by: christina, sunny, & ann skeletal, muscular, nervous, and integumentary systems

By: Christina, By: Christina, Sunny, & AnnSunny, & Ann

Skeletal, Skeletal, Muscular, Muscular,

Nervous, and Nervous, and Integumentary Integumentary

SystemsSystems

The Skeletal The Skeletal SystemSystem

Animal skeletons Animal skeletons function in support, function in support,

protection, and movementprotection, and movement

Most land animals would sag Most land animals would sag from their own weight if they from their own weight if they had no skeleton to support had no skeleton to support them. Even an animal that lives them. Even an animal that lives in water would become a in water would become a formless mass with no formless mass with no framework/skeleton to support framework/skeleton to support and maintain its shape.and maintain its shape.

In many animals, a hard In many animals, a hard skeleton provides protection skeleton provides protection for soft tissues. For example, for soft tissues. For example, the vertebrate skull protects the vertebrate skull protects the brain, and the ribs of the brain, and the ribs of terrestrial vertebrates form a terrestrial vertebrates form a cage around the heart, lungs, cage around the heart, lungs, and other internal organs.and other internal organs.

Skeletons also aid in the Skeletons also aid in the movement by giving muscles movement by giving muscles something firm to work against.something firm to work against.

Skeletons Skeletons There are three main There are three main types of skeletons:types of skeletons:

Hydrostatic skeletonsHydrostatic skeletons ExoskeletonsExoskeletons EndoskeletonsEndoskeletons

Hydrostatic SkeletonsHydrostatic Skeletons

SS

A Hydrostatic skeleton consists A Hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment.closed body compartment.

This is the main type of skeleton in most cnidarians , This is the main type of skeleton in most cnidarians , flatworms, nematodes, and annelids. These animals control flatworms, nematodes, and annelids. These animals control their form and movement by using muscles to change the shape their form and movement by using muscles to change the shape of fluid filled compartments.of fluid filled compartments.

Among cnidarians, a hydra can elongate by closing its mouth Among cnidarians, a hydra can elongate by closing its mouth and using contractile cells in the body wall to constrict the and using contractile cells in the body wall to constrict the central gastrovascular cavity. central gastrovascular cavity.

In planarians, the interstitial fluid is kept under pressure In planarians, the interstitial fluid is kept under pressure and functions as the main hydrostatic skeleton. The planarian and functions as the main hydrostatic skeleton. The planarian movement results mainly from muscles in the body wall exerting movement results mainly from muscles in the body wall exerting localized forces against the hydrostatic skeleton.localized forces against the hydrostatic skeleton.

Nematodes hold fluid in their body cavity, which is a Nematodes hold fluid in their body cavity, which is a pseudocoelom.pseudocoelom.

In annelids and earthworms, the coelomic fluid functions as a In annelids and earthworms, the coelomic fluid functions as a hydrostatic skeleton. The coelomic cavity is divided by septa hydrostatic skeleton. The coelomic cavity is divided by septa between the segments in many annelids, allowing the animal to between the segments in many annelids, allowing the animal to change the shape of each segment individually, using both change the shape of each segment individually, using both circular and longitudinal muscles. These annelids use their circular and longitudinal muscles. These annelids use their hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis. hydrostatic skeleton for peristalsis.

ExoskeletonsExoskeletons EE

An exoskeleton is a hard An exoskeleton is a hard encasement deposited on the surface encasement deposited on the surface

of an animal of an animal As an animal grows, it enlarges the shell by adding to As an animal grows, it enlarges the shell by adding to

its outer edge. its outer edge. Clams close their hinged shell using muscles attached Clams close their hinged shell using muscles attached

to the inside of this exoskeleton.to the inside of this exoskeleton. The jointed exoskeleton of arthropods is a cuticle, a The jointed exoskeleton of arthropods is a cuticle, a

non-living coat secreted by the epidermis. Muscles are non-living coat secreted by the epidermis. Muscles are attached to knobs and plates of the cuticle that extend attached to knobs and plates of the cuticle that extend into the interior of the body. into the interior of the body.

About thirty to fifty percent of the cuticle consist of About thirty to fifty percent of the cuticle consist of chitin, a polysaccharide similar to cellulose. Fibrils chitin, a polysaccharide similar to cellulose. Fibrils of chitin are embedded in a protein matrix, forming a of chitin are embedded in a protein matrix, forming a composite material that combines strength and composite material that combines strength and flexibility. Where protection is the most important, flexibility. Where protection is the most important, the cuticle is hardened with organic compounds that the cuticle is hardened with organic compounds that cross link the proteins of the exoskeleton.cross link the proteins of the exoskeleton.

Some crustaceans, such as lobsters, harden portions of Some crustaceans, such as lobsters, harden portions of their exoskeleton even more by adding calcium salts.their exoskeleton even more by adding calcium salts.

EndoskeletonEndoskeleton

An endoskeleton consists of hard An endoskeleton consists of hard supporting elements, such as supporting elements, such as bones, buried within the soft bones, buried within the soft tissue of the animal.tissue of the animal.

Endoskeletons of various complexity are found: Endoskeletons of various complexity are found: chordates, and echinoderms. chordates, and echinoderms.

An endoskeleton allows the body to move and gives the An endoskeleton allows the body to move and gives the body structure and shape. body structure and shape.

A true endoskeleton is derived from A true endoskeleton is derived from mesodermal tissue. Such a skeleton is present in mesodermal tissue. Such a skeleton is present in echinoderms and chordates. echinoderms and chordates.

Echinoderms have an endoskeleton of hard plates Echinoderms have an endoskeleton of hard plates called ossicles beneath the skin.called ossicles beneath the skin.

Chordates have an endoskeleton consisting of Chordates have an endoskeleton consisting of cartilage, bone, or some combination of these cartilage, bone, or some combination of these materials.materials.

The mammalian skeleton is built from more than 200 The mammalian skeleton is built from more than 200 bones, some fused together and others connected at bones, some fused together and others connected at jointsby liagments that allow freedom of movement.jointsby liagments that allow freedom of movement.

Vertebrates have a distinctive endoskeleton made up Vertebrates have a distinctive endoskeleton made up of an axial and appendicular skeleton. of an axial and appendicular skeleton.

JointsJoints Joints provide flexibility for Joints provide flexibility for body movements.body movements.

Some examples of joints are:Some examples of joints are:- Ball and socket jointsBall and socket joints

- Hinge joints- Hinge joints

- Pivot joints- Pivot joints

Label the Label the skeletonskeleton1 1 17 172 2 18 18 3 3 19 194 4 20 205 5 21 21 6 6 22 227 7 23 238 8 24 249 9 25 2510 10 26 26111112121313141415151616

Some Some HelpfulHelpful Sites Sites on the Skeletal on the Skeletal

SystemSystem http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/bihttp://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/biology/humananatomy/skeletal/skology/humananatomy/skeletal/skeletalsystem.htmleletalsystem.html

http://yucky.discovery.com/flahttp://yucky.discovery.com/flash/body/pg000124.htmlsh/body/pg000124.html

http://hes.ucfsd.org/gclaypo/shttp://hes.ucfsd.org/gclaypo/skelweb/skel01.htmlkelweb/skel01.html

The Integumentary The Integumentary SystemSystem

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Integumentary system Integumentary system is the outer covering is the outer covering of a mammal;of a mammal;ss body, body, including the skin, including the skin, hair, and nailshair, and nails

DefinitionDefinition

Protects the body's internal Protects the body's internal living tissues and organsliving tissues and organs

Protects against invasion by Protects against invasion by infectious organismsinfectious organisms

Protects the body from Protects the body from dehydrationdehydration

Protects the body against Protects the body against abrupt changes in temperatureabrupt changes in temperature

FunctionsFunctions

Functions (continued)Functions (continued)

Helps dispose of waste materialsHelps dispose of waste materials

Acts as a receptor for touch, Acts as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat and coldpressure, pain, heat and cold

Stores water, fat, and vitamin D.Stores water, fat, and vitamin D.

EpidermisEpidermis



The outermost layer of skin and is composed mostly of dead epithelial cells that continually flake and fall off. New cells pushing up from lower layers replace the cells that are lost.

DermisDermis



Supports the epidermis and contains hair follicles, oil and sweat glands, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels

Activity: True or FalseActivity: True or False

1. Skin is the largest organ.1. Skin is the largest organ. 2. The integumentary system 2. The integumentary system only consist of skin.only consist of skin.

3. Part of the integumentary 3. Part of the integumentary system job is to protect the system job is to protect the body from dehyrdration.body from dehyrdration.

4. The skin consists of five 4. The skin consists of five layers of skin.layers of skin.

Answer to ActivityAnswer to Activity

1.True

2. False, the Integumentary system consists of the outer covering of a mammal’s body, including the skin, hair, and nails

3. True

4. False, the skin consist of two layers, the epidermis and dermis

To learn more about the To learn more about the integumentary system you integumentary system you can look under:can look under:

AP Biology Textbook by Campbell & AP Biology Textbook by Campbell & ReeceReece

Websites such asWebsites such as

http://www.cancerindex.org/medterm/mehttp://www.cancerindex.org/medterm/medtm5.htmdtm5.htm

And even videos: And even videos: ttp://video.google.com/videoplay?ttp://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5613693526435958138docid=-5613693526435958138

Muscular Muscular SystemSystem

OverviewOverview

The main job of the muscular system is to provide movement for the body.

There are just over 650 skeletal muscles in the whole human body.

The muscular system consist of three different types of muscle tissues : skeletal, cardiac, smooth, all of which have the ability to contract, allowing the body movements and functions.

Major muscles of the Major muscles of the bodybody

Cardiac MuscleCardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle, called the myocardium, is found only in the heart.

It is involuntary, controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

The myocardium is composed of thick bundles of muscle, forming the walls of the chambers of the heart and contracts to pump blood throughout the body.

Its cells are joined by intercalated disks that relay each heartbeat.

• Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles found in the stomach and intestinal walls, in artery and vein walls, and in various hollow organs.

• In a vessel or organ, smooth muscles are arranged in sheets or layers.

Smooth MuscleSmooth Muscle

Skeletal MuscleSkeletal Muscle

Stabilize joints, help maintain posture, and give the body its general shape.

In men, they make up about 40 percent of the body's mass or weight and in women, about 23 percent.

Are generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.

Structure of Muscle Structure of Muscle CellsCells

•Within the cells are myofibrils; myofibrils contain sarcomeres, which are composed of actin and myosin. •Individual muscle fibers are surrounded by endomysium. •Muscle fibers are bound together by perimysium into bundles called fascicles; the bundles are then grouped together to form muscle, which is enclosed in a sheath of epimysium. •Muscle spindles are distributed throughout the muscles and provide sensory feedback information to the central nervous system.

Muscle Cell in Detail



Movement and muscle Movement and muscle arrangementarrangement•In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motor nerves and motorneurons in particular. •Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with.•Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's energy consumption. All muscle cells produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. •Muscles also conserve energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase. •They keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions.

ActivityActivity1.What are muscles made of?2.What are the 3 types of muscles?3.What are smooth muscles and what do they do and where are they found?

4.What are cardiac muscles, where are they and what do they do?

5.What are skeletal muscles what do they do?

6.What’s the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscles?

7.Where do facial muscles attach?8.What do facial muscles do?9.Name the muscle that’s attached only at one end?

10.List the 6 major types of muscles

Nervous SystemNervous System



OverviewOverview

All animals except the sponges have some type of nervous system.

Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells.

The human brain contains an estimated 100 billion nerve cells or neurons.

Invertebrate nervous systems range in complexity from simple nerve nets to highly centralized nervous systems having complicated brains and ventral nerve cords.

The BrainThe Brain The brain is composed of three parts: the cerebrum, the

cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata is closest to the spinal cord, and is

involved with the regulation of heartbeat, breathing, vasoconstriction (blood pressure), and reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and hiccuping.

The hypothalamus regulates homeostasis. It has regulatory areas for thirst, hunger, body temperature, water balance, and blood pressure, and links the Nervous System to the Endocrine System.

The midbrain and pons are also part of the unconscious brain. The thalamus serves as a central relay point for incoming nervous messages.

The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, after the cerebrum. It functions for muscle coordination and maintains normal muscle tone and posture. The cerebellum coordinates balance.

Central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord

In invertebrates, the central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which is located dorsally.

Nervous systems process information in three stages: sensory input, integration, and motor output to effector cells.

The three stages are illustrated by the knee jerk reflex.

The CNS integrates information, while the nerves of the peripheral nervous system transmit sensory and motor signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.

Sensory neurons transmit information from sensors that detect external stimuli and internal conditions.

Most neurons have highly branched dendrites that receive signals from other neurons.

They also typically have a single axon that transmits signals to other cells at synapses.

Nerve CellNerve Cell A basic nerve cell consists of a cell body, an axon,

and many dendrites. Dendrites are thread-like branches that increase the

surface area of a cell making it possible for the receiving many connections with other nerve cells.

Signals picked up by the dendrites travel through the cell and continue along the axon where they are transmitted to the next cell.

Synaptic bulbs on the ends of the axons make connections with other nerve cells, via synapses.



All cells have an electrical potential difference across their plasma membrane called the membrane potential

•Ions pumps and ion channels maintain the resting potential of a neuron.•In neurons, the membrane potential is typically between -60 and -80 mV when the cell is not transmitting signals.•The inside of the cell is negative related to the outside.•The membrane potential depends on ionic gradients across its plasma membrane: the concentration of Na + is higher in the extracellular fluid than in the cytosol, while the reverse is true for K+.•A neuron that is not transmitting signals contains many open K+ channels and fewer open Na + channels in its plasma membrane.•The diffusion of K + and Na+ through these channels leads to separation of charges across the membrane, producing the resting potential.•Gated ion channels open or close in response to membrane stretch, the binding of a specific ligand, or a change in the membrane potential.•Stretch gated ion channels are found in cells that sense stretch and open when the membrane is mechanically deformed.

Somatic Nervous SystemSomatic Nervous System

•Includes all nerves controlling the muscular system and external sensory receptors.• External sense organs are the receptors. •Muscle fibers and gland cells are effectors. The reflex arc is an automatic, involuntary reaction to a stimulus. •A reaction to the stimulus is involuntary, with the CNS being informed but not consciously controlling the response.•Sensory input from the PNS is processed by the CNS and responses are sent by the PNS from the CNS to the organs of the body.•Motor neurons of the somatic system are distinct from those of the autonomic system.•Inhibitory signals, cannot be sent through the motor neurons of the somatic system.

Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System

Part of PNS consisting of motor neurons that control internal organs. It has two subsystems.

The autonomic system controls muscles in the heart, the smooth muscle in internal organs such as the intestine, bladder, and uterus. The Sympathetic Nervous System is involved in the fight or flight response.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System is involved in relaxation.

Each of these subsystems operates in the reverse of the other (antagonism). Motor neurons in this system do not reach their targets directly (as do those in the somatic system) but instead they just connect to a secondary motor neuron which innervates the target organ.

Crossword ActivityCrossword Activity1. System of the nervous system that contains the brain and spinal cord2. The sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system3. Receive and communicate information from the sensory environment4. Makes synaptic connections with other neuronsa. one of many short, branched processes of a neuron that help bring the nerve impulses toward the cell bodyb. A system of the nervous system that can be broken down into a sensory and a motor divisionc. Takes the command of the CNS and put them into action as motor outputsd. one of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; generally enhances body activities that gain and conserve energy, such as digestion and reduced heart ratee. one of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; generally increases energy expenditure and prepares the body for actionf. Longer extensions that leave from a neuron and carry impulse away from the cell body to toward target cellsg. main body of the neuron

Answer to ActivityAnswer to Activity