BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI I Sintesi I DUELEONI

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03 BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI

1. SITE WORKSoil: The stability of a building depends on the bearing capacity of the soil upon which it sits Soil Types: Rock: solid material that forms the crust of the earth.

Slate and shale : fine textured soft rock. Boulders : rock detached from the bedrock of which they were once a part. Hardpan: consolidated mixture of gravel, clay, and sand.

Test Pits :Test pits are simple excavations that permit direct visual inspection of the actual soil conditions. Soil Load Tests : employing a loading platform.

Borings

Auger borings : up soil samples two- to four-inch diameter pipe that is driven into the soil. Core borings : diamond drill into solid material

Dry sample borings : drive pipe with a special split sampling pipe at the tip instead of a drill.

Soil Properties

Specific gravity: determine void ratio. Grain size: estimate permeability, frost action, compaction, and shear strength. Grain shape: estimate shear strength. Liquid and plastic limits: obtain compressibility and compaction values.

Water content : to obtain compressibility and compaction values. Unconfined compression: (in cohesive soils), to estimate shear strength.

Sand : loose granular rock particles about .002 inch to 1/4 inch in size.Silt : fine-grained sedimentary material deposited from running water.

Clay : fine-grained, firm cohesive material formed from the decomposition and hydration of certain rock. Quicksand : mixture of sand and moving water that is completely unsuitable for construction.Gravel : granular rock particles ranging in size from 1/4 inch to 3-1/2 inch.

Soil and Site Problems Settlement : As dead load is added to the structure, it compresses the soil beneath the footings, reducing the void volume and causing settlement. Settlement must be uniform.

Frost Action: freezing heaves ground and places stress on a building's foundation.Earth Movement: prevalent condition with clay subsoils. Clays swell when wet and shrink when dry. Soil Drainage: presence of moisture can lead to reduction of a soil's load bearing capacity.Water Table : level below which all soil is saturated with ground water.Drainage : directing water away from all structures.

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Soil Modification

Site Preparation

Clear all undesirable materials Plant material to remain Corner stakes, placed in the ground to locate building lines :

Earthwork

Excavation : removal of existing soil to permit construction of the foundation and substructure.Grading work : alteration of a site's contours.Rough grading : addition or removal of earth prior to the start of construction.Finish grading : final distribution of earth at the conclusion of construction.

Grading

Rough grading : addition or removal of earth prior to the start of construction.Finish grading : final distribution of earth at the conclusion of construction.

Backfill earth that is replaced around a foundation or retaining wall after the concrete forms have beenremoved.

Soil can be altered in a variety of ways in order to improve its consistency,dependability, and bearing capacity.1. Deepening or increasing the bearing area of the footing improves bearing capacity.2. Drainage improves physical characteristics of soil.3. Undesirable material should be removed and replaced with compacted granular materials.4. Cover compressible it with a porous layer of sand, gravel, or crushed rock and blending it into the natural material.Artificial hardpan-type soil material.5. Soil compactation by heavy machinery, such as sheepsfoot rollers.

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2. FOUNDATIONS: Part of Building's structure that transmits it's loads to Soil. Footing part of a foundation widenedto spread load over large area of soil.

Shallow Foundations : For strong bearing capacity Soils.

Shallow spread footings Column footing : square or rectangular pad of concreteWall footing : continuous spread footingMat footing : large footing under the entire buildingRaft foundation : used when soil conditions are poorBoat footing : placed at a depth such that weight of soil removed from excavation is equal to load of Building.

Deep Foundations : For insufficient bearing capacity surface soils.

Pile : transfer the load to soil by skin friction between pile and the surrounding soil, or by end bearing.Boat Footing : Caissons , Box-like structures used where very wet or soft soils are encountered.

Temporary Supports

Sheeting : Temporary wall of wood, steel, or precast concrete to retain soil around an excavation.Bracing : Brace the sheeting to resist the soil pressure.Underpinning : Used for existing foundations: Needle beams or Pipe cylinders

Site Improvement Bearing

Roads Walks Fences Walls Lighting

Asphalt Paving : Bituminous paving products, sub-base course of crushed stone or gravel cover bybasecourse of finer aggregate.

Asphaltic concrete: Asphalt cement and graded aggregates.Cold laid asphalt : Composed of cold liquid asphalt and aggregates.Asphalt macadam : Base of crushed stone, gravel, or slag compacted smooth. Sprayed with asphalt emulsion or hotasphalt cement

Other Paving Materials

Brick paving : Very popular and durable.Stone cobbles : Decorative effect.

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Granite setts : Small, rectangular or square blocks of granite set on cement mortar.Flagstones : Thin slabs of slate, bluestone, or soapstone.

Grade Changing Devices

retaining wall

3. CONCRETE

Concrete = fine aggregate + coarse aggregate + port-land cement + water

Hydration: Chemical reaction, causes hardening of the concrete.

Romans Pozzolana

Composition of Concrete

Cement = adhesive substance Portland Cement : Type I: Standard, For all purpose use.Type II: Modified, For slow setting and less heat.Type III: High Early strength, For quick setting and early strength.Type IV: Low Heat , For very slow setting.Type V : Sulfate Resisting, For alkaline water and soils

Aggregates

fine aggregate : Diam. coarse aggregate: to 1-1/2 inches in diameter

maximum aggregate size = 1/3 the thickness concrete slabs

Admixtures: alter certain characteristics. Accelerators, Air-entraining agents, Retarders, Waterproofing,Water reducing, Workable Agents

Concrete Mix Design

Proportioning: optimum combination of ingredients

Unit of Volume for Concrete = cubic foot ( 150 lbs/ cubic ft)

1:3:5 mix = one part cement + three parts fine aggregate+ five parts coarse aggregate

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Water-Cement Ratio = number of gallons of water for each sack (94 lb) of Cement

Strength compressive strength = strength 28 days after being placed

MIXING : concrete is mixed in a plant, a truck, or a combination of both

.Ready-mixed concrete : Mixed completely at a central mixing plant. must be placed within one and ahalf hours after water is added to the mix.

Transit-mixed concrete : Concrete is mixed completely in a truck mixer

Formwork : molds into which the concrete is placed and held in shape until it has hardened and developedsufficient strength to support its own weight.

job-constructed prefabricated units: standard lumber, plywood, metal, fiberboard, paper pulp.Form ties : metal devices used to prevent concrete forms from spreading.

Reinforced Concrete

Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension Concrete and reinforcing steel are compatible materials: Same coefficient of thermal expansion

Reinforcing steel: round bars #3 (3/8-inch diameter), #11 (1-3/8-inch diameter) #14 (1-3/4-inch diameter) #18 (2-1/2-inch diameter)

Welded wire fabric (WWF): steel wires welded at all points of intersection

WWF 6 x 6 W2.9 x W2.9 = 6 on center in each direction w/ cross-sectional area of 2.9 100 or 0.029 square inches

Rebar Support Devices: Adequate coverage to protect it from corrosion

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Lightweight Concrete

Structural Lightweight Concrete lightweight aggregates: expanded shale or clay 90- 115 pounds per cubic foot .

Insulating Lightweight Concrete : Used primarily for thermal insulation in roof construction.

Thermal insulation Expanded materials : perlite or vermiculite

Placement of concrete : concrete must be placed evenly, continuously, andmost importantin a manner thatavoids segregation of the aggregates.

Vertical drops : max. 4-0

Testing : In or PRACTICE and PLACING CONCRETE used on a project has the required quality.

Slump test: Consistency, workability Cylinder test: Compressive strength Kelly ball test: Measures workability Impact hammer test: Strength Tests for air content: Volume of air in Mix

Curing

Maintaining proper humidity and temperature: 50 to 70 degrees.

Concrete joints

Construction joints: joints between two successive concrete pours Keyed Stepped horizontal Roughened and keyed vertical

Expansion joints: allow free movement of adjacent parts Required: Buildings > 200-0 Long, at joints of building wings, Addition of new buildings.

Control joints: To allow for shrinkage of large areas. Induces cracking to occur along the joint.

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Isolation joints

Slab on grade and columns or walls, to move independently

Prestressed Concrete : concrete placed in compression by applying a tensile force to prestressing steelbefore the external loads are applied. cause stresses in the concrete that are opposite in direction from those caused by the external loads.

Placed in compression Pretensioning Posttensioning

Precast Concrete : Casting of concrete members at a location other than its final position in the structure.

Floor & roof systems : Precast planks that may be used with precast beams, joists, and purlinsTilt-up construction : Casting a wall panel in a horizontal position and then tilting it to its final vertical position.

Lift-slab construction :Casting floor and roof slabs of a multistory building, one upon another, with a membrane or bond-breaking agent between, to prevent bonding of the separate slabs.

Tube-slab: Paper tube fillers are embedded in the section to obtain a flat ceiling with no exposed beams.

Concrete finishes

Walls and ceiling Floors Terrazzo

3. MASONRY

Brick: Rectangular masonry unit molded from clays and shales, dried, and fired in a kiln.

Molding methods: 1. Soft mud process: Molds into which moist clay is pressed by hand or machine into rectangular molds. 2. Stiff mud process: Forces the mixture through a die, extruding clay ribbon that is cut into bricks by tightly stretched wires 3. Dry-press process: Dry mixture that is pressed into gang molds by plungers under high pressureBrick types: Common brick: Grade SW (Severe weathering)

Grade MW (Moderate weathering) Grade NW (No weathering)

Face brick Grade FBX. Perfection in size, color and texture. Grade FBS. Greater size variation and wide color range.

Grade FBA. Nonuniform in size, color and texture Backup brick: Inferior Quality Paving brick: Very Hard and dense Fire brick : Great resistance to high temperatures

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Sewer brick : Low absorption brick for use in sewerage and storm drainsAdobe brick : Mixture of natural clay and strawNail-on brick :Flat brick generally used on interiors where solid masonry cannot be structurally supported. Hollow brick

Brick Nomenclature

Surfaces: Face, Side, Cull, End and Bed Cut shapes: Half, Three Quarters, quarter closer, king closer, queen closer, split Placement: Header, stretcher, bull header, bull stretcher, soldier, sailor.

Bricklaying: Manual Process. Bricks should be laid when the temperature is between 40 and 90F, forbest results. Bricks should always be set in a full bed of mortar with mortar solidly filling all vertical head

joints.

Brick bonding:

Patterns: Flemish bond, English bond, Cross bond, Common bond, Running bond, stacked bond.

Veneering: Exposed masonry that is attached, but not structurally bonded, to the backing.

Efflorescence: White, powdery deposit on the masonry surface caused by soluble salts in the units or inthe mortar.

White, powdery deposit on masonry caused by soluble salts.

Expansion Joints: Place every 200-0

CONCRETE MASONRY concrete bricks, concrete blocks, concrete tile, cast(concrete) stone

STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE

Structural clay tiles: Hollow, burned-clay masonry units with parallel cells .Used for interior partitions, or, incombination with other masonry, as back up for exterior walls.

Architectural terra cotta: Clay tile that is available in various colors, textures, and shapes .Multicoloreddecorative designs.

Ceramic veneer : Terra cotta available in large face dimensions, thin sections, and a variety of natural andglazed finishes.

GYPSUM BLOCK : Solid or cored units manufactured from gypsum plaster.

GLASS BLOCK : Used where light transmission, glare, or solar heat must be controlled, or wherea specific decorative effect is desired.

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4. STONE: Original natural materials used in construction by prehistoric people

Classification: igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic Stone Forms: Rough stone, Rubble stone, Dimension stone, Flagstone, Monumental stone, Fieldstone, Crushed stone, Stone dust,

Properties of natural stone:

Strength, Porosity, Absorption, and Permeability

Stone Masonry:

Rubble masonry: Natural Ashlar masonry: Shaped Coursed: continuous horizontal joints Random Bond stone: stone with its longest dimension perpendicular to the wall face.

MORTAR: portland cement, sand, lime, and water

MORTAR JOINTS: Exterior surface of mortar joints, which is exposed to the weather, is finished to make the masonry more waterproof and/or to achieve a specific aesthetic appearance

Masonry accessories: anchors, ties, reinforcing, fillers, wire mesh,

5. WOOD: Only building material that grows and is renewableTERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION:

Wood: Hard fibrous substance lying beneath the bark of trees.Lumber: Wood that has been sawn into construction members.Timber: Lumber that is five inches or larger in its least dimension.Softwood: needle-leaved conifers used for framing, sheathing, bracing,Hardwoods: broad-leaved deciduous trees used for flooring, paneling, interior trim, and furniture.

CHARACTERISTICS:

Wood: 70 % cellulose, 18 to 28 % lignin Stronger in compression than tension Wood is much stronger when the load is applied parallel to the grain Shear, wood is very strong perpendicular to the grain

SEASONING OF WOOD: minimize shrinkage, lumber should be seasoned (dried) before installation, until it reaches the moisture content it will have in service. Lumber that has been seasoned has less tendency to shrink, is also stronger, liter in weight than unseasoned lumber. Seasoned lumber is less susceptible to warping; more resistant to fungi, decay, and insects; and has greater nail-holding power and ability to hold paint.

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air drying kiln drying

CUTTING AND SAWING LUMBER:

Plain-sawed in hardwoods: Tangent to the annual ringsSlash-grained : Quartersawed : Radially to rings

Characteristics of plainsawed lumber: Distinct grain pattern May twist, cup, and wear unevenly Tends to have raised grain Shrinks and swells more in width, less in thickness Less waste in cutting, and therefore less expensive

Characteristics of quatersawed lumber:

Relatively even grain pattern Wears evenly with less warpage Shrinks and swells more in thickness, less in width More waste in cutting and therefore more costly

WOOD DEFECTS: Natural defects: Those resulting from natural causes:Knot: branch embedded in a tree and cut through in manufacture Check: pitted area sometimes found in cedar and cypressPitch pocket : opening between growth rings containing resinManufacturing Defects: Those arising from the seasoning or processing of lumber.Check: or Peck-Lengthwise grain separation caused by seasoningSplit : Lengthwise separation of wood extending from one face to anotherWane : Lack of wood on the edge or cornerWarp: Shrinkage distortion of a plane surface; includes bow, crook, cup, and twist

GRADING LUMBER:

Grading for strength: By Machine

Visual grading: number, size, type, location of visible, defects, such as knots, shakes, and wane.

Machine stress rating: lumber is subjected to bending,

Values of modulus of elasticity (E).

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Allowable fiber stress (f)

Softwood Grades:

National Bureau of Standards : Based on use, size, and manufacturer.Yard Lumber : For general constructionFactory and Shop Lumber : For remanufacture into products such as sash and doors.

Lumber size: Boards: Graded for apperance and for finish carpentry , and trim. Graded SELECT and COMMON Dimension lumber: Structural lumber, used for load-bearing members and graded for strength. Timbers: (Idem)

Select lumber: A and B grades (highest quality grade) C and D (paint grade)

Common lumber: grades 1 to 5

Dimension lumber: load-bearing members : joists, planks, light framing, decking

Timbers: Beams , Stringers, Post, Timbers.

Rough Lumber: Has visible saw marksDressed Lumber: Planed smooth to uniform sizesWorked Lumber: dressed and then tongue-and-grooved, shiplapped, or shaped to a Pattern

Hardwood Grades: Based on amount of clear, usable lumber in a piece.

First, Seconds, Selects, Sound, Wormy

1,2,3A,3B

Lumber Sizes: Specified according to its nominal dimensions, which are the rough or unfinished sizes.

Nominal Sizes: 2x4 ( 1 1/2 x 3 1/2)Board foot: Conventional, standard unit in which a board foot is defined as a nominal 1" x 12" board one foot in length. All Lumber is measured, computed, and priced in board feet.

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6. PLYWOOD

Plywood: manufactured wood panel: several thin wood veneer sheets permanently bonded togetherwith adhesive under high pressure, with the grain of each ply perpendicular to the grain of the adjacent plies. provides a strong

backing for finish materials, and is widely used in construction as wall and roof sheathing, subflooring, underlayment, and

formwork.Resisting lateral loads from wind to earthquake.

Center ply = Core

Outer plies = face and back

Sizes: 4'x8' Sheets, 5/16 to 1 1/8 thick

Classification: Interior : Depending on the type of adhesive usedExterior : Depending on the type of adhesive usedSoftwood: Depending on the species of the face veneers . Primary Plywood used for Construction.Hardwood: More expensive than softwood plywood. Used for decorative applications, paneling, cabinet work, face veneerson doors,

Overlay: Covered with resin-fiber overlay Marine: Stained and ready to use Patterned Sheets: Grooved, roughsawn, etc.

Plywood Grading: quality of veneers A(best) to D (poorest). Grade AD = A (front) D(back).

Species of Wood: group 1 species (strongest) group 5 species (weakest)

Un sanded Plywood Panels : roof sheathing, subflooring, wall sheathing Marked w/ span rating: 32/16 = 32 (32 o.c. roof span) / 16 ( 16 o.c. floor joist span)

7. MISCELLANEOUS PANELS

Pressed fiber boards: Wood or other fiber mixed with a binder and pressed into a flat sheet. used for concrete forms, cabinets, doors, wall paneling, partitions, decking, and insulation.

Hardboard: Wood fibers that have been highly compressed under heat and pressure into dense, durable boards.

Basic

Prefinished: Tempered, Standard, Service Standard

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Fiberboard: Manufactured from waste paper, wood pulp, and fibers.Used for acoustical tile, sheathing, and interior wall finishes.

Flakeboard: Composed of large wood flakes bonded together with synthetic resins under pressure.

Particleboard: Dry-formed of wood particles bonded together with synthetic resin.

Beadboard: Insulating board consisting of a core of small, expanded polystyrene beads with heavy paper laminated to both sides.

Plastic laminates: Base of phenolic resin impregnated haft paper over which a patterned sheet is applied.

8. GLUED LAMINATED LUMBER: Structural members are fabricated from layers of wood that are bonded with adhesives, in which the grain of all layers is approximately parallel longitudinally.

Layers of wood bonded with adhesive to 1 tk.

Glulam: Industrial Grade, Architectural Grade, Premium Grade

Specify Laminated Timbers:

Type of Adhesive

Stress grade required

Appearance grade desired

Joints: scarf joist, finger joints

Laminated Decking:

Layers of kiln-dried lumber bonded together with adhesive.

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9. WOOD PRESERVATION

Insects: Drainage to minimize moisture, good ventilation, impervious concrete foundations, metal strips.

Decay: Keep wood dry and well ventilated, or completely submerged in water so that air is excluded. Use decay-resistant species, such as redwood. Pressure treat wood. Preservatives: Oil-borne solutions, Waterborne

solutions

Fire: Impregnation with a chemical solution, such as ammonium phosphate, or use of a surface treatment, such as intumescent paint.

10. WOOD FRAMING

Platform framing: Studs are one story in height and the floor joists bear on the top plates of the wall

below.

Balloon framing: Wall studs are continuous for the full height of the building, usually two stories, from the foundation to the top plates under the roof rafters.

Plastic laminates:

Exterior

Interior

Nails , Spikes , Screws , Bolts , Pins , Metal connectors, Adhesives

Nails: Common Nails, Box Nails, Finish Nails

11. FINISH WOODWORK:

Millwork :shop-fabricated items, such as door and window frames, stairways, paneling, etc., which are fabricated in

a mill and delivered to the job, ready for installation.

Wood trim, molding, ornamental shapes:

Wood siding and paneling

12. METALS : substances that are characterized by their luster, opaqueness, hardness, ability to

con-duct heat and electricity, and by their superior ability to resist deformation.

Bronze Age

Industrial Revolution:

Pierre Franois Henri Labrouste

Eiffel Tower

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William Le Baron Jenney

CHARACTERISTICS:

Strength

Toughness

Corrosion resistance

Appearance

Cost

Methods of forming, joining, and handling Ferrous metals

Non-ferrous metals

DETERIORATION:

Tarnish : Surface discoloration,

Corrosion : Rust

Galvanic action : Deterioration that occurs when different metals, or alloys, are in contact.

1.Aluminum2. Zinc3. Iron and Steel4. Stainless Steel Tin5. Lead6. Brass7. Copper8. Bronze9. Gold

FORMING METAL :Process by which extracted metal transformed into a useful product that has a hed shape.

Casting: pouring molten into a mold of the required shape and wing it to cool.Forging: Hammering hot metalPressing: From Sheets Drawing : Into wires or tubes.

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Extruding: Forcing a hot mass of metal through an opening that has the shape of the required section.

Mechanical Properties of Metals:

Maleability : Ease of hammering

Ductility : Ease of drawing

Toughness : Resistance to fracture

Hardness : resistance to abrasion

Ferrous Metals:

Iron: Pig Iron, Wrought Iron, Cast Iron.

Steel: Production Methods: 1. Open Hearth Process, 2. Basic Oxygen Process 3. Electric Furnace Process.

Methods of Work: 1. Rolled2.Drawn3.Bent4.Cast5. Joint Revits6.Bolts7. Screws8.Welds

Steel Types: Steel is an alloy of iron that contains no more than 2 percent carbon.

1. Structural Steel: structural purposes, containing varying amounts of carbon and other elements.2. Alloy Steel: containing other elements that are added to provide special properties. Stainless Steel3. Weathering Steel: containing up to one half of 1 percent copper.4. Heat Treated Steel :reheated and cooled slowly, or annealed, for improved workability.5. Case-hardened Steel : with a hard, high carbon surface produced by a special process.

Non-Ferrous Metals:

1. Aluminum: Obtained from bauxite by electrolytic method.2. Copper: Ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity.3. Brass: Alloy of copper and zinc.4. Bronzes: Alloy of copper and tin.5. Lead : Heavy, soft, toxic metal of low strength.6. Zinc : Low-strength corrosion-resistant metal7. Monel: Nickel-copper alloy

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Mechanical: 1. Grinding

2. Polishing

3. Sandblasting

4. Hammering

Applied Coating:

1. Electroplating

2. Enameling

3. Spraying

4. Dipping

5. Sherardizing

Anodizing: Metal finish applied to aluminum .

Galvinizing : Coating of zinc is applied by immersing the steel in a bath of molten zinc.

Use of Metal in Construction:

1. Structural: structural steel, reinforcing bars and mesh for concrete, and wire rope.2. Hollow Metalwork:doors, bucks, partitions, panels, windows, mullions, curtain walls, and panel systems that incorporate other materials, such as glass, stone, plastic,3. Miscellaneous Metal Work: Stairs, railings, fencing, gratings, rough hardware, ladders.4. Ornamental Metalwork: plaques, letters, finish hardware, railings, screens, grilles, expansion joint covers, etc.5. Flashing:base and cap flashing, gutters and leaders, spandrel and through-wall flashing,copings, termite shields.6. Miscellaneous:rough hardware, nuts and bolts, rivets, screws, nails, washers, inserts, hangers, anchors, wire.

Structural Steel in Construction: fabrication and erection of hot-rolled members manufactured from mediumcarbon steel

W : Wide Flange and Columns:

S : American Standard Beams

C: American Standard Channels

L: Angles

WT: Tees

Tubing

Bars

Plates

Plate Girders

Built-up Columns

Truss Chords

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Rigid Bents

Cable and Tent Structures:

Space Frames and Domes:

Light weight Metal Framing:

Open Web Joists:

Metal Decking:

Corrugated

Ribbed

Cellular Form

Composite Decking

13. THERMAL AND MOISTURE PROTECTION

GROUND WATER CONTROL:

Surface Water :Ponds and other surface accumulations of water, caused by rain,thawing ice, or snow

Ground Water : Water contained in the voids and crevices under the earth's surface

Ground Water Table: Level below which earth saturated with water

Moisture Sources:

Permeable:Capable of being penetrated by water without causing rupture or displacement

Pervious: Permitting leakage or flow of water through cracks, leaks, or other openings

Water-resistant : Having no openings larger than capillary pores that permit leakage of water

Water-repellent: Incapable of transmitting water by capillary action, but able to transmit water under pressure

Waterproof: Completely impervious to water, whether under pressure or not

DAMPPROOFING: Consists of the materials and methods that prevent moisture from penetrating a building at or below

grade.Cannot resist Hydrostatic Pressure.

Damp-proofing treatments:

Asphalt base coatings

Cement plaster

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Liquid silicones or other plastics

Preventive measures:

Draining surface water

Granular fill under a concrete slab on grade

Polyethylene film vapor seal over the granular fill

Footing Drains

WATERPROOFING: Materials and methods that prevent water under hydrostatic

pressure from penetrating those parts of a building in direct contact with the earth.

Membrane waterproofing: Asphalt-Saturated Felt Layers

Water Stops: Metal, Plastic Devices in Walls.

PRECIPITATION CONTROL: Precipitation is the most common and predictable source of moisture that can

damage a structure, and its control depends on the form and type of roofing used.

Roofing: describes the materials and methods used to weatherproof the exterior top surface of a

structure.

Type of roof and slope of roof:

Slope = Ratio Vertical Rise and Horizontal Projection

SQUARE: Unit of measure used to express roof surface area and is equal to 100 square feet.

WEIGHT: varies considerably and can affect the design, structure, and cost of the roof

DURABILITY: function of its inherent quality,climatic conditions and the manner in which the material is installed

COST: varies substantially and generally corresponds to its durability

PERSONAL PREFERENCE: relates to appearance - materials that are the most attractive and preferred also tend to

be the most expensive.

ROOFING MATERIALS:

1. Asphaltbuilt-up, shingles, and roll

2. Woodshingles and shakes

3. Metalsheet, corrugated, and strip

4. Clay, cement, and slatetiles

5. Glass and plasticsheets

6. Plasticliquid coatings

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7. Asphalt

8. Asphalt and coal-tar pitch

9. Built-up roofs

10. Asphalt strip shingles

11. Asphalt roll roofing

12. Wood shingles

13. Corrugated metal sheets

14. Clay

15. Cement

16. Slate

17. Glass and Plastic

18. Plastic coatings

CONDENSATION CONTROL: Another source of moisture, in addition to ground water and precipitation, is the condensation

of water vapor.

Relative humidity: ratio of the amount of water vapor the air contains to the maximum amount it could contain

Vapor barriers: aluminum foil, various types of sheet plastic, asphalt-saturated felt

THERMAL CONTROL: Heat is gained or lost by a building by these processes, and the purpose of

thermal control is to slow down heat gain or loss in order to produce comfortable interior temperatures while

conserving energy.

Heat Transmition:

Conduction:materials or objects are in direct contact.

Convection:occurs in a fluid medium,such as air or a liquid.

Radiation: takes place between two objects not in contact and not shielded from each other.

Thermal insulation: R values in square foot-hour-degree Fahrenheit per BTU

Roof insulation:

1. above the roofing membrane

2. between the membrane and the roof deck

3. below the roof deck

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FLASHING: material used to provide a seal and prevent water penetration at joints exposed to

the weather, intersections of different materials, and expansion or contraction joints.

Seal and prevent water penetration at joints

Flashing:

Concealed: Sheet metal, Fabrics, Plastic

Exposed: Aluminum, Copper, Galvanized steel, Zinc, Lead, or Terne.

14. Windows and Doors

DOORS: Movable Barriers permit or prohibit access to a structure

Classification: Location: interior door, entrance doors Function: fire door, acoustical door Method of Operation: swinging door, revolving door Physical : paneled door, louvered doorType Material : hollow metal door, screen doorDoor Hand : Convention

WINDOWS: Glazed openings constructed in a wall.

Basic types:

Residential, Commercial Industrial Monumental.

Materials:

Wood windows Clad windows Aluminum windows Steel windows Stainless steel windows Replaceable windows Screens

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Door and window systems Storefront work Curtain walls Skylights

GLASS:

Ceramic material Plate glass Annealed glass Single-strength glass Double-strength glass Float glass Patterned glass Tempered glass : heat treated for increased resistance to impact stressesInsulating glass: two or more sheets of glass separated by a hermetically sealed air space Heat-absorbing glass: tinted to absorb a high degree of solar radiationReflective glass: reflective film laminated between two sheets of clear glass, or thin film of metal oxide on the surface of the glass. Laminated glass: composed of a plastic sheet sandwiched between two glass layers, all bondedunder heat and pressure. Wired glass: placing wire mesh in the middle of glass during the manufacturing process Butt-joint glazing: glass sheets with conventional head and sill frames, with no vertical mullionMirrored glass: glass with a metallic reflective coating applied to one surfacePsychiatric glass: (one-way glass) is seen as a mirror on one side and is transparent on the other side.Structural glass: opaque and used for exterior building panels. Corrugated glass: used for decorative partitions, or in its wired form, for skylights and roof panels

GLAZING PLASTICS: Acrylics Polycarbonates Polyesters Polystyrenes

15. FINISH WORK

Methods, Materials, and Treatments that comprise the interior and exterior finished surfaces of a building.

Interior finishes: Floor Finishes: paving, planking, carpeting. Wall finishes: paneling, veneering, tiling Ceiling finishes: plastering, painting, acoustical treatment Exterior finishing: Entire exterior surfaces, wall covering, ornamentations, paints.

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PLASTER WORK:

Cementitious material: Portland Cement + Sand + Water

Portland cement plaster :for exterior plaster or stuccoGypsum and lime plaster: for interior plasterAcoustic plaster : provides acoustical treatment for walls and ceilingsBonding plaster : used on interior concrete walls and ceilingsFire-resistant plaster : provides fire resistance for steel and other materialsKeene's cement plaster : contains lime putty for hard, water-resistant finishLightweight plaster: contains vermiculite or perlite aggregates for fire resistance Bases: Concrete, Masonry, Lath Metal lath : sheet metal or wire fabric into which a base coat of plaster is keyedLathing board: gypsum mixed with water, hardened and dried, and sandwiched between two sheets of heavy,porous paper, which provides adhesion for the plaster.

Veneer plaster: dense plaster applied in a thin coat over gypsum lath

Gypsum board:

Prefabricated form of plaster = gypsum plaster core reinforced with paper, 4-foot widths, 6 to 12 feet in length, 1/4 to 5/8 inch in thickness.

Regular board: Surfacing for walls and ceiling Backing board : Backing for other materials, such as acoustical tileInsulating board : Aluminum foil laminated to one side, which serves as reflective insulation and vapor barrier.Type X board : For fire-resistive rating.Moisture-resistant board : Backing for ceramic tile in high moisture areas.Decorative board : Prefinished with decorative paper or vinyl in various textures, patterns, and colors

Ceramic tiles: set on floor, wall, or ceiling areas to provide permanent, waterproof,durable, and easily maintained finish surfaces.

Small, flat units composed of clay or clay mixtures

Vitrification: measure of tile density

Non-vitreous tile : moisture absorption rate between 7 and 15 percentSemi-vitreous tile: moisture absorption rate between 3 and 7 percentVitreous tile: less than 3 percent of its weight in moisture Impervious tile repels: repels almost all moisture and dirt Finishes: Glazed (glassy, waterproof surface produced by ceramic material fused on their faces.),Unglazed(derive their color and texture from the clays used in their manufacture)

Ceramic mosaic tile:unglazed, semi-vitreous, and less than six square inches in area Quarry tile: Unglazed units, made by the plastic process, and nearly impervious to moisture, dirt, and stains InlaidFaienceHandmade tiles

24 Porcelain tile: impervious tilewithout a clay backing and is suitable for exterior applicationsGlass tile : made from glass that can be "tumbled" to ease the edges and sometimes has color coatings,such as gold foil, on the back.

Terrazzo tile: manufactured tile consisting of an aggregate and cement matrix similar to terrazzo

PLASTICS:

FLOORING: surface on which people or equipment move within a building

ceramic tile terrazzo concrete Cork Rubber Carpet Wood Brick

Wood Flooring: oak, maple, birch, beech, pecan Strips, Planks Expansion: sufficient expansion space must be provided at a floor's perimeter.

Strip flooring: applied over a wood subfloor or on spaced wood sleepers fastened by blind nailing

Plank flooring: laid in random widths with a V-groove where the board edges meet

Parquet flooring: prefabricated squares, either solid strips held together with splines or plywood veneers, and theyare available unfinished or prefinished, with square or tongue-and-groove edges.

Solid block flooring: end-grained blocks that have been treated with creosote against moisture and decay.

Mortar-set flooring: any masonry material that is set and utilized as a finish floor surface. Brick: normally laidin a mortar setting below the subfloor.

Slate: durable, attractive, and expensive, slightly rough or relatively smooth,rigidly rectangular or completely irregular. Stone flooring: Slate, imestone ,sandstone , granite, marble. Stone for flooring is about one inch thick with arelatively smooth surface.

Poured-in-Place Flooring: Terrazzo: concrete topping consisting of marble chips in a cement or synthetic resin binder, ground and polished to a smooth finish. Has tendancy to crack. Magnesite: seamless floors (magnesium oxychloride) are made from a composition of magnesium oxide, sand, andmagnesium chloride, which forms a plastic material that is troweled to a smooth finish.

Elastomeric Floors: floors are composed of clear urethane resins applied as a liquid over an elastomerunderlayment.

Rubberized Floors: floors consist of several layers of various neoprene compositions troweled over awaterproof latex membrane.

Paint-Type Flooring: floor finishes consist of a synthetic resin (epoxy, urethane, polyester, etc.) and anactivator.

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Resilient Flooring Materials: materials are laid over smooth wood or concrete subfloors and cemented in place with mastic cements.

Vinyl : available in sheet or tiles and may be used above or below grade.Asphalt Tile: lacks resilience. Linoleum: durable, resilient, easily maintained and relatively inexpensive, considering its long life. Rubber : made of synthetic rubber.Cork : highly resilient, resistant to staining, durable, and easily maintained, excellent acoustical properties.

Carpeting: installed directly over a plywood subfloor or a concrete slab. classified by material (acrylic fibers, nylon, polyester, wool)by texture (low pile, high pile).

Acoustical Work: Acoustics, the science of sound and its control,

Acoustical Tiles: manufactured from wood, mineral, or glass fibers with perforated, textured, or patterned surfaces that allow sound to penetrate. Acoustical Panels: perforated steel aluminum, fiberboard, or hardboard, which is backed with a soft, sound-absorbing batt or blanket. Prefabricated Tiles and Panels: nailed or cemented to a solid backing surface. Wet Materials: acoustical plaster and mineral-fiber products to which a binding agent is added.

Paints: classified by location (exterior enamel)by the material on which they are applied (wood stain)by their finish (semigloss enamel)by their unique characteristics (lacquer).

Pigmented Coatings: white pigment, to which color may be added, and a vehicle. house paints, metallic paints, colored lacquers, water-based paints, and synthetic resin paints.

Enamels: pigmented paints that use varnish as the vehicle. Baked Enamels: always factory-applied, as they require a controlled temperature of between 200 and 300 F to harden.

Clear Coatings: protect and beautify surfaces without obscuring their natural appearance. Varnishes: using volatile solvents such as turpentine and mineral spirits have been replaced by polyurethanes and acrylic modified urethane coatings. Clear Sealers: systems that prepare surfaces for another finish. Stains: have a pigment content that is lower than opaque paints. They do not obscure the natural grain of wood or substrate. Low viscosi and deep penetration;Bituminous Coatings: made from coal tar and asphalt, used as a protective coat for submerged ferrous metal and for waterproofing masonry materials.

Coal Tar Pitch Coatings: melted to a fluid for application. Asphalt Coatings: available as paints, enamels, and emulsions.

Miscellaneous Coatings:

Cement Coatings: Portland cement and, occasionally, lime Fire-Resistant Coatings: do not support combustion Rust-preventive paints and primers: rust-inhibitive qualities, low permeability to corrosive elements, and low water absorption. Antibacterial and Insecticidal Paints:produced by adding counteracting ingredients to the paint. Epoxy Coating: resist chemicals, moisture, or stains. Specialty Coating:

26 16. Vertical TransportationStairs: most common means of vertical circulation between floors of a building, and their design is dictated by considerations of safety and convenience.Vertical distance between landings may not exceed 12 feet.

Riser + Tread = 17 to 17.5 inches

Riser x Tread = 70 to 75 inches

2 Risers + Tread = 24 to 25 inches

Fire Stairs:for emergency exiting, and their number is controlled by the occupancy of the building and the occupant

load of each floor, as specified in the building code.

Monumental Stairs:Referred to as decorative stairways, are often used in larger

buildings to connect the main floor to a mezzanine or second floor.

Residential Stairs: Governed by more lenient regulations.

Ramps: Inclined walkways that allow easy vertical transition between different levels. RAMP for handicapped have a maximum rise of 30 inches, and landings must be at least five feet long. Handrails are required on handicapped ramps if the ramp is more than sixfeet long or has a rise greater than six inches.

1:2 not a ramp

1:12 Max. Slope allowed for ADA

1:15 Requires Handrails

1: 8 Max. Slope allowed by Code

Ladders: Used for access to roofs or in utility and service areas where space is tight and traffic is minimal.

Min. 18 wide Rungs 12 o.c. Off set 6 from wall

Elevators: Movable Enclosures for Vertical Transportation of people and Frieght.

Hydraulic Elevators: Low rise buildings

Electric Elevators: High rise buildings, Elevator functions by traction.

Traction machine: motor and drum assembly that moves elevator

Roping: Single wrap, Double wrap

Safety Features: Main Break: Mounted on the motor shaft. Break is self-applying, so that the car will be stopped in the event of a power failure. Governor: Measures and limits the elevator speed by means of the control panel. Car Bumpers: Located at the bottom of the shaft to stop the car if it should overtravel at low speed. Not designed to stop a free-falling car.

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Safety Edges Capacity and Speed: 1.6 Times rise in feet + 360

Operating System: automatic

Architectural Considerations: Elevator Size: Number Location

Traffic: Number of persons handled during a five minute peak interval.

Min. Number of Elevators = Traffic_____________ Handling capacity of Elevator

Handling Capacity of Elevator: Car Size: 2 sqft per person Round Trip time: 20 to 30 seconds Interval time between elevators.

Elevator Locations: Central, easily located at Building entrances.

Door size: 3-6

Special Design Considerations:

Hospital Elevators: 5-4 x 8-4 3,500 lbs capacity

Freight Elevators: Vertical Transport Equipment, Goods, Materials

Class A General Freight Class B Motor Vehicle Garage Elevator Class C Industrial Truck Loading

Service Elevators:Passenger elevators that have been modified to handle oversize loads or hand trucks.

Sidewalk Elevators: Freight or supply lifts that rise to an upper level by opening hatch doorslocated in the ground floor.

Dumbwaiters:

Hoisting and Lowering Devices for vertical transportation of materials and supplies. Max. 9 sqft size. Max. 4 ft Hgt. Capacity 500 lbs

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Vertical conveyors:

Distribute continuous flow of material (never people) throughout multistory buildings.

Escalator: Mechanical device on which passengers are transported along an incline from one floor to another.

Moving stairway. Rating: Speed of Operation = Feet/minute

Nominal Width = 32 to 48

Moving Ramps: Form of vertical transportation. Continuous tread.

Continuous moving Tread : 40 wide. 150 Inclination , Speed 140 to 180 Feet/min.

17 BUILDING CODES

Governmental Requirements with specific tasks related to Public Health, Safety, Welfare.

Allowable Size of Building: Area, Height, based on degree of danger

Type of Occupancies: Specific type of concern

Type of Construction: Structural materials are classified as noncombustible or combustible.

Fire Rating and Protection: Highest rated structure, Type IA.

Means of Egress: Continuous and unobstructed path of travel from any occupied portion of a facility to a public way.

Materials and Methods

USE AND OCCUPANCY:

Group A - Assembly Group B - Business Group E - Educational Group F - Factory Group H Hazardous Group I Institutional Group M Mercantile Group R Residential

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Group S Storage Group U Utility

Type of Construction:

Non Combustible Construction Combustible Construction Fire Rated Construction

Building Volume Area and Height:

Fire:

Flame Spread: Class A : Flame Spread 0 to 25 :Stairs Class B: Flame Spread 26 to 75 :Corridors Class C: Flame Spread 76 to 200 : Institutional, Dwelling Units

Means of Egress:

Exit Access: Door in Office Suite Exit : Door into Fire exit Exit Discharge : Door from Egress to Street

Occupancy Loads:

Tables of Model Code Business: Max. 100 sqft / Occupant = Gross Sftg Educational = Net Floor Area

Occupancy Load for a 3,000 sqft Office = 3,000 = 30 occcupants 100

Egress Width:

Egress Width = Occupant Load Factor x (Occupant Type) Min. 2 Exists N. of Exists

Separation of Exists = One h Max. Diagonal Space or Floor requiring 2 Exists

Travel Distance to closest Exit : 200 ft Building w/out sprinkler, 250 Building w/ sprinkler

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Egress through Intervening Spaces:

Not Allowed to Intervene w/ an exit Path: Kitchens, Storage Rooms, Closets, Toilet Rooms, Bathrooms, Other Dwelling Units.

Corridors: Min. 44 wide, Dead ends Max. 20 feet long.

Exists: Exit is that part of egress that either takes the occupant from the building or floor to a vertical exit enclosure (stair), an

exit passageway, a horizontal exit, or an exterior exit ramp or stairway.

Vertical Exit Enclosures: Interior Exit Stairways and ramps, min. 1 hour fire rated.

Exit Passageways: serve connect multiple Vertical exit enclosures

Horizontal Exists: Divide a building or Floor into separate compartments w/ 2 Hour Fire

Rated partition, separating floor from interior wall to exterior wall.

Exterior exit Ramps and Stairs: For buildings with max 6 stories or max. 75 ft hgt.

Exit Discharge: Door leading from any vertical exit enclosure to public street.

ADA ACCESS:

Access Routes

Access Entrances

Parking and Passenger Loading facilities

Dwelling and Sleeping Units

Special Occupancies

Toilet and Bathing Facilities

Kitchens

Drinking Fountains

Elevators

Lifts

Storage

Service Facilities

Controls

31 Operating Mechanisms

Hardware, Recreational Facilities, Signage

Federal Standards and Requirements: U.S. Government standards and requirements that impact building

design and construction.

OSHA: Occupancy Safety and Health Act: specific requirements for the workplace that include stairs, railings,

ladders, and protection of openings.

Safety Glass Standard:

Fair Housing Act : Part of the nondiscrimination laws

Americans with Disabilities Act : Part of the nondiscrimination laws

Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards : Provides requirements for construction under four specific federal government agencies including the United States Postal, Department of Defense, General Services Administration.

State Building Codes: Adopted one of the model code families with little revision.

City Building Codes: Enforcement of the code is typically left to building officials in each community.

Planning and Zoning Codes: Restrict specific areas in the community to certain types of building

occupancies (commercial, residential, light industrial, etc.).

Specific Local Interests and Conditions.

Restriction Building Types

Fire Codes and Fire Zones:

18 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN: philosophy of designing physical objects, the built environment and services to

comply with the principles of economic, social, and ecological sustainability.

Principles of Sustainable Design: 1. Earths Ecosystem (Earths Crust and Atmosphere: 5 miles deep and 5 miles up) finiteamount of Natural Resources.

2. Thermodynamics: Energy cannot not be created or destroyed. All is contained in theecosystem.

3. All forms of energy tends to seek equilibrium and therefore disperse.

Need of preservation of Beneficial Natural Elements and diminish or extinguish natural resources contaminated with toxins and destructive human practices.

Principles:

1. Substances from the Eraths Crust must not systematically Increase in the ecosphere.2. Substances that are manufactured must not systematically increase in the atmosphere.

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3. Productivity and Diversity of nature must not be systematically diminished.4. There must be a fair and efficient use of resources to meet human needs.

Sustainable Site Planning and Design:

Site Selection: Depends on:

Cost

Adjacency to Utilities

Transportation

Building Type

Zoning

Neighborhood Compatibility

1. Adjacency to Public Transportation2. Flood Plains3. Erosion, Fire, Land Slides4. Sites with high Slopes or Agricultural Use5. Solar Orientations, Wind Patterns6. Landscape Site Conditions

Alternative Transportation

Reduction of Site Disturbance

Storm Water Management:

1. Provide on-site infiltration of contaminants.2. Reduce impermeable Surface and allowing local aquifer recharge instead of runoff to

waterways.3. Encourage groundwater recharge

Ecologically Sensitive Landscaping:

1. Install Indigenous plant material2. Locate shade trees and Plants over dark surfaces to reduce heat island effect.3. Replace lawns with natural grass4. In dry Climates, Encourage xeriscaping. Encourage higher efficiency higher efficiency

irrigation technologies: Drip Irrigation, Rain Water Recapture, Gray Water Reuse.

Reduction of Light Pollin:

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Open Space Preservation:

1. Promote In fill Development compact and contiguous to existing infrastructure and publictransportation opportunities.

2. Promote development that protects natural resources and provides buffers betweennatural and intensive use areas.a. Indentify natural areasb. Provide design that enhances natural areasc. Design to provide buffers between sensitive natural areas and areas of intensive

use.d. Provide linkages between natural areas.e. Links between natural areas used for walking, hiking, biking, should be constructed

of permeable and biodegradable material.3. Establish procedures that ensure the ongoing management of natural areas as part of

strategy of sustainable design.

Ahwahnee Priciples:

Existing patterns of Urban and Suburban development seriously impair our quality of life.

1. More congestion and air pollution resulting from dependence on automobile, and loss ofprecious open space.

2. Need for costly improvements to roads and public services3. Inequitable distribution of economic resources4. Loss of sense of community

Community Principles

1. Planning in form of complete and integrated communities containing housing, shops,workplaces, schools, parks, civic facilities.

2. Community size designed so Housing, Jobs, Daily needs, Other activities within walkingdistance between each other.

3. Activities located within walking distances of transit stops.4. Diversity of Housing types to enable citizens from a wide range of economic levels and

age groups to live within its boundaries.5. Business within community to provide job types for communitys residents.6. Location and character of community to be consistent with larger transit network7. Community to have center focus combining commercial, civic, cultural, recreational

uses.8. Community to contain specialized open spaces in form of Squares, Greens , Parks,

whose frequent use is encouraged through placement and design.9. Public spaces to be designed to encourage attention and presence of people at all hours

of day and night.10. Community or cluster of community should have well-defined edge ,Agriculture belt or

wild life corridor , permanently to protect from development.

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11. Streets , pedestrian paths, Bike paths to contribute to system of fully connected routes to all destinations.

12. Conserve natural terrain, drainage, vegetation. 13. Conserve resources and limit waste 14. Efficient use of water through natural drainage, draught tolerant landscaping, recycling. 15. Street Orientation, Placement of Buildings, Shading to contribute to energy efficiency of

community. Regional Principles 1. Integrate regional land use with larger transportation network built around transit

rather than freeway. 2. Region to be bounded by and provide continuous of greenbelt, wild life corridors to

be determined by natural conditions. 3. Regional institutions and services to be located in urban core. 4. Materials and methods of construction to be specific to region.

Implementation Principals:

1. General plan to be updated to incorporate above principles. 2. Local Governments to take charge of planning process. General plans to be

designated where new growth, in-fill, or redevelopment is allowed to occur. 3. Specific plan to be prepared based on these principals. 4. Plan developed through open process with visual models.

Architectural Process:

1. Cost : Life cycle cost, Matrix Cost, 2. Function 3. Time 4. Aesthetics 5. Sustainability

a. Use less b. Recycle components c. Use easily recyclable components d. Use fully biodegradable components e. Do not deplete natural resources

Standards for Evaluation

LEED : Leadership in Energy & environmental Design

1. Sustainable Sites 2. Water efficiency

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3. Energy and Atmosphere4. Materials and Resources5. Indoor air quality6. Innovation and Design Practice

SUSTAINABLE DESIGN PROCESS:

a. Design Team1. Architect, Engineers with energy modeling experience2. Landscape Architect with a specialty in native plant material.3. Commissioning expert4. Engineer / Architect with building modeling experience

b. Goals:1. Initial imperatives: budget, timing, image, program necessities.2. Subjective goals: functionality, pleasing work environment, pleasing color

schemes, landscape that complements architecture.3. Specific goals: more open space, more natural light, less water usage,

adjacency to public transportation.4. Specific sustainability initiatives: fewer toxins, day lighting in occupancy

spaces less energy usage, less water usage, adjacency to public transportation,improved indoor air quality.

5. Exceed existing standards: ASHRAE, USGBC, APA

C. Research and Education:

1. Education of Client : It is critical that the client understands the sustainable process and is sympathetic to its potential economic and environmental benefits.

2. Education of Design Teama. Establishment of Goals:

_% reduction energy use from established norm_Improved Lighting_Nontoxic and low VOC paint and finish_Increased recycled content in materials_High-efficiency appliances_Wood elements as certified wood products_Day lighting in all work/occupied spaces

3. Verify extent of work:4. Energy and Optimization Modeling:5. Bid and specification process:

a. Simple definitions of sustainable designb. Explanations of specific characteristics sustainable designc. References specific regulatory agencys information

6. Suppliers that meet sustainable standards7. Changes and Substitutions8. Solar Design: system of using sunlight or solar radiation to supply a portion of the building's heat

energy.

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a. Passive Solar Design: _ Direct Gain Systems: systems that allow solar radiation to flow directly into the space needing heat. _Indirect Gain Systems: systems operate when the sunlight first strikes a thermal mass that is located between thesun and the space. The sunlight absorbed by the mass is converted to thermal energy (heat) and then transferred into the living space.

1. Architectural sun control devices: Overhangs or shading devices, Deciduous trees, shutters , verticalprojections or fins, awnings, trellises, sunscreens

2. Light-colored roof systems: Light-colored roofing materials reflect sunlight and reduce the amount of radiation that is absorbed through the roof into the interior space.

3. Optimized building glazing system: Orientation, light transmittance factors, and U-value are all factors architects consider in selecting glazing.

4. Lightinga. Day lighting

_ Overhangs, fins, etc._Saw tooth skylight design_Interior window shading devices_Light shelves

5. Higher efficiency Light fixtures: light fixtures that are more efficiently designed reduce energy cost and increase comfort. _ Lighting sensors and monitors: sense occupancy conditions. _Lighting Models: simulate the levels of sunlight that penetrate into a building design, depending on the building location, varying times of year, fenestration orientation, and design.

9. Benchmarking: The U.S. Department of Energy provides "benchmark" information of total energy consumption in BTUs/SF for various kinds of buildings in the United States. Benchmark = Standards

10. Commissioning: process to ensure that all building systems perform interactively according to the intent of the architectural and engineering design, and the owner's operating needs. HVAC and MEP systems, controls, ductworks and pipe insulation, renewable and alternate technologies.

11. Innovative Technologiesa. Ground water aquifer Cooling and Heating: uses the differential thermal energy in water from an underground well

to cool a building during summer and heat a building in the winter.

b. Geothermal Energy: heat contained within the earth's surface causes macro-geological events tapped to produce heat foradjacent structures.

c. Wind Turbines: Small-scale wind machines used to generate electricity can be mounted on buildings or in open space nearby.

d. Photovoltaic (PV) Systems: concept that electricity is produced from solar energy when photons or particles of light are absorbed by semiconductors.

e. Fuel cells: electrochemical devices that generate direct current (DC) electricity similar to batteries. But, unlike batteries, they require a continual input of hydrogen-rich fuel.

f. Biogas: process that converts biomass, such as rapid-rotation crops and selected farm and animal waste, to a gas that can fuel a gas turbine. This conversion process occurs through anaerobic digestionthe conversion of biomass to gas by organisms (like bacteria) in an oxygen-free environment.

g. Small Scale Hydro: Harnessing the energy from moving water.

h. Ice Storage cooling system: Supplement a building's cooling capacity with an ice storage system. An ice storage system has three components: a tank with liquid storage balls, a heat exchanger, and a compressor for cooling.

37

BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI II Sintesi II DUELEONI

1

03 BUILDING DESIGN SINTESI II

A. SITE WORK 1. Soil:

a. Soil Composition: Chemical decomposition rock, water, air, temperature on rock, decay vegetable and animal matter.

b. Soil types: _ Rock or Bedrock : strongest support for foundation of a structure. _Hardpan: Good foundation base for buildings. _Gravel and Sand: Coarse-grained soils , excellent drainage properties _Silt and Clay: Careful investigation required. _Quicksand: Unfit for foundation.

c. Soil Exploration and Testing: Methods depend on location, topography, depth of Water table, magnitude of structural loads anticipated. _ Test pits: excavations for direct visual inspection of actual soil conditions. _ Soil Load Tests: Platform erected on site; Incremental Loads applied. _Borings:

Auger Borings: 2 2.5 Samples from 50 feet dp. Wash Borings: For compacted soils: Water forced through 2-4 pipe,

100-0 or more. Core Borings: Diamond Drill Dry Sample Borings: for laboratory testing. Samples taken every 5.

d. Soil Properties: 1. Specific Gravity 2. Grain Size and Shape 3. Liquid and Plastic limits 4. Water content 5. Void Ratio 6. Unconfined Compression

e. Soil and Site Problems: 1. Inadequate Bering Capacity 2. Subsurface Water 3. Shrinkage 4. Seismic Movements 5. Settlement 6. Frost Action 7. Earth Movement

2

f. Soil Drainage : Moisture can lead to reduction of soils bearing capacity, leakage ofwater into building, disintegration of building materials.1. Water Table: Level below which soil is saturated with ground water.2. Foundations: to be placed above Water table. Use Drain Tile System, Performed

Water Stops.3. Drainage: To direct water away from all structures by grading or shaping contours of

site to provide gradual transition from high to low elevations.g. Soil Modifications: Improvement of Soil Consistency , Dependability, Bearing Capacity

1. Drainage2. Deepen, Increase bearing area of footing3. Replace existing subsoil with compacted granular material.

h. Site Preparation:_Clear undesirable materials_Locate Building lines using strings or wires stretched between Batter Boards.

i. Earthwork1. Excavation

_ Removal of existing soil to permit construction of foundation_Permanent cut slopes: < 1.5h to 1v_Permanent fill slopes: < 2:1

2. Grading: Alteration of Sites contours._Rough Grading: Prior construction_Finish Grading: After construction

3. Backfill: Replace Earth around foundation or retaining wall after concrete formshave been removed.

B. FOUNDATIONS 1. Foundations: Part of structure that transmits buildings load to soil.2. Footings: Part of foundation, widened to spread load over large area of soil.3. Shallow Foundations: When soils close to ground are of adequate strength.

_Column footing: square or rectangular pad of concrete_Cantilever footing_Raft foundation_Wall footing: continuous spread footing_Mat footing: used when soil conditions are poor_Boat footing: placed at a depth such that weight of soil removed from excavation is equal to load of Building

_Combined footing

4. Deep Foundations: When upper soils have insufficient bearing capacity.

_Piles: Transfer loads to soil by skin friction.

_Wood piles: Must be below permanent ground level.

3

_Precast Concrete: Prestressed

_Cast in Place Concrete: Driven with mandrel core; removed before pouring.

_Concrete filled steel pipe: Driven with steel tip , then filled with concrete.

_Structural Steel: For dense earth and heavy loads, H Section.

_Sheet Piling: May be used as a water dam.

5. Caissons and Cofferdams: Box like structures at very wet or soft soils6. Temporary Supports

_Sheeting: Temporary wood, steel or concrete wall to retain soil around excavation. Slurrywall._Bracing: Sheeting Brace to resist soil pressure. Rakers._Underpinning: Support existing foundations,or walls to be extended downward. NeedleBeams, Pipe Cylinders with hydraulic jacks.

C. SITE IMPROVEMENTS: 1. Roads2. Parking3. Walks4. Fences5. Lighting6. Asphalt Paving:

_Asphalt Concrete_Cold Laid Asphalt_Asphalt Macadam

7. Brick Paving8. Stones Cobles9. Granit Setts10. Flagstone

D. GRADE CHANGING DEVICES: 1. Shape or retain earth in order to modify finish grade of site.2. Retaining walls3. Battered walls4. Cribbing5. Riprap

4

E. CONCRETE: Definition: Mixture of _Fine Aggregate (sand) _Coarse aggregate(gravel or crushed stone) _Potland Cement _Water _Hardening of Concrete caused by Hydration(chemical reaction between water and which creates heat) 1. Types of Thin Shell Rigid Frame forms:

_Thin Shell Dome _Multiple Vaults _Rigid Frame _Thin shell Barrel _Corrugated thin-shell _Rigid Frame

2. Composition of Concrete: a. Cement: Adhesive substance capable of uniting non-adhesive materials

_Chemically active ingredient: Portland Cement: Lime , silica , iron oxide, alumina). _Type I: Standard For general all-purpose use. _Type II: Modified For slow setting and Less Heat _Type III: High early Strength For quick setting and strength _Type IV: Low Heat For very slow setting _Type V: Sulfate Resisting For alkaline water and soils

b. Aggregates: Inert ingredients. Affect quality of concrete. Reduce shrinkage. Serve as a filler. Max. size < 1/3 thickness concrete slab. min. space between reinforcing bars.

_ Fine aggregate: Sand diam. Or less

_Coarse aggregate: Gravel or crushed rock to 1 diam.

c. Admixtures: Alter certain characteristics. Achieve special qualities

_ Accelerators Calcium Chloride Speed up setting time

_Air entraining Resins, fats, oils Resist freezing action

_Retarders Starches, sugars, acids Slow setting time

_Waterproofing Stearate Compounds Decrease permeability

_Water Reducing Organic Compounds Reduce water content

_Workability Powered silicas and lime Improve workability

5

3. Concrete Mix: a. Proportioning: Optimum combination of Mix.

_Volume: 1:3:5 Mix = 1 Part Cement + 3 Parts Fine + 5 Parts Course b. Water-Cement Ratio

_ Gallons of Water per sack of cement _Major factor of strength and durability. _Max. strength = Min. water _Excess water causes laitance _Strength : Depends on Water-cement ratio. Strength measured after 28 days of placement.

c. Mixing: Concrete should be uniform in appearance and evenly distributed. _Ready mix Concrete: Mixed at central plant and transported to site.To be used 1 hours after water is added. _Transit-mixed Concrete: Mixed in truck mix. Water added after arrival.

4. Formwork: Molds into which concrete is placed and held into shape until hardened and develop sufficient strength to support its own weight. Made of _Lumber _Plywood _Metal _Fiberboard _Paper Pulp _ Forms to be strong stiff and tight. Oil is used for coating forms before placing concrete.

5. Reinforced Concrete _Concrete is strong in compression , weak in tension. _Reinforcing Bars: Rebars are designated by numbers representing the bar diameter in 1/8. _Welded Wire Fabric: W.W.F. designated by size and spacing of longitudinal and transverse wires. _Bars: to be adequately concrete covered, galvanized or epoxy coated against corrosion. _Bars: may be preassembled with support devices, as high chair, continuous high chair, slab bolster, beam bolster.

6. Lightweight Concrete: a. Structural Light Weight Concrete:

_ Light weight aggregates made from expanded shale or clay _90 to 110 lbs instead 150 lbs _ Mix size coarse _Better Insulation, More expensive

b. Insulating light weight Concrete _By adding aggregates of expanded materials like Perlite or vermiculate . _Weights 15 to 90 lbs.

6

_ Used for thermal insulation in roof construction.

7. Placement of Concrete _Concrete must be placed as close as possible to its final location evenly, continuously and in a manner to avoid segregation of aggregates. _When placed on harden concrete , this should be moistened and prepared. _Vertical drop limited to 4-0. _Concrete to be compacted and consolidated by hand or vibrators to prevent reduction of its strength and water tightness due to its air bubbles.

8. Testing _Slump Test: Measures consistency and workability of concrete mix. _Cylinder Test: Measures compressive strength. Cylinders are cast, laboratory cured for 7 and 28 days and tested in a crushing machine. _Kelly Ball Test: Measures workability: 30 lb. 6 diam. Ball is dropped. _Impact Hammer Test: Measures Strength. The rebound of a plunger. _Tests of Air content: Measure the volume of air content in the mix.

9. Curring: _Maintain proper humidity and temperature for 3 to 14 day period after placement to assure satisfactory hydration of cement. _Supply additional moisture to surface, using wet covering, covering to prevent evaporation, or leaving moistened wood forms. _Best curing at 50o to 70o.

10. Concrete Joints a. Construction Joints: Horizontal or Vertical joints between two successive concrete pours.

_Keyed _Stepped Horizontal _Roughened and keyed vertical joints _Use of rebar

b. Expansion Joints: Allow free movement of adjacent parts due to expansion or contraction of concrete. _Waterproof, watertight and filled with an elastic filler. _Required in buildings over 200-0 long. _Required at joints of building wings. _Required at addition of new buildings.

c. Control Joints: Allow for shrinkage of large areas. Induces cracking to occur along the joint.

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d. Isolation Joints: Slab on grade and columns or walls, to move independently. 11. Pre stressed Concrete: Placed in compression

_More efficient and economical. Smaller Members, greater distances and loads. _Pre Stress is applied by pre-tensioning and post-tensioning with the use of tendons (high strength bars, single wires, wire stands).

12. Precast Concrete: Advantage of mass production, better quality control of concrete, members can be cast and erected in all weather and faster construction _Floor and Roof System: Pre Stressed, precast planks, used with precast beams , joists and purlins. _Tilt-up Construction: Cast a Wall Panel in a horizontal position and tilt it vertically. _Lift-slab Construction: Casting slab one upon another. Breaking agents required. Lifted. Almost all formwork is eliminated. Pipes, conduits, ducts can be installed on grade. _Tube Slab: Paper tube filler for mechanical to be integrated. Flat ceiling.

13. Concrete Finishes a. Walls and Ceilings: Already set on concrete.

_Rough _Smooth _Rubbed Finished _Sand Blasted _With Texture Form _Bush Hammered _Exposed Aggregate _Applied Finish Stucco _Plaster _Ceramic _Concrete Paint

b. Floors: _Still plastic and workable concrete _Wood float finish _Steel troweled finish _Applied texture as brooming _Applied pigment as pigmented _Heavy duty

c. Terrazzo: Topping material over concrete slab. Mixture of Portland Cement , Water, and Colored Marble Granules.

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F. MASONRY 1. BRICK: Rectangular masonry unit molded from clays and shales, dried and fired in a kiln.

a. Methods of Molding_Soft Mud Process: Moist clay in rectangular molds_Stiff Mud Process: Mixture through a Die, extruding a ribbon cut by wires._Dry Press Process: Most accurately formed brick. Dry mixture pressed into gangmolds.

b. Brick Types:_Building Brick Common Brick: Most widely used 8 x 3 x 2 . _Grade SW (severe weathering)_Grade MW (moderate weathering)_Grade NW (no weathering)_Face Brick: Exposed to view. SW and MW Grade_Grade FBX. Perfection in size, color and texture._Grade FBS. Greater sizes variation and wide color range._Grade FBA. Nonuniform in size , color and texture_Backup Brick: Inferior quality_Paving Brick: Very hard and dense_Fire Brick: Resistant to high Temperature_Sewer Brick: Low Absorbtion_Adobe Brick: Made of natural Clay and Straw_Nail on Brick: Used for masonry. Cannot be supported_Hollow Brick: HBX, HBS, and HBA. SW and MW grades._Modular Brick: Brick courses + mortar joint = 4

c. Brick nomenclature:_Surface: Face , Side, Cull end, beds_Cut Shapes: Half or Bat, Three Quarter, Quarter Closer, King closer, Queen Closer, Splitor Soap_Placement: Header, Stretcher, Bull Header (rowlock course), Bull Stretcher, (shinercourse), Soldier, Sailor

d. Brick Laying:_ During temperatures between 400 and 900._ Brick should be wetted prior to setting to minimize absorption of water from mortarand for better bonding._ Should be set on full bed of mortar, joints to be to ._Reinforced Brick consists of 2 wythes of brick separated by a 2 to 4 space with verticaland horizontal reinforcing bars.

e. Brick Bonding:_Flemish Bond_English Bond

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_Cross Bond _Common Bond _Running Bond _Stacked Bond

f. Veneering: Exposed masonry attached, but not structurally bonded, to the backing. g. Efflorecence: White powdery deposit caused by soluble salts from water penetration. h. Expansion Joints: Required in masonry structures over 200-0 long or where wings

occur. The sealant adheres to the two masonry surfaces to prevent air and water infiltration, while permitting movement top the wall.

2. Concrete Masonry: Manufactured by consolidating stiff concrete mixture in steel molds, cured and quickly dried.

_ Concrete Brick _Concrete Block _Concrete Tile _Cast Stone _Concrete Blocks: Modular : 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 X 15 5/8.Light, Strong and Fire Resistant. _2-Corestretcher _3-Corestretcher _2 or 3 Core Corner Block _Jamb Block _Window Jamb Block _Lintel Block

3. Structural Clay Tile: Hollow, burned clay units with parallel cells. a. Types by Function:

_Back up Tile _Facing Tile

b. Types by Orientation _Side Construction Tile (cells horizontal) _End Construction Tile (cells vertical) _ Architectural Terracotta: Clay tiles in various colors, textures, shapes. _Ceramic Veneer : Terra Cotta in Large Face dimensions , thin sections and glazed finishes.

4. Gypsum Block: or Gypsum tile. From Gypsum Plaster , available in thicknesses 2 to 4and standard Panels 12x 30. _Used for Interior non-bearing partitions and fireproofing protection. _Set with Gypsum Mortar on top of water resistant material.

5. Glass Block: Solid or Hollow _Based on 4 Module _Not Structural _Limited in Area , Height and Length

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6. Stone: _Igneous: Granite _Sedimentary: Limestone, Sandstone, Bluestone, Brownstone _Metamorphic: Marble, Soapstone, Slate

7. Stone Forms: _Rough _Rubble Stone _Dimension Stone _Flagstone _Stone Dust _Monumental Stone _Crushed Stone

8. Stone Masonry: Set with Portland cement masonry. Avoid moisture penetration. _Rubble Masonry. Natural Stone _Ashlar Masonry: Shaped and Smoothed _Coursed: Horizontal Joints _Un coursed or Random: No Horizontal Joints _Bond Stone: Perpendicular to the wall face for tie

9. Mortar: To join units to each other, or their supporting members, while preventing moisture penetration. _Composed of Portland Cement, Lime (workability), sand and water. _Masonry Cement or Mortar Cement may be used instead of Portland Cement. _Types M or S: for masonry that is load bearing and / or exposed to the weather. _Types N and O: lesser compressive strength is required.

10. Mortar Joints: _Weathered _V-Shaped _Raked _Round rodded _Beaded _Stripped _Flush _Troweled _Squeezed or Extruded

11. Masonry Accessories: _Strap anchors _Dove tale anchors _Cramp Anchors _Pin _Threaded Dowel _Hangers

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_Expansion Joints _Water Stops

G. WOOD : 70 percent cellulose and 18 to 28 percent lignin, which is the adhesive imparting strength to the wood. 1. Terminology:

_Wood is the hard fibrous substance lying beneath the bark of trees. _Lumber is wood that has been sawn into construction elements. _Timber is lumber that is 5 or larger in its least dimension.

2. Classification:_Softwood: Pine, Fir, Spruce,(evergreen). Used structurally for framing, sheathing, bracing._Hardwood: Maple, Oak, Sycamore (shed their leaves). Used for Flooring, Paneling, InteriorTrim, Furniture.

3. Characteristics:_Available anywhere_Lower cost that Concrete, Masonry, Steel structures._Timber structures resist fire better that unprotected steel.

4. Seasoning of Wood:_Drying of Wood. Detailing shall allow for shrinkage or swelling._Air Drying: Takes several months and leaves 10% to 20% moisture._Kiln Drying: Takes a few days. Leaves 10% moisture.

5. Cutting and Sawing Lumber:_Cut tangent to annual Rings: Plainsawed (hardwoods) and flat-grained or slash-grained(softwoods)._Radially to Rings: Quatersawed (hardwoods) and Edge-grained or Vertical-grained(softwoods)._Plainsawed: Grain is 0 to 45d to the wide face. Distinct grain pattern, shrinks and swellsmore in width ,less in thickness and is less expensive._Quatersawed. Grain 45 to 90d to the wide face. Even grain pattern, shrinks and swells morein thickness, less in width and more costly.

6. Wood Defects:a. Natural defects : Those resulting from natural causes.

_Knot: Branch embedded in a tree and cut through in manufacture_Check: Pitted area sometimes found in cedar and cypress_Pitch Pocket : Opening between growth rings containing resin_Shake: Lengthwise grain separation between or through growth rings

b. Manufacturing Defects: Those arising from the seasoning or processing of lumber._Check: Lengthwise grain separation caused by seasoning._Split: Lengthwise separation of wood extending from one face to another._Wane: Lack of wood on the edge or corner._Wrap: Shrinkage distortion of a plane surface; includes bow, crook, cup, and twist

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7. Grading Lumber: Lumber is graded for appearance or strength depending on its end use. a. By Use

_ Yard Lumber _Factory and Shop Lumber

b. By Size_Boards: Graded for appearance. Used as siding, Subflooring and trim. Types: Select andCommon._Dimensions: Graded for Strength. Used for loading bearing members. Types by Size:Joists, Planks, Light framing and Decking._Timbers: As dimensions. Types: Beams, Stringers, Posts and Timbers.

c. By Manufacturer:_Rough: Visible saw marks._Dressed or surface lumber is planed smooth to uniform size._Worked lumber is dressed and tongue-and-grooved or shaped to a pattern.

d. Harwood Grades. Based on amount of clear, usable lumber in a piece._Standard Grades:_First_Seconds_Selects_Sound Wormy_Numbers: 1, 2, 3a and 3b

e. Lumber Sizes: Nominal Dimensions: 2x4 (1 x 3 ). Measured, computed and priced inBoard Feet : 1x12x12

8. Plywooda. Manufactured wood panel consisting of several thin wood veneer sheets permanently

bonded together with the grain of each ply perpendicular to the adjacent._Center ply: Core, outer plies. Face and Back ._Odd number of Plies for flatness._4x8x5/16 to 1 1/8 ._Used as wall and Roof sheathing, subflooring, underlayment and formwork._Joint Types: Butt, Vee, Shiplap, Batten, Metal Tee.

b. Classification:_Interior: moisture resistant adhesive_Exterior: waterproof adhesive_Softwood: for construction_Hardwood: decorative applications_Grades : from A to D front and back

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9. Miscellaneous Panels_ Hardboard_Pre finished Hardboard. Used for exterior siding, soffits, interior walls, ceilings, cabinetry,acoustical treatment._Fiber board. Acoustical tile, sheathing, interior wall finish._Flake board. Good acoustical properties and insulation values. Fragile._Particle board. Core of plastic laminate or hardwood veneer._Bead board. Insulating material_Plastic Laminates or Formica. Counter tops, wall coverings and furniture.

10. Glue Laminated Lumber:_Glulams are core weather resistant, consistent in size, appearance, and strength than solid timber.Appearance Grades:a. Industrialb. Architecturalc. Premium

Shapes:

a. Straightb. Single Tapered Straightc. Double Tapered Curvedd. Double Tapered Pitchede. Doubled Tapered Straightf. Curved and Pitched

Joints: Scarf and Finger Joint

11. Wood Preservation:_Insects: In warm humid climates. Termites eat wood from within. Measures include properdrainage, good ventilation and impervious concrete foundation. Use of preservatives whichpenetrate the wood, are recommended instead of metal termite shields. Heavy treatmentwith creosote at marine borings._Decay: Caused by Fungi in mild temperatures, moisture and air. Treat with preservatives,kept well ventilated and dry._Preservatives: Types: Oil-borne solutions, Water-borne solutions. Pressure applied for moreeffectiveness._Fire: Prevention by impregnating a chemical solution (ammonium phosphate) or by surfacetreatment (intumescent paint).

12. Wood Framing:_Trusses_Built-up Girders_Glued Laminated Beams

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_Types of Laminated wood frames and arches: Two-hinged arch, Three-hinged arch, Three-hinged frame. _Types of Truss Rafter Types: Pitched, Flat, Scissors , Sawtooth. _Types of Wood Wall Framing: Platform Framing (one story studs), Balloon Framing (full height studs, two stories).

13. Wood Joining: a. By Location: _Exterior _Interior b. By Connection: _Lap _Shoulder _Rabbet _Miter _Shoulder Miter _Quirk Miter _T&G Miter _Butt _T&G _Ship lap _Spline _Fillet _V-joint _Batten _Squared Splice _Splice _Scarf _Mortise & Tenon _Dado _Dovetail _Open Joint _Metal Joint _Metal U Insert _Open Joint with Filler b. Nails: _Common _Box _Finish

14. Finish Woodwork: _Millwork. Shop-fabricated items that need to be protected by a primer or sealer. _Wood Trim: To cover joints. Shapes: round, round, cove, bead, crown, casing, base.

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_Wood Siding and Paneling. Better grades of wood used. Patterns: channels, board & batt, t&g, shiplap, bevel, rabbeted bevel, vee joint t&g, Drop t&g.

H. METALS: come from the earth, usually as metallic ores, which are metal-bearing minerals rocks. There are a few metals, however, that found in a purer state, such as gold, silver, and copper.

1. Characteristics:_Luster_Opaqueness_Hardness_Ability to conduct Heat_ Ability to conduct Electricity_Alloys: combination of pure metals (lead, copper, iron)with controlled quantities ofother substances._Ferrous: Contain a lot of Iron, stainless steel, galvanized iron._Non-Ferrous: Aluminum, Copper, Zinc

2. Deterioration: Galvanic action or electrolysis occurs when different metals are incontact and depends on the amount of moisture present.List of metals based on Galvanic activity:

Aluminum Zinc Iron and steel Stainless steel Tin Lead Brass Copper Bronze Gold

3. Forming Metal:_Process by which extracted metal is transformed into useful product that has afinish shape._Cast: By pouring molten metal into a mold_Wrought: By forcibly shaping solid metal to a required form.

4. Ferrous Metals:_Iron: Most Abundant Metal_Wrought Iron: Used for ornamental work, grilles, pipes, outdoor furniture._Cast Iron: Pipes, Plumbing Fixtures, Ornamental Work, Hardware, Special Castings_Steel: Methods of making:a. Open hearthprocess

16 b. Basic oxygen processc. Electric furnace process

Steel: is an alloy of iron that contains no more than 2 percent carbon. Structural steel contains about a quarter of 1

percent carbon, plus traces of various impurities.

_Steel is the most widely used structural metal in building construction. _Used for structural framing, Concrete reinforcing bars, lathing, conduit, pipes, fixtures, miscellaneous and ornamental work, connectors (nails, pins, bolts). _Structural Steel : steel used for structural purposes, containing varying amounts of carbon and other elements._Alloy Steel: steel containing other elements that are added to provide special properties. stainless steel._Weathering Steel: steel containing up to one half of 1 percent copper, which develops a tightly-adherent oxide coating when exposed to the weather.

_Heat-Treated Steel: reheated and cooled slowly, or annealed, for improved workability. _Case-Harden Steel: steel with a hard, high carbon surface produced by a special process.

5. Non-Ferrous Metals:_Aluminum: Light weight, good thermal and electrical conductivity and resistance tocorrosion. Used for framing, light weight structures, railings, grills, siding, curtainwalls, windows, doors, flashing, insulation, roofing, screening, hardware._Copper: Resistant to corrosion, electrical and thermal conductivity. Used forelectrical work, water distribution lines, roofing and flashing, and for screeningmesh._Brass: Resist Corrosion. Precise casting, finish hardware, plumbing, heating, accomponents and fittings._Bronze: Similar to brass_Lead: Toxic, heavy, soft, weak. Corrosion resistant and workable. Used forfoundations and machinery. Rough hardware item, roofing and flashing._Zinc: Roof coverings, flashings and protective coatings for steel_Monel: Roofing, flashing, countertops, sinks.

6. Metal Finishes:_Anodizing: Metal Finish applied to aluminum_Galvanizing: Most popular method. Zinc is applied by immersing the steel in a bathof molten Zinc.

7. Use of Metals in Construction:_Structural: reinforcing bars and mesh for concrete, and wire rope. Structural Framing Elements._Hollow Metal: doors, bucks, partitions, panels, windows, mullions, curtain walls, and panel systems that incorporate other materials, such as glass, stone, plastic,

_Miscellaneous Metalwork: stairs, railings, fencing, gratings, rough hardware, ladders._Ornamental Metalwork: plaques, letters, finish hardware, railings, screens, grilles, expansion joint covers. _Flashing: base and cap flashing, gutters and leaders, spandrel and through-wall flashing, copings, termite shields _Miscellaneous: Miscellaneousrough hardware, nuts and bolts, rivets, screws, nails, washers, inserts, hangers, anchors, wire.

8. Structural Steel Construction:_Consists of the fabrication and erection of Hot-rolled members which aremanufactured from medium carbon steel.

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_Rolled Steel Section: Beam, Column w-shape. Beam s-shape, Channel s-shape, Channel c-shape, L-shape, tee wt-shape, t st-shape, structural tubing, bars and plates. Built-up steel sections. _Cable and Tent Structures: Used to cover very large areas with thin sheet material. _Space frames and Domes: Truss structural systems which span in two directions. _Lightweight metal framing: Light guage steel members are used. Lightweight, incombustible, impervious to decay, warpage, shrinkage and termites. _Open Web Joists or Bar Joists: Shop Fabricated, Standard Lightweight Trussses. _Metal Decking: Ribbed, corrugated, cellular or flat ribbed. _Miscellaneous and Ornamental metal: Ferrous metal used for stairs, railings, fire escapes, gratings, and fences. Shop drawings required. Non-Ferrous metal and stainless steel are used for decorative grills , louvers, mesh and wire cloth, metal treillage and flag poles.

I. MOISTURE CONTROL: 1. Ground Water Control:

_Surface Water:ponds