Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................162Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................163References ............................................................................................................................................................164

Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................164

7 Pointers and ReferencesIntroduction ........................................................................................................................................................166But First, A Short Story ....................................................................................................................................166What is an object? ...............................................................................................................................................................................167What is a memory address? ..................................................................................................................................................................168How do you determine an objects memory address? ................................................................................................ .........................169


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What is a pointer? ...............................................................................................................................................................................171How do you declare a pointer? ..........................................................................................................................................................172How do you access the object a pointer points to? ......................... ................................................................................................. 173How do you dynamically create and delete objects? ............................................ ............................................................................... 174

The new Operator................................................................................................................................................................................................................175A Neat Trick: Calling Object Constructors ........................................................................................................................................................................177

Whats the difference between a pointer and a reference? ................................................................................................................... 177How do you declare and use references? ................................................................................................ ........................................... 178Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................178Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................179Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................179Self Test ..............................................................................................................................................................180References ............................................................................................................................................................180Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................181

8 ArraysIntroduction ........................................................................................................................................................184What Is An Array? ..............................................................................................................................................184Locating Array Elements .......................................................................................................................................................................185

Declaring & Defining Statically Allocated Arrays ................................................................................................185Single-Dimensional Arrays ....................................................................................................................................................................185Accessing Array Elements ........................................................................................................ ............................................................. 186

Subscript Method ................................................................................................................................................................................................................186Pointer Arithmetic Method ..................................................................................................................................................................................................187

Beware the Uninitialized Array! ............................................................................................................................................................187Combining Array Definition with Array Declaration ................................................................................................. .........................187Arrays of Pointers ................................................................................................ ............................................................................... 188Multi-Dimensional Arrays ......................................................................................................................................................................189

Arrays of Two Dimensions ...................................................................................................................................................................................................189Arrays of Three or More Dimensions ..................................................................................................................................................................................191

Automatic Initialization of Multi-Dimensional Arrays .................................................................................. ........................................... 193Declaring and Defining Dynamic Arrays ...............................................................................................................196Dynamically Allocated Single Dimensional Arrays ................................................................................................................................196Dynamically Allocated Multi-Dimensional Arrays ..................................................................................................................................197Strings ................................................................................................................................................................200Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................200Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................201Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................202Self Test Questions ..............................................................................................................................................203References ............................................................................................................................................................203Notes ...................................................................................................................................................................204

9 FunctionsIntroduction ........................................................................................................................................................206What is a Function? .............................................................................................................................................206Interface vs. Implementation ..................................................................................................................................................................207

Put Function Interface Declarations in Header Fi les............................................................................................................................................................207#ifndef...#define....#endif .....................................................................................................................................................................................................207Put Function Definitions in Implementation Files..................................................................................................................................................................207

Characteristics of a Well-Written Function ..........................................................................................................................................208Declaring and Defining Functions .........................................................................................................................208Naming Functions .................................................................................................................................................................................208Function Declaration ...........................................................................................................................................................................209Function Definition ..............................................................................................................................................................................209Function Calling ..................................................................................................................................................................................209


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A Complete Example ...................... ............................................................................................................ ...........................................210Quick Review .......................................................................................................................................................................................211Local Function Variable Scoping ..........................................................................................................................212Declaring Local Variables ....................................................................................................................................................................212Hiding Global Variables with Local Variables .................. ............................................................................................................ .......212Using Scoping Blocks in Functions ....................................................................................................................................................212Static Function Variables .....................................................................................................................................................................213

Scope of Function Parameters .............................................................................................................................................................214Quick Review .......................................................................................................................................................................................215Passing Arguments to Functions ..........................................................................................................................215Function Calling ..................................................................................................................................................................................215

Responsibilities of the Calling Function ...............................................................................................................................................................................216Responsibilities of the Called Function ................................................................................................................................................................................216

Passing Arguments by Value .................................................................................................................................................................216Another Example...................................................................................................................................................................................................................218

Passing Arguments by Reference ..........................................................................................................................................................219Continuing The Story... .......................................................................................................................................................................................................220Passing Pointers...................................................................................................................................................................................................................220Passing References................................................................................................................................................................................................................221

Passing Arrays to Functions ................................................................................................................................................................222Passing Multi-Dimensional Arrays To Functions ...................................................................................................................................223Another Example .......................................................................................................................................................... .........................224

Using Function Return Values ..............................................................................................................................225Returning Objects ................................................................................................................................................................................226The return Keyword: Mantra on Proper Usage ..................................................................................................................................................................226Another Example...................................................................................................................................................................................................................227

Returning Pointers ...............................................................................................................................................................................227How Not To Return a Pointer From A Function: Avoiding the Dangling Reference..........................................................................................................229

Returning References ............................................................................................................................................................................229Quick Review .......................................................................................................................................................................................230Function Overloading ..........................................................................................................................................231Calling Functions Recursively ...............................................................................................................................232Another Example .......................................................................................................................................................... .........................233Function Pointers ................................................................................................................................................234Declaring Function Pointers ...............................................................................................................................................................235Assigning The Address of a Function to a Function Pointer ...................................................................................... .........................235Calling the Function via the Function Pointer ........................................................................................................... .........................236

Arrays of Function Pointers ................................................................................................... .............................................................236Implementing Callback Functions with Function Pointers ............................................................................................................ .......237Creating A Function Library ................................................................................................................................239Steps to Creating a Library .................................................................................................................................................................239

Create Empty Project...........................................................................................................................................................................................................239Add Implementation File ........................................................................................................................................................................................................240Set Library Target Settings...................................................................................................................................................................................................240Name Library and Set Project Type .....................................................................................................................................................................................241Build the Project..................................................................................................................................................................................................................241Use the Library.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................241

Summary ..............................................................................................................................................................242Skill Building Exercises ........................................................................................................................................242Suggested Projects ..............................................................................................................................................243EISCS MKI Language Set .....................................................................................................................................................................244Sample Program ............................................................................................................................................................................

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