b.r.m handouts

Business Research Methods (BRM)

Defining & explaining BRM

Research may be defined as an organized inquiry carried out to provide information for the

solution of a problem. It includes reporting as well as descriptive, predictive and explanatory

studies.

“The systematic investigation and study of materials, sources, etc., in order to establish facts and

reach new conclusions” Oxford English dictionary.

“A process of finding out information and investigating the unknown to solve a problem”.

“Something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby

increasing their knowledge”

Research contributes to more effective decisions in all functional areas of business and has

emerged as a specialty in marketing and operations research.

Research Characteristics

Originates with a question or problem.

Requires clear articulation of a goal.

Follows a specific plan or procedure.

Often divides main problem into sub problems.

Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.

Accepts certain critical assumptions.

Requires collection and interpretation of data.

Some authors divide research in two categories i.e. pure research and the applied research. Both

pure and applied research is problem directed but applied research is much more decision

directed.

If we compare both the categories of research we may define research as an inquiry carried out to

secure information for solving problems. Whether a given research is simple or complex,

scientific or unscientific, useful or useless depends on its objectives, its designs and the skill and

integrity with which it is conducted. Even bad research is still research.

Applied research is research undertaken to solve practical problems rather than to acquire

knowledge for knowledge sake.

Basic research is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge

without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.

Basic Business Research Methods

Organizations use research, especially in market research activities. Market research is used to

identify potential markets, the needs and wants of each, how those needs and wants can be met,

how products and services could be packaged to be most accessible to customers and clients. The

best pricing for those products and services, who the competitors are and how best to complete

against each, potential collaborators and how to collaborate with each other -- and many other

applications of research. Organizations can conduct this research without having advanced skills.

Research Objectives

The main objectives of conducting research are:

1. To compile reports of statistical data.

2. To attain higher order of investigation.

3. To attain some descriptive elements where certain facts and assumptions are assembled into a

basis for prediction of the outcomes of various courses of action.

4. To attain a more sophisticated approach or a way to solve the problem via the classical

scientific methods.

Six Different Types of Business Research for Organizations

Decision-making is a crucial aspect of any business venture. A business owner can make firm

decisions and stand by them, only when he is well aware of the surroundings of his market place.

Along with the internal factors about your business, you also need to have complete

understanding about the external factors affecting your products, services and overall business.

Business research comes forward as the best solution to this dilemma. Business or industry

analysis is the systematic process of gathering all the relevant market data, which is then

organized and analyzed to draw conclusions that are relevant to your industry. These reports

contain essential information about the market trends, segments, customer groups, demands,

competitors and all the key players in the marketplace.

Various business research companies use different types of tools, techniques and methods

for marketing analysis. These methods and types vastly depend on the particular requirements of

the business owners and their research project. However, following are the basic types of

industry analysis that are commonly used by various study firms across the globe:

1. Quantitative Analysis

This method deals with collecting all the objectives and numerical data from various resources.

Various statistical models and formulas help the experts to collect market data about the features.

Questionnaire is the basic tool, which provides adequate information about customer behavior

and their approach towards a particular product or company. Compiling complete statistical

investigation is the basic aim of quantitative analysis. Hence, the questions are also in objective

sorts that draw yes and no responses from the customers chosen for the tests.

2. Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis is exactly opposite to quantitative study. It is thoroughly subjective and deals

with the market data, which can be stored in the form of words and visual presentations. In this

study, experts observe customers the record and analyze their responses in the form of answers

and queries. These responses include various answers to open-ended questions, their overall

behavior and results of various tests performed on them. Qualitative examination mainly depends

on case studies, which helps the experts to collect the required market data.

3. Observations

This is the basic weapon at the disposal of the experts undertaking your projects. Observational

research plays a vital role in collecting crucial market data, which all the other methods cannot

do. It is the method of collecting valuable data without any interference or inputs from the

experts. They plainly observe the customers and their behavior and then carry out reports based

on these observations. They record the feedback and complaints of the customers based on their

preferences and suggest improvements.

4. Experiments

Business analysis based on experiments helps the researchers to change the set parameters and

observe the results according to these changes. These projects generally take place in dedicated

laboratories, but can also be performed at other places. This technique helps the experts

understand various aspects and conditions that affect the behavior of target customers

RESEARCH IN FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BUSINESS

Research in business covers a wide range of subject areas. Some of them are:

1. Research involves statistical information about the external environment of the business as

well as the internal management. A substantial amount of research is done in the fields of

industrial and employees’ relations. Studies of morale, employees’ opinions and attitudes,

absenteeism, internal communication, the management of people are all the examples of

research into Human Relations Management.

2. Research also concentrates on financial management. In recent years there has been a

substantial increase in the amount of financial research being carried on, especially in

operational and capital budgeting and investment analysis. In addition to this accounting and

management information system also do get help from research.

3. It also concentrates on production and distribution problems. These two activities are

subsumed under the term “operations management”. Both accounting and mathematics play

important role in this work. The use of mathematical models for the analysis of business

problems has also been developed on a large scale.

4. Research concentrates on buyer motivations in relation to the company’s service offering.

Here the research is used not only for studies of markets and their opportunities but is also

used to study company’s marketing operations.

Presently the single largest utility of research in business is for Research and Development (R &

D) dealing largely with engineering and technological problems R & D is an area of major

managerial concern, it is largely technological research.

In short, research opportunities are found in all functional areas of business. They range from

investigations of political actions, public opinion, economic conditions as well as market studies.

Who Does the Research?

Information gathering is an integral part of the manager’s task. But in some cases a research

specialist may be called. When this happens, the research function is more clearly delegated,

specified and budgeted. Such delegation tends to occur for major problems that take more time,

resources and special skills than are available from the decision-makers and their immediate

staff.

MANAGER’S TASK

Information gathering is only a part of the manager’s job. Managers must analyze the research

findings, interpret their meaning and add them to the information, which they already possess.

RESEARCHER’S TASK

Opinions differ about how far researchers’ roles seek assistance in acquiring the needed

information. Since the managers are ill equipped for the task so they may delegate the job to the

research specialists. However, manager withholds key information / data, often for reasons of

security. Researchers may then be forced to adopt a distorted problem. In these circumstances the

research results are likely to be less useful than they might have been if communication had been

more complete. Researchers also have obligation. They have to work under the given limited

provisions.

CRITERIA FOR GOOD RESEARCH WORK

A comprehensive research work is one that possesses findings and conclusions and degree of

confidence that one can place in the study and its results. However for practical purposes

following requirements are essential for a good research work.

1. The purpose of the research, or the problem involved, should be clearly defined and sharply

delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible.

The statement of the research problem should include analysis into its simplest elements, its

scope and limitations and precise specifications of the meanings of all words significant to

the research.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another

researcher to repeat the research.

3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as

objective as possible.

4. The researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and

estimate their effect upon the findings.

5. Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods

of analysis used should be appropriate.

6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to

those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

7. Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

This is an excellent set of criteria for evaluating research studies, especially scholarly work. This

approach is particularly useful in investigations where problems are not clear and methods not

yet developed.

Concept of Business – Research & Management

The business practices are centuries old. However in the past the scope of business was used to

be very small. The industrialization rapidly changed the nature of business. This led to larger

businesses, complex in nature, multi product, multi – locational and structure of the region. This

change precipitated an urgent need for the organized study of management principles in order to

enable the business organizations to coordinate the human and non human resources to achieve

the goals. As we know business is a commercial pursuit carried out for the gainful purposes. The

gainful purposes develop value addition in the business out put. This value addition reviews:

Who is satisfied?

What is satisfied?

How the customer is satisfied?

The enhancement added to a product or service by a company before the product is offered to

customers.

Value added refers to the additional value of a commodity over the cost of commodities used to

produce it from the previous stage of production. The value added to any product or service as

the result of a particular process.

A broad definition of value addition is to economically add value to a product and form

characteristics more preferred in the market place. There are two main types of value addition,

Innovation or coordination. Example:

Automobile Manufacturing Industry:

Procurement of Parts

Procurement of consumable materials

Facility planning

Manufacturing and in-house components

Testing and quality assurance

Assembly and finishing

Marketing and sales

After sales services

The Nature and Roles of Objectives in the Business Research

The management may set objectives for the business activity, but there also exist different kinds

of objectives at different levels of business activity. These objectives could be conflicting at

times. They may conflict with the enterprise level objectives or there may be conflict at the

personal or departmental level.

Therefore all objectives must be:

a) Clear and variable to facilitate measurement of end results

b) Aligned to organizational goals and objectives

To bring this alignment and clarity in the life span of business activity, the business experts

propose that objectives be set and coordinated on the basis of the hierarchy of objectives.

1. Socio economic purpose of the organization

2. Mission ( A special assignment or task)

3. Enterprise objectives (organized business activities aimed specifically at growth and

profit)

4. Key enterprise objectives

5. Divisional level objectives

6. Department & unit level objectives

7. Individual objectives

Objectives play an important role in the process of business activity. For example:

Help the organization unit to pursue its mission by involving all structural and individual

levels.

It helps the organizational unit to take the environment into consideration while planning.

It guides the strategic decision making process

It allows system networking

It provides standards and milestones.

However in practice, it has been noticed that majority of business organizations confine their

objectives to areas of:

Profit: With respect to return on investment

Growth: With respect to out put, sales turnover, new investment

Market: With respect to new product development

Employee satisfaction: With respect to work environment

Social Responsibility: With respect to environment management, community services,

urban/rural development, family/society welfare.

SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF RESEARCH

Scientific method logically begins with the foundations of rational thought

processes. These include conceptualization, hypothesis, models, theories,

principles, laws and so forth.

Concepts

A concept is an abstraction of meanings from reality to which we assign

some word or words in order to be able to communicate about it. Concepts

are basic to all thought and communication, yet we normally pay little

attention to them. Concepts, which are in frequent and general use, have

been developed over time.

We design hypothesis statement using concepts. We devise measurement

concepts by which we test these statements. We gather data using these

measurement concepts. We may even invent new concepts to express our

ideas. Even the success of our research hinges on:

How clearly we conceptualize?

How well others understand the concepts we use?

Hypothesis

Hypothesis may be defined as a statement about concepts, which may be

judged as true or false. Hypothesis may be of two types:

1. Descriptive Hypothesis

These are the statements that typically state the existence, size, form, or

distribution of some variable.

2. Relational Hypothesis

These are the statements, which describe a relationship between two

variables with respect to some case.

In the research context a hypothesis serves several important functions.

Perhaps the most important is that it guides the direction of the study. The

virtue of the hypothesis is that it defines what shall be studied and what

shall not. It defines which facts are relevant and which are not, in so doing

it suggests which of research design is likely to be most appropriate. In

addition to this hypothesis also provide a framework for organizing the

conclusions that result from the study.

A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:

1. The most elementary requirement is that it be adequate for its purpose.

2. The second requirement is that it must be testable. A hypothesis is

untestable if it calls for techniques, which are unavailable with the

present state.

3. The third requirement is that it must be better than its rivals.

Generally speaking, the better hypothesis has a greater range and it

explains more facts than do its rivals.

Theory

Theory may be defined as a set of systematically interrelated concepts,

definitions and statements that are advanced to explain and predict

phenomena. The uses of theories help us to explain or predict what goes on

around us.

There may be some confusion about the differences between hypothesis and

theory. The reply is that there is little difference in between them. The basic

difference is in the level of complexity and abstraction. Theories tend to be

abstract and involve multiple variables, while hypotheses tend to be simple.

It is important that researchers recognize the value of theory. Theory serves

us in many useful ways. First as orientation it narrows the range of facts

that we need to study. Any problem may be studied in a number of different

ways and theory suggests which ways are likely to yield the greatest

meaning. Theory may also suggest a system for the researchers to impose

on data in order to classify them in the most meaningful way. Theory also

summarizes what is known about an object of study and states the

uniformity that lie beyond the immediate observations.

Models

Models may be defined as the representation methods. For example a map

used to represent countryside or a chart showing fuel sells of a company.

The main purpose of the model is representation of relationships between

the concepts.

Introduction to the Scientific Method

The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to

construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of the world.

Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our

interpretations of natural phenomena, we aim through the use of standard procedures and criteria

to minimize those influences when developing a theory. In summary, the scientific method

attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experimenter when testing any

hypothesis or a theory.

The scientific method has four steps

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics, the hypothesis often takes

the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation.

3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict

quantitatively the results of new observations.

4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters

and properly performed experiments.

If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of

nature. If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. What is

key in the description of the scientific method just given is the predictive power of the hypothesis

or theory, as tested by experiment. It is often said in science that theories can never be proved;

only disproved. There is always the possibility that a new observation or a new experiment will

conflict with a long-standing theory.

II. Testing hypotheses

Experimental tests may lead either to the confirmation of the hypothesis, or to the ruling out of

the hypothesis. The scientific method requires that hypothesis be ruled out or modified if its

predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental tests. Further, no matter

how elegant a theory is, its predictions must agree with experimental results if we are to believe

that it is a valid description of nature. In physics, as in every experimental science, "experiment

is supreme" and experimental verification of hypothetical predictions is absolutely necessary.

Experiments may test the theory directly (for example, the observation of a new particle) or may

test for consequences derived from the theory using mathematics and logic (the rate of a

radioactive decay process requiring the existence of the new particle). Note that the necessity of

experiment also implies that a theory must be testable. Theories which cannot be tested, because,

for instance, they have no observable ramifications (such as, a particle whose characteristics

make it unobservable), do not qualify as scientific theories.

If the predictions of a long-standing theory are found to be in disagreement with new

experimental results, the theory may be discarded as a description of reality, but it may continue

to be applicable within a limited range of measurable parameters.

We are all familiar with theories which had to be discarded in the face of experimental evidence.

In the field of astronomy, the earth-centered description of the planetary orbits was overthrown

in which the sun was placed at the center of a series of concentric, circular planetary orbits.

Later, this theory was modified, as measurements of the planets motions were found to be

compatible with elliptical, not circular, orbits, and still later planetary motion was found to be

derivable from Newton's laws.

Common Mistakes in Applying the Scientific Method

The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of the scientist's bias on the outcome of

an experiment. That is, when testing any hypothesis or a theory, the scientist may have a

preference for one outcome or another, and it is important that this preference not bias the results

or their interpretation. The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an

explanation of a phenomenon, without performing experimental tests. Sometimes "common

sense" and "logic" tempt us into believing that no test is needed.

Another common mistake is to ignore or rule out data which do not support the hypothesis.

Ideally, the experimenter is open to the possibility that the hypothesis is correct or incorrect.

Sometimes, however, a scientist may have a strong belief that the hypothesis is true (or false), or

feels internal or external pressure to get a specific result. In that case, there may be a

psychological tendency to find "something wrong", such as systematic effects, with data which

do not support the scientist's expectations, while data which do agree with those expectations

may not be checked as carefully. The lesson is that all data must be handled in the same way.

Another common mistake arises from the failure to estimate quantitatively systematic errors (and

all errors). There are many examples of discoveries which were missed by experimenters whose

data contained a new phenomenon, but who explained it away as a systematic background.

Conversely, there are many examples of alleged "new discoveries" which later proved to be due

to systematic errors not accounted for by the "discoverers."

Hypotheses, Models, Theories and Laws

In physics and other science disciplines, the words "hypothesis," "model," "theory" and "law"

have different connotations in relation to the stage of acceptance or knowledge about a group of

phenomena.

The hypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations; it also

refers to our state of knowledge before experimental work has been performed and perhaps even

before new phenomena have been predicted. To take an example from daily life, suppose you

discover that your car will not start. You may say, "My car does not start because the battery is

low." This is your first hypothesis. You may then check whether the lights were left on, or if the

engine makes a particular sound when you turn the ignition key. You might actually check the

voltage across the terminals of the battery. If you discover that the battery is not low, you might

attempt another hypothesis.

The word model is reserved for situations when it is known that the hypothesis has at least

limited validity. Often-cited example of this is the Bohr model of the atom, in which, in an

analogy to the solar system, the electrons are described, has moving in circular orbits around the

nucleus. This is not an accurate depiction of what an atom "looks like," but the model succeeds

in mathematically representing the energies. Another example is Hook's Law or Hook's model,

which states that the force exerted by a mass attached to a spring is proportional to the amount

the spring is stretched. We know that this principle is only valid for small amounts of stretching.

A scientific theory or law represents a hypothesis, or a group of related hypotheses, which has

been confirmed through repeated experimental tests. Theories in physics are often formulated in

terms of a few concepts and equations, which are identified with "laws of nature," suggesting

their universal applicability. Accepted scientific theories and laws become part of our

understanding of the universe and the basis for exploring less well-understood areas of

knowledge. Theories are not easily discarded; new discoveries are first assumed to fit into the

existing theoretical framework. It is only when, after repeated experimental tests, the new

phenomenon cannot be accommodated that scientists seriously question the theory and attempt to

modify it. For example, it is unlikely that a person will step off a tall building on the assumption

that they will not fall, because "Gravity is only a theory."

Are there circumstances in which the Scientific Method is not applicable?

While the scientific method is necessary in developing scientific knowledge, it is also useful in

everyday problem-solving. What do you do when your telephone doesn't work? Is the problem in

the hand set, the cabling inside your house, the hookup outside, or in the workings of the phone

company? The process you might go through to solve this problem could involve scientific

thinking, and the results might contradict your initial expectations.

Like any good scientist, you may question the range of situations (outside of science) in which

the scientific method may be applied. From what has been stated above, we determine that the

scientific method works best in situations where one can isolate the phenomenon of interest, by

eliminating or accounting for extraneous factors, and where one can repeatedly test the system

under study after making limited, controlled changes in it.

There are, of course, circumstances when one cannot isolate the phenomena or when one cannot

repeat the measurement over and over again. In such cases the results may depend in part on the

history of a situation. This often occurs in social interactions between people. For example, when

a lawyer makes arguments in front of a jury in court, she or he cannot try other approaches by

repeating the trial over and over again in front of the same jury. In a new trial, the jury

composition will be different. Even the same jury hearing a new set of arguments cannot be

expected to forget what they heard before.

RESEARCH PROCESS

In general, the research sequence consists of four major stages they are as under:

1. Exploration of the Situation

2. Development of the Research Design

3. Data Collection

4. Analysis and Interpretation of the results

1. Exploration of the Situation

The managers’ interest in the particular technology and what they need to know to make

decisions about it will lead to certain subsidiary questions, such as:

How fast this technology develops?

What are the likely applications of this technology?

What companies now possess it, and which ones are likely to make a major effort to get it?

What actions will be required to acquire it?

How much will it take in resources?

What are the payoffs likely to be?

These questions are only suggestive of the many angles of interest that managers might have in

such a situation.

A problem like this is not easy for the researchers to define and often they have had little specific

prior experience. Nevertheless, the client – managers are anxious to have a definitive research

proposal, including time and budget estimates as well as some predictions of the type of

information which may be secured. The clarity with which the research problem and the

investigative approach can be defined will suggest one of two research strategies.

If the problem is in an area in which the investigators have previously conducted research, they

may move quickly to the development of the basic research proposal with its specific plans and

budget. However, the problem posed above is not likely to be so easy to solve. In this ill defined,

complex situation the researchers might propose a different approach.

Two Stage Approach

Using this format, the researchers break away the exploration stage as a separate study for the

clear definition of the problem and the appropriate type and scope of research. This first,

exploratory stage is usually proposed as a preliminary, definitional study of limited scope and

budget.

The two-stage proposal is particularly useful when the research is to be done on a fixed cost

basis and the complications and problems are difficult to anticipate.

Exploratory Steps

An exploration typically begins with a search of published data. In addition, the researchers often

seek out well-informed people on the topic, especially those who have clearly stated positions on

controversial aspects of the problem.

In the investigation the researchers would probably begin with specific books and periodicals.

They will look for:

Recent Developments.

Predictions by informed figures about the prospects of the technology.

Identification of those involved in the area.

Accounts of successful ventures and failures by others in the field.

After familiarization with the literature, they might seek help from scientists and engineers who

are well known in the field. They give special attention to those who stand at the extremes of

opinion about the prospects of the technology. They would talk with persons having knowledge

about success and failures in the area.

After this relatively unstructured exploration the researchers are in a position to:

Define the research problem more specifically

Determine what they have to do to secure the answers to the posed research questions.

2. Development of the Research Design

At this point the development of the formal research design begins. The research questions are

set.

The steps involved in the designing of a study depend to some extent on the nature of the specific

project. However, as a general procedure, the following steps are common.

a) The major concepts to be used in the study are defined. Further operational definitions

emerge as the design process continues.

b) The investigative questions are reviewed and typically need to be further broken down into

more specific secondary and tertiary level questions.

c) At this stage the general direction of the research becomes clear indicating appropriate

probable design or research type. For example, it may be decided that a survey, or equipment

or some other design should be used.

d) A fourth task is the construction of the specific measurement instruments. For a survey the

interview guide or questionnaire is written and the way in which the survey is to be carried

out is specified.

e) When both the design and the measurement specifics have been determined, a test is needed

to assure that they are feasible for the purpose intended. Almost certainly deficiencies

requiring revisions and additional testing will be found at this stage.

f) At this point, a plan for the analysis of the data is advisable.

g) The final stage of project development is preparation of specific instructions and other

arrangements such as training sessions to assure that the data will be collected efficiently.

At the end of this development of design steps the researchers can compile the formal research

plan.

3. Data Collection

This stage, the actual gathering of data, may range from relatively simple observation at one

location to a grandiose national survey.

Data collection requires substantial resources but not as big a part of the budget as clients would

expect. The geographic scope and the number of observations required affect the cost allocation,

but much of a project’s cost is relatively independent of the size of the data gathering effect. A

rough rule of thumb would be that a) project planning, b) data gathering, and c) analysis,

interpretation and reporting each share about equally in the budget.

4. Analysis and Interpretation of the results

After the fieldwork it is still needed to analyze the data, derive the various measures called for

and investigate the relationships that are found. Further the findings are interpreted in the light of

the clients’ specific problem. Finally the completed report comprises of all the queries and

findings are handed over to the client, which the client would use in decision-making.

AN EXAMPLE ON RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process can be illustrated by an example. Consider a New City extension scheme

with a view of heavily increasing population and the rapid growth is expected to continue for the

next decade.

Most of the homes being built in the area are tract homes designed to appeal to a wide range of

white – collar and blue – collar families. Home construction over several recent years has

showed an upgrading in size and cost with the typical price of a new three-bedroom home in the

moderate range.

The Project/Assignment

The assignment is regarding establishment of a mega-housing scheme. A Construction Company

ABC Associates got success in achieving that project. For the purpose the ABC Associates got

substantial quantity of land for further development. He now would plan for a possible rezoning

of the acquired land area.

The first task that the Associates suggests is the development of an economic argument showing:

1. How much more municipal revenue the greater building density will bring?

2. How many more stores and shopping center will be developed?

3. How many jobs will be generated with the increased population?

In addition to this, the associate feels the need to show that the people who are living in his

developments like the area and want to stay there.

After some exploration, researcher determines that the economic argument can be developed

with the use of published studies and data available from the local government.

The Study of the Problem

The general nature of the commission’s argument suggests a need for some research among the

people of the area to test the major points, which the planning commission is making. A majority

of the planning commission’s members believe that the present development of the city is

inadequate. They are backed in this view by long time residents living on large estates.

The argument presented by the planning commission and its backers is that existing development

of the area is leading to three deficiencies:

1. Aesthetic: Residential development is creating a definite problem of “unsightly urban

sprawl”. Commercial development is being accomplished by area strip zoning, which brings

about further urban unsightliness.

2. Social: The area is primarily working class. The city must attract more affluent people to

provide future civic leadership. One way of doing so would be the provision of acre or more

land plots on which more homes could be built.

3. Economic: The school system, although growing rapidly, is chronically overcrowded.

Further dense housing development would continue to put pressure on the school system.

An analysis of these arguments suggests that a study of residents should provide useful

information concerning the issues. The investigative questions are stated in terms of the

following hypotheses:

1. The population of the city represents a broad cross section that includes many college

educated, concerned citizens who are potential civic leaders.

2. A large share of the population is composed of young families who have been attracted by

the life styles and environment in this city and who find them generally satisfactory.

3. These satisfied residents see the city as their permanent home and do not expect to leave the

area even if they buy larger homes.

4. While the residents desire environmental improvements they do not want any drastic changes

in present plans for residential land use.

Procedure

The project begins with an investigation of the literature on the economics of suburban

housing development and land use. Contacts with the research department of homebuilders

produce some valuable information about the economics of various types of land use in

residential areas. From these and locally collected data it is not difficult for the researcher to

develop the necessary estimates to compare the probable economic impacts i.e. municipal costs

and tax revenues of various housing densities.

At the same time the research hypotheses are translated into specific research requirements. The

researcher has to learn the basis for the residents’ original attraction to the area; the opinions

about schools, mosques, shopping places and conveniences to work; their satisfaction with their

specific neighborhood and neighbors and their views on the adequacy of their homes.

Some exploratory in – depth interviews with residents give the researcher a better feel for the

types of people and their responses. Out of these interviews a questionnaire is developed and

tables for the incorporation of data are drawn. These tables and their potential comments are then

compared against the specific research requirements for the determination of whether the

objectives will be met.

After the successful pilot test the project is released to a field interviewing organization, which

places a substantial number of interviews in the field. They complete their study in a few days.

The results are then tabulated and analyzed and the final report presented to the client. The

schedule for this project is approximately as follows:

Month 1 Initiate contact with the client. Decide to go ahead with the study. Seek background data on economic aspects and conduct some exploratory

interviews.Month 2

Begin the development of specific research design and questionnaire. Meet client and set final go ahead. Begin field interviewing.

Month 3 Begin coding and tabulation

Begin analysis of results. Complete report.

The Research Proposal

A written proposal statement is often required when a study is being suggested. It assures that the

parties understand the project’s purpose and proposed methods of investigation. Cost and time

budgets are often spelled out, as are other responsibilities and obligations. Depending upon the

needs and desires of the client, there may also be substantial background detail and elaboration

of proposed techniques.

The length and complexity of research proposals ranges widely. A graduate student may present

a doctoral dissertation proposal that runs 50 pages or more. Business research proposals normally

range from perhaps one to five pages.

Proposal Contents

Every proposal, regardless of length, should include two basic sections. First is the problem

statement. In the brief memo type of proposal the problem statement may be only a paragraph

setting out the situation and stating the specific task that the research is going to undertake.

Examples of such problem statements are:

1. A National Bank of a country was the leading bank in the country few days’ back but

recently has not been growing as fast as its major competitors. Before developing a long-

range plan to enhance the bank’s competitive position, it is important to determine the banks

present competitive status, its major advantages and opportunities and its major deficiencies.

2. Management of a certain multinational company is facing a problem of establishing of a new

plant to serve eastern markets. Before this location decision is made it is proposed that a

feasibility study be conducted to determine, for each five sites, the estimated:

a) Costs of serving existing customers.

b) Building, relocation, tax, and operating costs.

c) Availability of local labour in the six major crafts used in production.

d) Attractiveness as a living environment for professional and management personnel.

The above statements give the problem facing the respective management and point out, in

general way the nature of research that will be undertaken.

A second necessary section of the proposal includes a statement of what will be done. In the

bank example cited the researcher might propose:

“Personal interviews will be conducted with a minimum of 200 residents of the area to determine

their knowledge of, use of, and attitudes toward local banks. In addition to this information will

be gathered about their banking and financing practices and preferences. Other information of an

economic or demographic nature will also be gathered from published sources and public

agencies”.

Often proposals will be much more detailed and may include specific measurement devices that

will be used, time and cost budgets, sampling plans, and many other operation details.

THE FORMAL RESEARCH PLAN

Another format is the formal research plan. It is found both in student and business research

situations. Exploration is undertaken to determine the dimensions of the problem before the

proposal is made for the major study.

Formats will vary but one set of sample includes the following:

1. Statement of research objective. A clearly stated sentence or two which tells exactly what

you expect to do. If the objective is specifically to test a given hypothesis then so state.

2. Statement of problem questions or hypotheses to be answered or tested by the research.

3. Each major concept should be defined in operational terms pertinent to this project.

4. State the investigative questions for which you expect to find the answers. Investigative

questions are the specific topical questions that you must resolve in order to achieve research

objectives. Some investigative questions may be:

a. Do our retailers carry significantly fewer sizes and styles than do other outlets?

b. Do people seek sizes and styles, which are not available?

c. Do people choose retail outlets where there are more sizes and styles available?

5. Specify the research techniques, which one expects in use. For example:

a. Inspects a cross section of the retailers, both ours and those selling other brands, to

determine the sizes and styles sold; this should be done by a shopping study.

b. Interview a sample of shoppers, in retail outlets as to their size and style preference,

attitudes, and opinions about what they like and dislike.

6. Describe the sampling plan, if any.

7. Report results of pilot test.

8. Prepare time and cost budgets for the project. A time budget should include an estimate of

expenditure of all sectors.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived as to obtain

answers to research questions and to control variance. The plan is the overall scheme or program

of research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis

and their operational implications to the final analysis of the data.

A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design will typically

include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will

be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.

Research Design Classification

After we could define our research problems clearly, the next step we will do is formulating

research design. This step is ultimately important as research design actually will be our detail

guideline in conducting research project. Research design contains all required procedures in

gaining information needed to answer our problems. If research approach is research guideline in

a brief, thus research design will be our procedures in detail form to answer research problems.

In general, there are two main forms of research design: exploratory research design and

conclusive research design. Conclusive research design is familiar known as quantitative

research approach, while exploratory is known as qualitative research.

A. Exploratory Research Design

Exploratory research design is mainly aimed to explore or to gain a new or deeper understanding

about particular problem. It is inappropriate to examine correlation between observed variables,

since the variables in exploratory research commonly have not yet been defined. And, in

exploratory researchers usually use more flexible and using unstructured questions in the

measurement tools.

http://researchdesignmethod.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/screenshot_00186.png

When should we use exploratory research?

Researchers usually use this research design for several purposes:

To help define research problems more clearly

Many companies sometimes want to research their products, but they have no idea what

should be measured from their products. They still are unable to cover what problems inherit

their products. However, to be able to get the best solution we must understand what

problems we face, so that they need to conduct a qualitative research in order to figure out

any problems they are facing now. They can hold a focus group discussion or in-depth

interview with some customers to gain all information from their point of view.

To help identify all possible alternative answers.

Assume that your company is facing two alternative decisions for your promotion and

marketing programs. You need to decide whether the program will be focused on above the

line or below the line events. To choose the right decision you may need to conduct interview

with some experts or your respondents. From that activity you can gain any opinions to be

considered for your decision.

To help researchers build a deeper hypothesis.

Hypotheses are temporary allegation of the answer for research questions. A good hypothesis

should consider various factors that affect on the observed variables. However, in fact we

sometimes face a condition where the available theoretical framework is not enough to

answer all the questions. As consequence, we need to conduct a prior exploratory research

before doing the actual research to determine the factors that could be expected as the causes

of certain event can happen.

Exploratory Research as A Qualitative Research

From the purposes of exploratory research as I have explained before, you might think that

exploratory research design is no different with qualitative research. You are not wrong. When

we are talking about the research design we use the term of exploratory research, but when we

discuss research approach you can consider qualitative research to describe any attempts to

explore something. We can consider them as the same method because both of they are aimed to

explore a deeper understanding about particular material by using unstructured questions. In

general, there are two procedures for collecting data in this research design, directly and

indirectly. The direct method means that the researcher directly meets the respondents, letting the

respondents know his/her identity as interviewer and collecting data from them. This direct

method includes face-to-face interview and focus group discussion. Then, the indirect method is

conducted by disguising your identity because if the respondents know that you are a researcher

who is observing them, some of them may manipulate their answers.

B. Conclusive Research Design

In contrast with exploratory research design, conclusive research uses more formal and

structured questions to test the correlation between variables or to test the truth from

underpinning hypothesis. In conclusive research design we will be required to use some

quantitative calculations.

When should we use conclusive research design?

There are two circumstances when researcher needs to use conclusive research:

As conclusive research is the best suit research design for research with many statistical

equations and it can provide you a fix number about particular material, so that it is

commonly used in helping you make a decision based on an absolute number, which in

this setting we cannot use exploratory research design because it cannot provide you a fix

number.

When your research is related to market study (such as to measure market share, market

size, distributor available, and consumers’ profile), sales (e.g, a study to measure the

effect of packaging on the consumers’ intention to buy), and to market test.

What are included in conclusive research designed?

Conclusive research design is divided to causal research and descriptive research.

1. Causal Research

It is used to prove that there is a relationship between observed variables. Commonly, there are

two purposes of causal research. First, it helps researcher to figure out the nature of that

relationship – which factor becomes the cause and the effect. Second, researcher can use this

design to observe respondents even they who have never experienced the phenomena being

researched by conducting an experiment. For more understanding you can read illustration

below.

A manufacturer is intending to launch a new form of mosquito repellent products. This product

has not been available in the market before. To test whether the new form will be preferred by

consumers or not, the manufacturer tested through an experimentation. The cause variable

(independent variable) is the new form of repellent. And, the effect variable (dependent variable)

is the ease in use and the level of consumer complaints. Respondents were given samples of both

the old products and the new form products to see how respondents response to the new one.

2. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is a type of research design which main purpose is to describe phenomena.

Basic assumption in this research design is the researchers have already figured out the problem,

they are able to define the observed variables, and they can classify the population being

measured. A researcher cannot describe Iphone based on the answers gained from a survey on

respondents who have never known the Iphone.

Based on how data are collected from respondents, descriptive research is split to:

a. Cross-sectional research

It is a descriptive research design where data is taken only once in a given time. Data can be

taken from a group of respondents (single cross-sectional design), and can also be taken from

several different groups of respondent (multiple cross-sectional design).

b. Longitudinal research

In this design, data are captured during a certain time interval from the same group of

respondents. This research aims to see whether there are changes in the behavior of the

respondents for a period of time. For example, researchers want to know how consumer of an

airline will behave during the holiday season.

The major limitation of longitudinal research is it is difficult to maintain the level of data

consistency along the time interval because some factors may affect the respondents such as

death, respondents were out of the deal, and the limited ability of the company to provide

research facilities for long periods of time.

Cross-sectional research versus Longitudinal research

he table below presents you some relative advantages and disadvantages for both cross-sectional

and longitudinal design. A plus (+) symbolize that the design has a comparative advantage

compared to another one, and a minus (-) means it has comparative disadvantage.















measurement tools.





should be measured from their products. They still are unable to cover what problems

inherit their products. However, to be able to get the best solution we must understand

what problems we face, so that they need to conduct a qualitative research in order to

figure out any problems they are facing now. They can hold a focus group discussion or

in-depth interview with some customers to gain all information from their point of view.



marketing programs. You need to decide whether the program will be focused on above

the line or below the line events. To choose the right decision you may need to conduct

interview with some experts or your respondents. From that activity you can gain any

opinions to be considered for your decision.


Hypotheses are temporary allegation of the answer for research questions. A good

hypothesis should consider various factors that affect on the observed variables.

However, in fact we sometimes face a condition where the available theoretical

framework is not enough to answer all the questions. As consequence, we need to

conduct a prior exploratory research before doing the actual research to determine the

factors that could be expected as the causes of certain event can happen.

























number.






3. Causal Research






below.



consumers or not, the manufacturer tested through experimentation. The cause variable




























The structure of the research is the outline or the scheme of the operation of the variables.

While strategy includes the methods to be used to gather and analyze the data.

Classification of Design

There is no satisfactory classification of design. However, various authors proposed different

classification schemes, some of which are as under:

1. Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook.

Exploratory, descriptive and designs which permit interferences about causality.

2. Kerlinger: Experimental and ex post facto

3. Good and Scates: Historical method, descriptive method and case and clinical studies

4. Green and Tull: Exploratory, descriptive and causal

5. Boyed and Westfall: Exploratory and conclusive research

The research design is a complex design and it cannot be described in a simple way.

However, there exist at least seven different perspectives.

From which any given study can be viewed. They are:

1. Degree of Problem Crystallization

This means that the study be viewed as exploratory or formalized. The distinction between

these two types is the degree of structure and the immediate objective of the study. The

exploratory study is ill – structured and is less focused on the predetermined objectives. The

immediate purpose of the exploratory study is usually to develop some hypotheses for testing

or some investigative questions for further research.

The formalized study has much more structure. It begins with a hypothesis or investigative

question and the precise procedures, sources and so forth are clearly specified.

2. The Topical Scope

This is a study of research design in depth and breadth. It may be a statistical study or a case

study. The statistical study differs from the case study in several ways. The statistical study

covers breadth rather than depth. For instance in case population census the statistical study

emphasis on certain characteristics only. On the other hand the case study places more emphasis

on the full analysis of events or conditions and their interrelationships.

If research is being done as a case study, we have to examine several departments in depth. The

study would focus on labour management attitudes, supervisors, storekeepers, department

managers, production managers, and so forth. In addition to this stress would be placed on these

interrelations and how they might affect attitudes of various parties.

3. The Research environment

This means classifying research designs between those studies that take place under actual

environmental conditions and those that take place under artificial or simulated conditions. These

might be called field and laboratory studies.

4. The Time Dimension

Some research studies are carried out once; others are repeated over a period of time. The later

have come to be known as longitudinal studies. The obvious advantage of a longitudinal study is

that the investigation can follow changes over time.

The panel method is a type of longitudinal study widely used in marketing. Panels are set up to

report consumption data on a variety of products. These data, collected from national samples

provide a major data bank on relative market aspects viz. Shares, consumer response to new

products, new proportional methods and the like.

5. The communication Mode

Two aspects are associated with this perspective. One is monitoring and the other is interrogation

process.

The monitoring process includes observational studies, in which the researcher inspects the

activities of a subject. Examples may be a traffic count at an intersection, a search of the library

collection, observation of the actions of a group of decision-makers. In each case the researcher

notes the information available from observations.

In interrogation method, the researcher questions the subjects and collects their responses by

some means.

6. Researcher Control of variables

Two aspects are associated with this perspective. One is experimental, in which the researchers

attempt to control and manipulate the variables in the study. In this the variables are held steady

in keeping with specified research objectives.

The second aspect is the ex post facto design, which is common in business research and social

sciences. In this the investigator has no control over the variables. Either because they have

already occurred or because they cannot be controlled or manipulated. The researcher is limited

to holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling

procedures.

7. Nature of Relationships among Variables

Two aspects are associated in this perspective. One is descriptive the other is causal. The

essential difference between descriptive and causal studies is in their objectives. If the research is

concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much, then the study is descriptive.

If it is concerned with asking why, then it is causal. For instance, research into city crime is when

it measures what types of crime are committed, how frequently, when, where, and by whom.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived as to obtain

answers to research questions and to control variance. The plan is the overall scheme or program

of research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypothesis

and their operational implications to the final analysis of the data.

A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design will typically

include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will

be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.















measurement tools.

http://researchdesignmethod.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/screenshot_00186.png





should be measured from their products. They still are unable to cover what problems inherit

their products. However, to be able to get the best solution we must understand what

problems we face, so that they need to conduct a qualitative research in order to figure out

any problems they are facing now. They can hold a focus group discussion or in-depth

interview with some customers to gain all information from their point of view.



marketing programs. You need to decide whether the program will be focused on above the

line or below the line events. To choose the right decision you may need to conduct interview

with some experts or your respondents. From that activity you can gain any opinions to be

considered for your decision.


Hypotheses are temporary allegation of the answer for research questions. A good hypothesis

should consider various factors that affect on the observed variables. However, in fact we

sometimes face a condition where the available theoretical framework is not enough to

answer all the questions. As consequence, we need to conduct a prior exploratory research

before doing the actual research to determine the factors that could be expected as the causes

of certain event can happen.

























number.






5. Causal Research






below.



consumers or not, the manufacturer tested through an experimentation. The cause variable

















measurement tools.





should be measured from their products. They still are unable to cover what problems

inherit their products. However, to be able to get the best solution we must understand

what problems we face, so that they need to conduct a qualitative research in order to

figure out any problems they are facing now. They can hold a focus group discussion or

in-depth interview with some customers to gain all information from their point of view.



marketing programs. You need to decide whether the program will be focused on above

the line or below the line events. To choose the right decision you may need to conduct

interview with some experts or your respondents. From that activity you can gain any

opinions to be considered for your decision.


Hypotheses are temporary allegation of the answer for research questions. A good

hypothesis should consider various factors that affect on the observed variables.

However, in fact we sometimes face a condition where the available theoretical

framework is not enough to answer all the questions. As consequence, we need to

conduct a prior exploratory research before doing the actual research to determine the

factors that could be expected as the causes of certain event can happen.

























number.






7. Causal Research






below.



consumers or not, the manufacturer tested through experimentation. The cause variable




























The structure of the research is the outline or the scheme of the operation of the variables.

While strategy includes the methods to be used to gather and analyze the data.

Classification of Design

There is no satisfactory classification of design. However, various authors proposed different

classification schemes, some of which are as under:

6. Selltiz, Wrightsman and Cook.

Exploratory, descriptive and designs which permit interferences about causality.

7. Kerlinger: Experimental and ex post facto

8. Good and Scates: Historical method, descriptive method and case and clinical studies

9. Green and Tull: Exploratory, descriptive and causal

10. Boyed and Westfall: Exploratory and conclusive research

The research design is a complex design and it cannot be described in a simple way.

However, there exist at least seven different perspectives.

From which any given study can be viewed. They are:

8. Degree of Problem Crystallization

This means that the study be viewed as exploratory or formalized. The distinction between

these two types is the degree of structure and the immediate objective of the study. The

exploratory study is ill – structured and is less focused on the predetermined objectives. The

immediate purpose of the exploratory study is usually to develop some hypotheses for testing

or some investigative questions for further research.

The formalized study has much more structure. It begins with a hypothesis or investigative

question and the precise procedures, sources and so forth are clearly specified.

9. The Topical Scope

This is a study of research design in depth and breadth. It may be a statistical study or a case

study. The statistical study differs from the case study in several ways. The statistical study

covers breadth rather than depth. For instance in case population census the statistical study

emphasis on certain characteristics only. On the other hand the case study places more emphasis

on the full analysis of events or conditions and their interrelationships.

If research is being done as a case study, we have to examine several departments in depth. The

study would focus on labour management attitudes, supervisors, storekeepers, department

managers, production managers, and so forth. In addition to this stress would be placed on these

interrelations and how they might affect attitudes of various parties.

10. The Research environment

This means classifying research designs between those studies that take place under actual

environmental conditions and those that take place under artificial or simulated conditions. These

might be called field and laboratory studies.

11. The Time Dimension

Some research studies are carried out once; others are repeated over a period of time. The later

have come to be known as longitudinal studies. The obvious advantage of a longitudinal study is

that the investigation can follow changes over time.

The panel method is a type of longitudinal study widely used in marketing. Panels are set up to

report consumption data on a variety of products. These data, collected from national samples

provide a major data bank on relative market aspects viz. Shares, consumer response to new

products, new proportional methods and the like.

12. The communication Mode

Two aspects are associated with this perspective. One is monitoring and the other is interrogation

process.

The monitoring process includes observational studies, in which the researcher inspects the

activities of a subject. Examples may be a traffic count at an intersection, a search of the library

collection, observation of the actions of a group of decision-makers. In each case the researcher

notes the information available from observations.

In interrogation method, the researcher questions the subjects and collects their responses by

some means.

13. Researcher Control of variables

Two aspects are associated with this perspective. One is experimental, in which the researchers

attempt to control and manipulate the variables in the study. In this the variables are held steady

in keeping with specified research objectives.

The second aspect is the ex post facto design, which is common in business research and social

sciences. In this the investigator has no control over the variables. Either because they have

already occurred or because they cannot be controlled or manipulated. The researcher is limited

to holding factors constant by judicious selection of subjects according to strict sampling

procedures.

14. Nature of Relationships among Variables

Two aspects are associated in this perspective. One is descriptive the other is causal. The

essential difference between descriptive and causal studies is in their objectives. If the research is

concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much, then the study is descriptive.

If it is concerned with asking why, then it is causal. For instance, research into city crime is when

it measures what types of crime are committed, how frequently, when, where, and by whom.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

The exploratory research is useful when the researchers have no clear idea about the problems

that they will meet in the course of study. Through exploration the researchers develop the

concepts more clearly, establish priorities and in many other ways improve the final research

design. Exploration may also save money and time if they decide that the problem is not as

important as first thought.

Methods of Exploration

1. Literature Survey

The survey of literature is the first step of exploration. A literature study usually turns up a

number of leads for further research. For instance, we are interested in estimating the outlook for

the copper industry over the next ten years. The obvious first step would be to search the

literature for information on copper production and consumption.

2. Experience Survey

One would be certainly benefited by seeking information from persons experienced in the area of

study. Such persons can help us secure an insight into relationships between variables. To get an

accurate picture of the current situation we need to solicit the views of those believed to know

what is going on.

Discovery is another way to analyze some cases that provide special insight. Typically in

exploration we are less interested in getting a representative cross section view. For instance, an

automobile assembly plant has a recent history of declining productivity, increasing cost and

growing number of quality defects. Researchers who could provide such insight stimulating

information could include the following:

1. Newcomers to the Scene: New employees or personnel who may have recently been

transferred to this plant from other similar plants.

2. Marginal Individuals: Persons whose jobs place them on the margin between contending

groups. For example, the first line supervisors and lead workers are neither “management”

nor “workers” but something in between.

3. Individuals in transition: Recently promoted employees who have been transferred between

departments.

4. Deviants and Isolates: Those in a group who hold a different position from the majority.

5. Those who fit well and those who do not: The workers who are well established in their

organizations versus those who are not, those executives who fully reflect management views

and those who do not.

6. Those who represent different positions in the system: Unskilled workers, assemblers,

superintendents, and so forth.

The End of Exploration

The end of an exploratory research comes when the researchers are convinced that they have

found the majority dimensions of the research task. They feel that further research is not needed

or is not presently possible.

Measurement

In our daily life we use some yardstick to determine the height, weight or

some other feature of a physical object. We also measure when we judge

how well anything is going on. In a dictionary sense to measure is “to

ascertain the extent, dimension, dimensions, quantity, capacity, etc. of

specially by comparison with a standard.

We may measure in a rather casual way in our daily life, but in research the

requirements are more rigorous. As a result, research measurement can be

a complex and demanding task.

Nature of Measurement

Measurement is the process by which we test hypotheses and theories. We

deduce from a hypothesis that certain conditions should exist in the real

world; then we measure for these conditions. If found, they lend support to

the hypothesis, if they are not found, we conclude that the hypothesis fails.

Measurement Scales

In measuring we devise some form of scale in the range and then transform

or map our observation. Several types of scales are possible, the most

accepted scale is based on the following three characteristics:

1. Numbers are ordered: One number is greater than, less than or equal to

another number.

2. Differences between numbers are ordered: The differences between any

pair of numbers is greater than, less than or equal to the differences

between any other pair of numbers.

3. Unique Series: The number series has a unique origin indicated by the

number zero.

Types of Scales

1. Nominal Scales

The nominal scales indicate no order or distance relationship and have no

arithmetic origin. This scale is especially valuable in exploratory work, the

objective of which is to uncover relationships rather than secure precise

measurements. These scales are also widely used in surveying and other ex

post facto research.

2. Ordinal Scales

The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of greater than or less than

(equality statement is also acceptable) without our being able to state how

much greater or less than.

An ordinal concept can be generalized by a simple illustration of a>b>c.

while ordinal measurement speaks of greater than and less than

measurements, other relationships may also be used for example, superior

to, happier than or above.

3. Interval Scales

It incorporates the concept of equality of interval i.e. the distance between

1 and 2 equals the distance between 2 and 3. Calendar time is such a scale.

For example, the elapsed time between 3 and 6 am equals the time between

4 and 7 am.

When we assume that a scale is interval we can use the arithmetic mean as

the measure of central tendency. For example, we can compute the average

time of first arrival of trucks at a warehouse in the morning or the average

attitude value of union workers versus non – union workers on certain

question.

4. Ratio Scales

The ratio scales represent the actual amounts of a variable. Measures of

physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance and area are

examples.

Sources of Measurement Differences

The objective of the research study should be precise and unambiguous. But

to achieve this is far from its attainment. But we must recognize the sources

of potential error and try to eliminate, neutralize or otherwise deal with

them properly. Much potential error is systematic (results from a bias)

while the remainder is random (occurs in an erratic fashion).

Assume that we want to conduct research survey of the residents of

Karachi. The study concerns the Colgate and Palmolive Private Limited a

large manufacturer with headquarters and several major plants located in

the city. The objective of the study is to determine the public’s opinions

about the company and the origin of any generally held adverse opinions.

Ideally, any variation of scores among the respondents would reflect true

differences in their opinions about the company. Attitudes towards the firm

as an employer as an ecologically sensitive organization or as a progressive

corporate citizen would be accurately expressed. However four major error

sources may deviate the results. These sources are the respondent, the

situation, the measure and the instrument.

1. Respondent as an Error Source

Opinion differences will come from respondent. Typical of these are

employee status, ethnic group membership, social class, and nearness to

plants. The respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings

or may have little knowledge about the company. This reluctance can lead

to an interview of guesses.

Respondents may also suffer from transient factors like fatigue, boredom, or

anxiety about some other matter, these limit the ability to respond

accurately and fully. Hunger, impatience at having been interrupted or

general variations in mood may also have an impact.

2. Situational Factors

These potential problem areas are legion. Any condition, which places a

strain on the interviewer, can have serious effects on the interviewer –

respondent partiality. If the respondents feel that anonymity is not assured

they may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

3. Measurer as an Error Source

The interviewer can distort responses by rewording, or reordering

questions. A stereotype in appearances and action introduces bias.

Inflections of voice and conscious or unconscious promoting with smiles

may encourage or discourage certain replies. In the data analysis stage

incorrect coding, careless tabulation and faulty statistical calculation may

introduce further errors.

4. Measurement Instrument as an error sources

A defective instrument can distort in two major ways. First, it can be too

confusing and ambiguous. The use of complex words and syntax beyond

respondent comprehension is typical. Leading questions, ambiguous

meanings, mechanical defects such as inadequate space for replies,

response choice omissions and poor printing suggest the range of problems.

A second and more elusive type of instrument deficiency is poor sampling of

the items of concern. Seldom does the instrument explore all of the

potentially important issues.

Characteristics of Sound Measurement

There are three major considerations that are used in evaluating a

measurement tool. They are:

1. Validity

2. Reliability

3. Practicality

1. Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish

to measure. Many concepts of validity are used in literature but here we are

interested in two major concepts i.e. external and internal validity.

Validity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring tool

reflect true differences with a measuring tool reflect true differences among

those being tested. This validity has three forms namely: content validity,

criterion validity and construct validity.

The content validity is referred for a measuring instrument, which

provides extent of accuracy.

The criterion related validity reflects the success of measures used for

some empirical estimating we may want to predict.

In construct validity the attitude scales and aptitude and personality tests

generally fall in this category.

Reliability

The concept of reliability means many things to many people. A measure is

reliable to the degree that it supplies consistent results.

Reliability is concerned with estimates of the degree to which a

measurement is free of random or unstable error.

Stability

A measure is said to be stable if we can secure consistent results with

repeated measurements of the same person with the same instrument. For

example an observation procedure would be stable if it gives the same

reading on a particular person when repeated one or more times.

Equivalence

Equivalence considers how much error different investigators or different

samples of items being studied may introduce. Thus stability is concerned

with personal and situational fluctuations from one time to another,

equivalence is concerned with variations at one point in time among

observers and samples of items. A good way to test for the equivalence of

measurements by different observers is to compare their scoring of the

same event.

Improving Reliability

We can improve reliability if we assure that external sources of variation

are minimized. For example we can standardize the conditions under which

the measurement takes place. We can achieve enhanced equivalence

through improved investigator consistency by using only well trained

supervised and motivated persons to conduct the research.

Practicality

The scientific requirements of a project necessarily need management

process to be reliable and valid, while the operational requirements call for

it to be practical.

Thorndike and Hagen define practicality in terms of economy, convenience

and interpretability.

Economy: Some tradeoff is usually needed between the ideal research

project and that which the budget can afford. Instrument length is one area

where economic pressures are quickly felt. More items give more reliability,

but in the interest of limiting the interview or observation time, we hold the

item number down. The choice of data collection method is often dictated

by economic factors.

Convenience: A measuring device passes the convenience test if it is easy

to administer. For example, a questionnaire with a set of detailed but clear

instructions, with examples, is substantially easier to complete correctly

than one, which lacks these features.

Interpretability: this consideration is particularly important when persons

interpret the results. This situation is usually found with standardized tests.

In such cases there is a need for a number of aids such as the following:

1. A statement for the functions which the test was designed to measure

and of the general procedures by which it was developed.

2. Detailed instructions for administering the test.

3. Scoring keys and specific instructions for the test.

4. Norms for appropriate reference groups.

5. Evidence about the reliability of the test.

6. Evidence on the relationship of the test to other evidence.

7. Guides for using the test and for interpreting results.

DATA COLLECTION

Every research study is a search for information about some topic. This information can be

divided into two types:

1. Primary

Primary data come from the original sources of material and are collected especially for the task

at hand. Thus, if we observe certain production operations so as to measure their cost we are

collecting primary data.

2. Secondary

If we get the cost information from others who have collected it for another purpose we have

secondary data. Organization files and library holdings are the most frequently used secondary

sources.

Advantages of Primary Data

Primary data research does have its advantages. We can collect precisely the information we

want. We have total control over when and how it is collected and the form in which it is

gathered.

Advantages of Secondary data

Secondary data can usually be found more quickly and cheaply. Collection of primary data can

be so costly and time consuming or may be impractical for many purposes. Secondary data

sources also extend our time and space range. The data gathered about distant places for example

foreign countries, often can be collected more cheaply through secondary materials.

Disadvantages of Secondary data

Secondary data also have their limitations. The most important is that the information often will

not meet our specific needs. Secondary source information has been collected by someone else

for their purpose rather than ours. Definitions are not the same as ours, units of measure do not

match ours and different time periods may be involved. We often cannot even assess the

accuracy of the information because we know little about the conditions under which the

research took place or even details of the design used. Finally, the value of secondary

information often is partially obsolete before it is available. The study made five years ago may

not be relevant in today’s environment.

The Uses of Secondary Data

We may use secondary data for three research purposes.

First, we often seek specific reference information on some point. Examples would be the need

for the estimated country’s production of wheat last year, the population of Sindh in year 2000.

The Second major use of secondary data is as an integral part of a larger research study. Typical

research procedures call for at least a minimum amount of exploration early in most projects.

This exploration is concerned with using what has been learned in the past as a contribution to

the present study. Secondary data sources are also useful guides for deciding what further

research needs to be done, as well as being rich source of hypotheses.

Finally, the secondary data may be used as the sole source for a research study. In many research

situations it is impractical for one to conduct primary research because of physical, legal or cost

limitations.

Types of Secondary Data Sources

1. Internal Sources

Internal data sources are often the only source of information for many studies. Examples are

departmental reports, production summaries, financial and accounting reports, marketing and

sales studies and a host of other types.

2. External Sources

These are more varied than internal sources and have better defined methods for guiding the

search. This again can be classified into three categories. One of the most obvious categories is

that of books. The second source of secondary data is periodicals. A third major source for

secondary data is government documents. The fourth major source of secondary data consists of

a variety of miscellaneous materials.

3. Statistical Sources

There are a wide variety of statistical sources with a wealth of data. For example many

government periodicals contain regular statistical information about transportation, agriculture,

health, education and welfare and other areas. In addition to this trade journals publish estimates

of important statistics in their particular industries.

DATA SEARCH PROCEDURE

The main source of data information is that which is obtained from library. The library facility

provides numerous ways to collect data information. Some of them are as under:

1. Search for Bibliography

Bibliography development at the first stage makes the entire research project more efficient

because the investigator quickly acquire an inventory of the materials on the subject. By

inspecting titles, authors, dates and other indexing information lead to decide priority sources for

further study. Through these investigator can find out work of his choice ranging from

accounting to operations research.

2. Books as a source

The other major investigative channel is a book. The obvious first place to look is the public

catalog of the library. Cards for these books are filed under author, title and subject. One can

save time and effort by recognizing the information found on this typical catalog card. It gives

the title of the book, author’s name, publisher, date of publication, notes on special features, such

as illustrations, maps or sometimes notes listing contents. The holdings of a particular library are

always restricted by the limited resources available with which to purchase materials and by the

interests of those people who decide what is to be included in the library’s holdings. In a

university library the holdings tend to reflect the importance of various fields of study.

3. Documents as a Source

The topics covered in documentary publication range widely. For example materials issued by

various departments in America are listed by name of the issue office. There are monthly and

annual subject indexes, which are valuable to the investigator.

Government publications are good sources of information in many topic areas. Obviously, the

entire area of economic statistics is one of these areas. There are also important documents

concerning many scientific fields, government relations to business and business operations.

4. Periodicals as a Source

Periodicals are often the best single source of information for a business researcher. There are

thousands of covering almost every subject. The periodicals are especially useful in securing the

most current information.

Libraries have indexes by which the investigator may review the contents of many periodicals

quickly and without actually going to the publications themselves. The most widely known of

these indexes is the reader’s Guide to periodical literature. This is a subject guide of about 160

general interest magazines such as Time, Newsweek, Business Week, Fortune, Scientific

American and others. They are extremely useful for topics of general interest but also include

many articles on business and technological matters.

5. Miscellaneous Sources

The miscellaneous sources may be a certain company’s annual reports and other similar

materials.

One major miscellaneous source is the publication from other colleges and universities.

A Sample Example

Let us suppose that a certain organization desires a research study for technological forecasting.

For this purpose the organization deputes a firm to carry out that work. After getting that task the

firm starts to know that what it is, how it would be carried out, if any one is doing it and so on.

The firm thinks that for the technological forecasting certain university’s library would be the

best place to acquire the relevant data. It is the stage the firm follows the same sequence as

discussed earlier.

The study of technological forecasting refers that Encyclopedia Britannica and the International

Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. These are usually good sources for some quick information

about any topic. Next bibliographies, handbooks, textbooks and manuals are thoroughly checked.

Periodicals Search

Since the topic includes the word “Technological” the investigators firstly investigate the

Applied Science and Technology Index. The entries are reviewed and the relevant entries are

sorted out from the index. The separated entries are later on studied in context to collect relevant

information.

Suppose that in the end of whole of this exercise the investigator has been able to collect:

Twelve books specially about technological forecasting.

Thirty-five periodicals.

Eight Government documents.

With this list the campaign for the research would be well launched. Now the important thing is

to weed out those things, which are irrelevant and extract information from the remainder that is

appropriate with the research topic.

Extraction Information

Gathering and recording information from the printed source is often viewed as a simple chore

within the competence of almost everyone. This may be true, but it is also a task, which is often

done poorly. The task has three aspects, which are worthy of consideration.

The first task is to decide that which information is to record. That is, which information

is useful and which is not, and which is a net addition to our collection and which is mere

repetition. These decisions are easy to make, but in general terms the research topic helps at this

juncture.

The second task is to determine how to record the information that has been collected

from the printed material. Outlining is the most efficient way.

The third task is to set up and operate an orderly recording system. With this the

extracted information is available every time when it is needed and have maximum flexibility in

organizing the information.

SAMPLING DESIGN

Sample is a specimen or a representative item of certain population. The basic idea in sampling

is that the analysis of some of the elements in a population provides useful information on the

entire population.

Sampling is based on two aspects. One is that there is enough similarity among the elements in a

population that a few of these elements will adequately represent the characteristics of the total

population. For example, we can estimate the attitudes in a larger group by learning the attitudes

of a few representative persons in that group. All this is done obviously to save the time and cost.

A researcher Deming suggests that the quality of a study is often better with sampling than with

a census. He suggests that “sampling possesses the possibility of better interviewing, more

thorough investigation of missing, wrong or suspicious information, better supervision and better

processing than is possible with complete coverage.

Sampling also provides much quicker results than does a census. The speed of execution

minimizes the time between the recognition of a need for information and the availability of the

information. Then, too, some situations require sampling. For example, when we test the

breaking strength of materials we must destroy them; a census would mean complete destruction

of the materials. Sampling is also the only procedure possible if the population is infinite.

The members of a sample may not be fully representative of the population, and values

calculated from sample data may vary from the population values. This problem of discrepancies

between a population value and its parallel sample value represents the second aspect of

sampling.

What is a Good Sample?

The ultimate test of a sample design is how well it represents the characteristics of the population

it purports to represent. In measurement terms the sample must be valid and this validity depends

upon two considerations.

1. Accuracy

First is the matter of accuracy. It is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample.

An accurate (unbiased) sample is one in which the underestimates and overestimates are

balanced among the members of the sample.

2. Precision

A second criterion of a good sample design is precision of estimate. No sample will fully

represent its population in all respects. A sample statistic may be expected to differ from its

parameter as a result of random fluctuations inherent in the sampling process. This is often

referred to as error variance or sampling error.

Types of Sample Design

1. Representation

The members of a sample are selected either on a probability basis or by some other means.

Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection – a controlled procedure

that assures that each population element is given a known nonzero chance of selection.

In contrast, non-probability selection is non-random. Allowing interviewers to choose sample

members non-random – meaning as they wish or wherever they find them.

2. Element Selection

Samples may also be classified by whether the elements are selected individually and directly

from the population viewed as a single pool. When each sample element is drawn

individually from the population at large it is an unrestricted sample.

3. Probability Sampling

It is simple type of sampling. In this each population element has an equal chance of being

selected into the sample.

Sampling Procedure

There are a number of design decisions that can be made for sampling. Assume that certain party

is interested in starting a mess establishment near the campus of University. The program is to

make its facilities available on a membership basis. To initiate such a venture the party needs to

make a substantial investment. In addition to this the project may be facing so many risks which

would likely to be minimized through research. More specifically we might be interested in the

following investigative questions.

1. How many would join the mess under various membership and fee arrangements?

2. How much would the average member spend per month?

3. What meals and days would be the most popular?

4. What menu and service formats would be the most popular?

5. What other services should be provided?

To find answers to these and other questions we decide to conduct a sample survey. What are the

steps to take?

Steps in Sampling Design

Six steps must be taken in designing a sample. They are presented sequentially, but their order is

not fixed and an answer to one question often forces a revision in an answer given earlier. These

are as under:

1. What is the relevant population?

2. What type of sample shall we draw?

3. What sampling frame shall we use?

4. What are the parameters of interest?

5. What sample size is needed?

6. How much will the sample cost?

1. What is the relevant population?

In the mess example, the population might be one or a combination of the following: students,

faculty, non-academic personnel, area residents and/or workers or the general public. Assume

that the major need is for student facilities. Therefore, the relevant population might be “all

currently enrolled students at the university”.

2. What Type of Sample?

Simple random technique is used in this step. Those students are excluded who do not clearly

specify. Some persons will refuse to participate.

3. What Sampling Frame?

The concept of sampling frame is closely related to the population. It is defined as the list of

elements from which the sample is actually drawn. Ideally it is a complete and correct list of

population members only.

4. What Parameters to Estimate

It is also important that we determine specific population parameters, which are of interest. For

example:

a) The proportion of persons who express an interest in joining the mess.

b) The average expected expenditure per month per member.

c) Average number of weekday lunches that will be demanded.

There may be some other important groups about whom we would like to make estimates. For

example, we might want to draw conclusions about the extent of mess use that could be expected

by residential students versus in town students etc.

5. How Large a Sample?

Casual observers generally feel that the size of sample must bear some proportional relationship

to the size of the population from which it is drawn. A sample of 400 drawn from a population of

4000 may be quite appropriate.

6. How much will it cost?

Cost considerations have a major impact upon decisions about the size and type of sample as

well as the data collection methods. So before initiating the sampling exercise it should be made

clear that how much expenditure overall exercise will cost.

SURVEY INSTRUMENT DESIGN

Survey instrument design is achieved by adopting the following steps.

Survey

Survey is the interrogation in written or verbal form performed by the

researcher. It is a method that depends completely on verbal behaviour. The

respondent can give untrue or misleading answers. A survey’s success

therefore depends on a fragile procedure. We may get some useful answers

but how much they may be authentical that is not sure.

To obtain results from the survey exercise it is advisable to use the survey

approach that consists of three strategies.

i. The communication mode that we choose by which to conduct the

questioning.

ii. The degree of structure that is imposed on the questioning and

response process.

iii. The degree to which the objectives of the study are to be disguised.

Communication Modes: Communication interactions between researcher

and respondent may be of the following nature.

Personal Mode

This interaction involves one - to – one relationship between the interviewer

and the interviewee. The response may be recorded in writing, or by typing

or by tape recorder or in some other way.

Impersonal Mode

In this communication mode the researcher typically depends upon a

printed instrument to carry out the communication task. This instrument, a

questionnaire both the instructions and questions to respond and provides

space for them to complete their answers.

Mixed Mode

The combined mode of personal and impersonal approaches are referred as

mixed mode.

Process Structure

Another useful approach on the development of survey instrument is based

on the degree of question structure used by the interviewer.

With the structured questions the interviewer asks questions in a

standardized format and sequence. This gives assurance that each question

asked in the same way in each interview, promoting measurement

reliability. A standardized questioning sequence also makes it easier to

develop a standard line of questioning that builds on prior responses.

Lack of question structure has both advantages and disadvantages. One

advantage is that interviewer can guide the questioning in the direction

which insight and the respondent’s lead. The skilled interviewer recognizes

and exploits these opportunities as they arise.

Naturally there are disadvantages, for example the results of one interview

are not comparable with the others.

DATA SEARCH PROCEDURE

The experimentation is a type of investigation used to determine whether and in what manner

variables are related to each other. In the classical concept of an experiment we are concerned

with determining whether there is a relation between an independent variable (IV) and a

dependent variable (DV) or not. It is performed by intervening in the research setting in two

ways. In the first step the independent variable is manipulated by assuming its presence in some

cases and absent in other cases. After that the effect of this manipulation on the presence and

absence of the dependent variable. In the second stage, we arrange conditions so that other

variables are not allowed to affect the dependent variable, usually through some type of control.

It may be possible to approach this idealized concept under laboratory conditions, but it is not

very practical in business research for two reasons. Firstly full manipulation and control is

usually not possible. Secondly we are often more interested in the question of concomitant

variation, that is in what manner variables are related to each other. In this approach we think of

the effect of independent variable on dependent variable.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of the experimentation in research design.

Business research is concerned with the study of people and there are limits to the amount of

manipulation and control which is either possible or ethical. Experiments are often difficult to

design, tend to be expensive and time consuming. All experiments are artificial to some degrees,

so this is main disadvantage.

The overall advantage of experimentation is that no other method has power to determine

relationship between variables. Though imperfectly, the researcher can control contamination

from extraneous variables more effectively than in other designs and can bring together

combinations of variables to test rather than having to search for some fortuitous combination of

these variables in nature.

SAMPLING

Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather people, places, or things to study. Research

conclusions and generalizations are only as good as the sample they are based on. Samples are

always subsets or small parts of the total number that could be studied. If you were to sample

everybody and everything, that would be called a quota sample. Most research, however,

involves non-quota samples. For example, if you were interested in state prison systems, you

might sample 15 or so state prison systems. There are formulas for determining sample size, but

the main thing is to be practical. For a small population of interest, you would most likely need

to sample about 10-30% of that population; for a large population of interest (over 150,000), you

could get by with a sample as low as 1%.

Before gathering your sample, it's important to find out as much as possible about your

population. Population refers to the larger group from which the sample is taken. You should at

least know some of the overall demographics; age, sex, class, etc., about your population. This

information will be needed later after you get to the data analysis part of your research, but it's

also important in helping you decide sample size. The greater the diversity and differences that

exist in your population, the larger your sample size should be. Capturing the variability in your

population allows for more variation in your sample, and since many statistical tests operate on

the principles of variation, you'll be making sure the statistics used later can do their powerful

stuff.

After you've learned all the theoretically important things about your population, you then

have to obtain a list or contact information on those who are accessible or can be contacted. This

procedure for listing all the accessible members of your population is called the sampling frame.

If you were planning on doing a phone survey, for example, the phone book would be your

sampling frame. Make sure your sampling frame is appropriate for the population you want to

study. In this case, the Census Dept. says that 93% of us have a phone, so that's not too bad, but

you have to decide if any of the unique characteristics of people you're interested in studying are

lost by selecting a restrictive sampling frame. The term refers to the procedure rather than the

list. It's important for researchers to discuss their sampling frame because that's what ensures that

systematic error, or bias, hasn't entered into your study.

Then, you are ready to draw your sample. There are two basic approaches to sampling:

probabilistic and nonprobabilistic. If the purpose of your research is to draw conclusions or make

predictions affecting the population as a whole (as most research usually is), then you must a use

probabilistic sampling approach. On the other hand, if you're only interested in seeing how a

small group, perhaps even a representative group, is doing for purposes of illustration or

explanation, then you can use a nonprobabilistic sampling approach.

The key component behind all probabilistic sampling approaches is randomization, or random

selection. Random assignment is how you assign people in your sample to different groups for

experimental or control group purposes. People, places, or things are randomly selected when

each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Various methods have been

established to accomplish probabilistic sampling:

Simple random sampling -- All you need is a relatively small, self-contained, or clearly

defined population to use this method. The population of the U.S. might be too big, but a city

of say 60,000 or so would be appropriate. You simply obtain a list of all residents, and then

using a sequence of numbers from a random numbers table (or draws of a hat, flips of a

coin), select, say 10%, 20%, or some portion of names on that list, making sure you aren't

drawing from any letter of the alphabet more heavily than others.

Stratified random sampling -- This method is appropriate when you're interested in

correcting for gender, race, or age disparities in your population. Say you're planning to study

the impact of police training on mid-level career cynicism, and you know that gender is

going to be an important factor because female police officers rarely take this kind of training

and/or quit before making it to their mid-level career stage. You therefore need to stratify

your sample by the gender strata, making sure that you oversample females (draw more of

random number of females) as opposed to males (which you would undersample). For

example, if the department has 1000 employees consisting of 900 males and 100 females,

and you intend on sampling 10% of the total, then you proceed randomly as usual, drawing

90 males at random and 10 females at random. If you had used the employee list of names,

regardless of gender, you might not have obtained 10 females at random because there's so

few of them.

Systematic random sampling -- Suppose you had a huge list of people, places, or things to

select from, like 100,000 people or more. The appropriate method to use is to select every

10th, 20th, or 30th person from that list. Your decision to use every 10th, 20th, or 30th

person is called your sampling interval, and as long as you do it systematically and use the

entire list, you're accomplishing the same thing as random sampling.

Cluster (area) random sampling -- Suppose you have a population that is dispersed across

a wide geographic region. This method allows you to divide this population into clusters

(usually counties, census tracts, or other boundaries) and then randomly sample everyone in

those clusters. For example, you could randomly select 5 of North Carolina's 100 counties,

but you would have to make sure that almost every person in those 5 counties participated in

your study. As an alternative, you could systematically sample within your clusters, and this

is called multi-stage sampling, which refers generally to any mixing of sampling methods.

Various methods have also been established to accomplish nonprobabilistic sampling:

Quota sampling -- As discussed earlier, sampling everybody and everything is quota

sampling. The problem with it is that bias intrudes on the sampling frame. One the researcher

identifies the people to be studied, they have to resort to haphazard or accidental sampling

because no effort is usually made to contact people who are difficult to reach in the quota.

Convenience sampling -- Also called haphazard or accidental, this method is based on using

people who are a captive audience, just happen to be walking by, or show a special interest in

your research. The use of volunteers is an example of convenience sampling.

Purposive sampling -- This is where the researcher targets a group of people believed to be

typical or average, or a group of people specially picked for some unique purpose. The

researcher never knows if the sample is representative of the population, and this method is

largely limited to exploratory research.

Snowball sampling -- Also called network, chain, or reputational, this method begins with a few

people or cases and then gradually increases the sample size as new contacts are mentioned by

the people you started out with.

Tools of Research

Every profession and professional activity has tools that help improve techniques and assure a

quality product. Research is no exception. The tools of the trade are often classified into three

categories:

Hardware

Software, and

Methods or knowledge

Hardware tools may include hammers, copy machines, trucks, computers, or cell phones.

Software tools relate to computer programs such as word processing or data base programs, and

changeable forms such as written tests, worksheets, or rubrics.

The methods of a profession refer to knowledge and understanding of the procedures involved.

For example, when a medical professional performs a C.T scan on a patient, the machine they

use is considered hardware, the computer program used to collect and analyze the data is the

software, and the use of the machine and software as well as the interpretation of results and

application to treatment is the methods. All three types of tools are typically necessary to every

profession, with research being no exception.

Hardware Tools of Research

The most commonly used hardware tool in research is the computer. We use this device in order

to run software, to measure changes in the autonomic nervous system, and to detect brain

damage and other physical problems. Other instruments that might be seen in social science

research might include a device to measure reflexes or muscle strength, or the hardware, such as

blocks and puzzles, associated with an intelligence test. Hardware provides us with a means to

interact with our subjects and therefore gather information on their performance.

Software Tools of Research

The software tools of research are typically more abundant than hardware tools in the social

sciences. Software is usually thought of to mean computer programs that tell the hardware what

to do, but any tool not related to a physical device can be considered software. Included in this

category is statistical software, consent forms, published tests, questionnaires, observation forms,

and, to a lesser degree, the interview.

Statistical Software

Simple statistical problems, such as determining the mean or the median of a small data set, can

easily be done with a calculator. Most formulas that will be used in a research report, however,

are a lot more complex. While a calculator will work, a statistical program can reduce the

computation time by hours, days, or even weeks. Imagine trying to determine the mean,

standard deviation, t-score, and z-score conversions of twelve data sets each containing 300

subjects. Even the best statistician will spend many hours on this project that could be done by a

computer in a matter of minutes once the data is entered.

The most widely used statistical software used for social science research is the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and is relatively easy to use if you have basic computer

knowledge. SPSS can perform hundreds of statistical computations and even graph your data.

Another program, SAS, also performs these functions and is gaining popularity with many

researchers. Both, however, can be expensive to purchase so it would be wise to use your

school’s software or look into a student version.

Consent Forms

The consent form is a necessity for anyone doing research with human subjects. The purpose of

the consent form is to provide information to the potential subject regarding the experiment or

study and to answer questions regarding their participation. Consent forms should always

include both potential benefits and harm that may result from participation as well as the option

to quit the study at any time without repercussions.

The title of the study, purpose, and researchers’ names and affiliation are often included toward

the top of the form. Contact information, such as phone numbers, should also be included. The

bulk of the consent form involves the specific procedures that will be used, how the information

gathered during the study will be used, and the expected experience that the subject will endure

if he or she agrees to participate.

Procedures and Requirements

Before a potential subject can consent to any study, especially those involving invasive

techniques, he or she must be made aware of the process that will take place. The procedures

and requirements section explains to the subject what he or she will experience during the study.

If a survey is involved, this section might inform the subject that they will be asked to respond to

questions related to their past work experience or their college grades.

Method Tools of Research

Knowledge of the procedures involved in research is perhaps the most important tool. Without

this, the best computers and most reliable tests would be useless. For the researcher, there are

several important areas that must be mastered, including the knowledge of scientific methods,

the use of statistical software, the practical application of statistical formulas, knowledge of

writing style, and the ability to gather information and critically review the research of others.

For this reason, this text would be considered a method tool in that it is designed to provide

knowledge of research methods and assist you in the process of performing and evaluating the

research of others.

Research Plans Depend on Information You Need and Available Resources

Often, organization members want to know everything about their products, services, programs,

etc. Your research plans depend on what information you need to collect in order to make major

decisions about a product, service, program, etc. Usually, you're faced with a major decision due

to, e.g., ongoing complaints from customers; need to convince funders / bankers to loan money,

unmet needs among customers, the need to polish an internal process, etc.

The more focused you are about what you want to gain by your research, the more effective and

efficient you can be in your research, the shorter the time it will take you and ultimately the less

it will cost you (whether in your own time, the time of your employees and/or the time of a

consultant).

There are trade offs, too, in the breadth and depth of information you get. The more breadth you

want, usually the less depth you'll get (unless you have a great deal of resources to carry out the

research). On the other hand, if you want to examine a certain aspect of a product, service,

program, etc., in great detail, you will likely not get as much information about other aspects as

well.

For those starting out in research or who have very limited resources, they can use various

methods to get a good mix of breadth and depth of information. They can understand more about

certain areas of their products, services, programs, etc., and not go bankrupt doing so.

Key Considerations to Design Your Research Approach

Consider the following key questions when designing your research plan:

1. For what purposes is the research being done, i.e., what do you want to be able to decide as a

result of the research?

2. Who are the audiences for the information from the research, e.g., funders / bankers, upper

management, employees, customers, etc.

3. What kinds of information are needed to make the decisions you need to make and/or to

enlighten your intended audiences, e.g., do you need information to really understand a process,

the customers who buy certain products, strengths and weaknesses of the product or service or

program, benefits to customers, how the product or service or program failed some customers

and why, etc.?

4. From what sources should the information be collected, e.g., employees, customers, groups of

employees or customers, certain documentation, etc.?

5. How can that information be collected in a reasonable fashion, e.g., questionnaires, interviews,

examining documentation, observing staff and/or clients in the program, conducting focus

groups among staff and/or clients, etc?

6. When is the information needed (so, by when must it be collected)?

7. What resources are available to collect the information?

Overall Goal in Selecting Methods

The overall goal in selecting basic business research method(s) is to get the most useful

information to key decision makers in the most cost-effective and realistic fashion. Consider the

following questions:

1. What information is needed to make current decisions about a product or program?

2. Of this information, how much can be collected and analyzed in a low-cost and practical

manner, e.g., using questionnaires, surveys and checklists?

3. How accurate will the information be (reference the above table for disadvantages of

methods)?

4. Will the methods get all of the needed information?

5. What additional methods should and could be used if additional information is needed?

6. Will the information appear as credible to decision makers, e.g., to bankers, funders or top

management?

7. Will the nature of the audience conform to the methods, e.g., will they fill out questionnaires

carefully, engage in interviews or focus groups, let you examine their documentations, etc.?

8. Who can administer the methods now or is training required?

9. How can the information be analyzed?

Note that, ideally, the researcher uses a combination of methods, for example, a questionnaire to

quickly collect a great deal of information from a lot of people, and then interviews to get more

in-depth information from certain respondents to the questionnaires. Perhaps case studies could

then be used for more in-depth analysis of unique and notable cases, e.g., those who benefited or

not from the program, those who quit the program, etc.

Four Levels of Research Results

There are four levels of information that can be gathered from customers or clients, including

getting their:

1. Reactions and feelings (feelings are often poor indicators that your service made lasting

impact)

2. Learning (enhanced attitudes, perceptions or knowledge)

3. Changes in skills (applied the learning to enhance behaviors)

4. Effectiveness (improved performance because of enhanced behaviors)

Usually, the farther your research results get down the list, the more useful is your research

results. Unfortunately, it is quite difficult to reliably get information about effectiveness. Still,

information about learning and skills is quite useful.

General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews

Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The

interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-

up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually

open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself

what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews.

This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.

Preparation for Interview

Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is

comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their

own places of work or homes.

Explain the purpose of the interview.

Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can

you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain

circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be

analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so.

Explain the format of the interview.

Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask

questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.

Indicate how long the interview usually takes.

Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.

Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.

Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record

the interview or bring along someone to take notes.

Types of Interviews

1. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to

remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the

interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".

2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same

general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus

than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in

getting information from the interviewee.

3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all

interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer

the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this

approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and

asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for

those not practiced in interviewing.

Types of Topics in Questions

Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about:

Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing

Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic

Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be careful to note

that you're looking for feelings

Knowledge - to get facts about a topic

Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled

Background/demographics - standard background questions, such as age, education, etc.

Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.

Sequence of Questions

Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask about

some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview before

warming up to more personal matters.

Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based

questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.

Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's usually easier for

them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.

The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they prefer to

add and their impressions of the interview.

Wording of Questions

Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when

answering questions.

Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g.,

evocative, judgmental wording.

Questions should be asked one at a time.

Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the

program or the respondents' culture.

Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship

that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g.,

that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future

questions.

Conducting Interview

Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

Ask one question at a time.

Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional reactions to

their responses. Patton suggests acting as if "you've heard it all before."

Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.

Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it may

appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers

to future questions.

Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic) and

now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."

Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take

so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the

interviewer.






















Immediately After Interview

Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratching, ensure pages are

numbered; fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.

Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the

interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there

any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

SURVEY INSTRUMENT DESIGN

Survey instrument design is achieved by adopting the following steps.

Survey

Survey is the interrogation in written or verbal form performed by the researcher. It is a method

that depends completely on verbal behaviour. The respondent can give untrue or misleading

answers. A survey’s success therefore depends on a fragile procedure. We may get some useful

answers but how much they may be authentical that is not sure.

To obtain results from the survey exercise it is advisable to use the survey approach that consists

of three strategies.

iv. The communication mode that we choose by which to conduct the questioning.

v. The degree of structure that is imposed on the questioning and response process.

vi. The degree to which the objectives of the study are to be disguised.

Communication Modes: Communication interactions between researcher and respondent may

be of the following nature.

Personal Mode

This interaction involves one - to – one relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee.

The response may be recorded in writing, or by typing or by tape recorder or in some other way.

Impersonal Mode

In this communication mode the researcher typically depends upon a printed instrument to carry

out the communication task. This instrument, a questionnaire both the instructions and questions

to respond and provides space for them to complete their answers.

Mixed Mode

The combined mode of personal and impersonal approaches are referred as mixed mode.

Process Structure

Another useful approach on the development of survey instrument is based on the degree of

question structure used by the interviewer.

With the structured questions the interviewer asks questions in a standardized format and

sequence. This gives assurance that each question asked in the same way in each interview,

promoting measurement reliability. A standardized questioning sequence also makes it easier to

develop a standard line of questioning that builds on prior responses.

Lack of question structure has both advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that

interviewer can guide the questioning in the direction which insight and the respondent’s lead.

The skilled interviewer recognizes and exploits these opportunities as they arise.

Naturally there are disadvantages, for example the results of one interview are not comparable

with the others.

Experimentation

The experimentation is a type of investigation used to determine whether and in what manner

variables are related to each other. In the classical concept of an experiment we are concerned

with determining whether there is a relation between an independent variable (IV) and a

dependent variable (DV) or not. It is performed by intervening in the research setting in two

ways. In the first step the independent variable is manipulated by assuming its presence in some

cases and absent in other cases. After that the effect of this manipulation on the presence and

absence of the dependent variable. In the second stage, we arrange conditions so that other

variables are not allowed to affect the dependent variable, usually through some type of control.

It may be possible to approach this idealized concept under laboratory conditions, but it is not

very practical in business research for two reasons. Firstly full manipulation and control is

usually not possible. Secondly we are often more interested in the question of concomitant

variation, that is in what manner variables are related to each other. In this approach we think of

the effect of independent variable on dependent variable.

There are some advantages and disadvantages of the experimentation in research design.

Business research is concerned with the study of people and there are limits to the amount of

manipulation and control which is either possible or ethical. Experiments are often difficult to

design, tend to be expensive and time consuming. All experiments are artificial to some degrees,

so this is main disadvantage.

The overall advantage of experimentation is that no other method has power to determine

relationship between variables. Though imperfectly, the researcher can control contamination

from extraneous variables more effectively than in other designs and can bring together

combinations of variables to test rather than having to search for some fortuitous combination of

these variables in nature.

Validity & Experimentation

Even when experiment is carried out in the ideal research design it is not without its problems. It

is easy to carry out an experiment but whatever the results we get are always doubtful. Some

scholars suggest that there are four types of validity which must be considered when one is

conducting experiments. They are as under:

1. Internal Validity

It refers to the validity of any conclusions we draw about whether a demonstrated statistical

relationship implies cause.

2. External Validity

It refers to the validity with which a casual relationship can be generalized across persons,

settings and times.

3. Statistical Conclusion Validity:

It refers to the validity of conclusions we draw on the basis of statistical evidence about whether

a presumed cause and effect co vary.

4. Construct Validity

It refers to the validity with which cause and effect operations are labled in theory relevant or

generalizable terms.

Experimentation Example

A major problem that prevails in super markets is the amount of shelf space for the display of

products. Another problem is how much space should be given to a particular product type or

brand. Two decision rules are generally proposed for this problem. One is that a brand should be

given more space. The second rule is that there should be no other alternative use which provides

a better condition.

In an experimental study relationship between space and profit was explored. The four products

studied were two leading brands of salts and two brands of powdered coffee cream. The

hypotheses were:

1. There is no relationship between the amount of shelf space given to a staple product

brand and total unit sales of that brand.

2. There is a relationship between the amount of shelf space given to an impulse product

brand that has high consumer acceptance and total unit sales of the product brand.

3. There is no relationship between the amount of shelf space given to an impulse brand that

has low consumer acceptance and total unit sales of that product brand.

The experiment was conducted over a three week period in six stores in a super market. The total

shelf space for the two product categories was held constant throughout the experiment, but

different relative allocations of space were made between the brands.

Simulation

Simulation may be defined as the process of conducting experiments on a model of system.

While model is anything used to represent the system. For example, a physical operating model

that consists of a set of pipes through which liquid moves to simulate the flow of monetary

values in our economic system. The availability of large scale computers has made it possible for

us to experiment with symbolic models in ways which they were unknown previously.

Simulation is useful when there are complex interactions among many variables.

For proper working the essentials of simulation are

a) a mathematical model of the process or system being studied

b) a sample of inputs

These inputs may be samples of actual data or synthetic data based on the general characteristics

of real input data. When the model is operated upon yield of outputs is obtained.

Application of Simulation

Getting proper order quantities was one of the first uses of simulation. Later on it was applied in

production operations as well as jobs scheduling. Now a days simulation has important

applications in the design of complex distribution systems, plant operations, warehouses,

customer locations, etc.

A major class of simulation applications is queing or waiting line problems. Simple example of

queing stations are the check out stand in a super market or the problems associated with any

service facility.

Another example is that of factory production line which can be viewed as a series of stations,

each highly specialized in function, through which a product must flow in sequence, in the

process of manufacture.

Validity & Experimentation

Even when experiment is carried out in the ideal research design it is not without its problems. It

is easy to carry out an experiment but whatever the results we get are always doubtful. Some

scholars suggest that there are four types of validity which must be considered when one is

conducting experiments. They are as under:

1. Internal Validity

It refers to the validity of any conclusions we draw about whether a demonstrated statistical

relationship implies cause.

2. External Validity

It refers to the validity with which a casual relationship can be generalized across persons,

settings and times.

3. Statistical Conclusion Validity:

It refers to the validity of conclusions we draw on the basis of statistical evidence about whether

a presumed cause and effect co vary.

4. Construct Validity

It refers to the validity with which cause and effect operations are labled in theory relevant or

generalizable terms.

Experimentation Example

A major problem that prevails in super markets is the amount of shelf space for the display of

products. Another problem is how much space should be given to a particular product type or

brand. Two decision rules are generally proposed for this problem. One is that a brand should be

given more space. The second rule is that there should be no other alternative use which provides

a better condition.

In an experimental study relationship between space and profit was explored. The four products

studied were two leading brands of salts and two brands of powdered coffee cream. The

hypotheses were:

1. There is no relationship between the amount of shelf space given to a staple product brand

and total unit sales of that brand.

2. There is a relationship between the amount of shelf space given to an impulse product brand

that has high consumer acceptance and total unit sales of the product brand.

3. There is no relationship between the amount of shelf space given to an impulse brand that has

low consumer acceptance and total unit sales of that product brand.

The experiment was conducted over a three week period in six stores in a super market. The total

shelf space for the two product categories was held constant throughout the experiment, but

different relative allocations of space were made between the brands.

Simulation

Simulation may be defined as the process of conducting experiments on a model of system.

While model is anything used to represent the system. For example, a physical operating model

that consists of a set of pipes through which liquid moves to simulate the flow of monetary

values in our economic system. The availability of large scale computers has made it possible for

us to experiment with symbolic models in ways which they were unknown previously.

Simulation is useful when there are complex interactions among many variables.

For proper working the essentials of simulation are

c) a mathematical model of the process or system being studied

d) a sample of inputs

These inputs may be samples of actual data or synthetic data based on the general characteristics

of real input data. When the model is operated upon yield of outputs is obtained.

Application of Simulation

Getting proper order quantities was one of the first uses of simulation. Later on it was applied in

production operations as well as jobs scheduling. Now a days simulation has important

applications in the design of complex distribution systems, plant operations, warehouses,

customer locations, etc.

A major class of simulation applications is queing or waiting line problems. Simple example of

queing stations are the checkout stand in a super market or the problems associated with any

service facility.

Another example is that of factory production line which can be viewed as a series of stations,

each highly specialized in function, through which a product must flow in sequence, in the

process of manufacture.

Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data

For nearly 50 years, statistics research has been one of the primary specialties. The statisticians,

epidemiologists, and bio-statisticians conduct complex statistical analyses to support wide

ranging research programs in both laboratory and social sciences.

Teams of statisticians work alongside economists, behavioral psychologists, toxicologists,

biologists, engineers, and environmental scientists to provide advice and support in all aspects of

the quantitative, qualitative, and statistical analysis needed to answer some of the world's most

complex research questions. In addition, the statisticians develop and maintain software

packages for analyzing cluster-correlated data.

The statistical experts ensure the quality, validity, and reliability of the research products and

results by applying quality control and assurance procedures from sampling design through data

collection and analysis.

Types of experimental data

Data analysis is the application of one or more statistical techniques to a set of data as collected

from one of the following three types of research:

(1) Designed experiments,

(2) Sample surveys and

(3) Observational studies.

In designed experiments, some form of treatment is applied to experimental units and responses

are observed. For example, in a food processing experiment, portions of fruit, such as slices of

apples, are treated with different preservatives and the shelf lives of the portions of fruit are

determined. Most experiments in agri-food research are designed experiments because the

researchers often want to determine effects of different treatments.

In sample surveys, data are collected on units according to a plan, called a survey design, but no

treatments are applied to the units. For example, in a geographic survey of pathogenic variation

of wheat stem rust in western Canada, isolates of the rust, the survey units, are collected from

different regions in western Canada and disease severity is measured after inoculating on wheat

seedlings.

In observational studies, data are collected on units that are available, rather than on units

chosen according to a plan. An example is a study at a veterinary clinic in which dogs that enter

the clinic are diagnosed according to their skin condition, and blood samples are drawn for

measurement of trace elements.

Types of variables

Any research experiment involves in measuring or characterizing some variables whose values

can be used to assess effects of different treatments or inherent attributes of research materials in

a survey experiment. There are roughly two classes of variables in agricultural research:

Measurement variables;

Categorical variables.

Measurement variables are all those whose differing states can be expressed in a numerically

ordered fashion. There are two types of measurement variables: continuous and discontinuous

variables. Continuous variables are those which at least theoretically can assume an infinite

number of values between any two fixed points. For example, between lengths 2.5 and 2.6 cm of

two wheat seedlings, there can be an infinite number of lengths such as 2.57 cm if one measures

enough wheat seedlings. Agricultural researchers frequently have this type of measurement

variables. Examples include plant height, growth areas, grain volume, body weight of animals,

body temperature and growth rate. Discontinuous variables, also known as meristic or discrete

variables have only certain fixed numerical values, with no intermediate values possible in

between. For example, the number of segments in a certain insect appendage may be 4 or 5 or 6

but never 4.3 or 5.5.

Categorical variables cannot be measured but can be categorized according to their attributes

(nominal variables) or ranked according to their magnitude (ordinal variables). For example, a

plant breeder is interested in breeding for genetic resistance to a certain disease. She may need a

rating system of 0 - 4 to assess the disease severity (0 = no symptoms to 4 = maximum

infection). The disease severity is an ordinal variable. Sometimes she may be only interested in

the disease incidence so that all plants are categorized as diseased or not diseased. The disease

incidence is a nominal variable.

Which statistical method should be used?

Exactly which statistical method(s) should be used? The answer to this question require an

examination of

(i) Whether the variables in the experiment are dependent (measurement) variables or

independent ('treatment') variables and

(ii) Whether the variables are continuous or discrete variables. With such examination, it

is relatively straightforward to identify appropriate statistical methods to be used for

analyzing the experimental data at hand.

Which statistical software should be used?

With the leap in desktop computing power over the past few years, many statistical softwares

that traditionally target the mainframe computers have now had their user-friendly PC

versions available. This enables individual researchers to carry out statistical analysis with

little help from computer specialists. However, apart from a real danger of

(i) Misapplication of statistical methods by the researchers with limited statistical

backgrounds and

(ii) Invalid interpretation of outputs from the analysis, there is also a difficulty to choose

which statistical software’s should be used in analyzing the research data.

There is growing need to have a basic understanding of statistics:

For a clear description of experimental design and statistical analysis in a research proposal;

and

For a valid and better interpretation of research results.

Many researchers from within and outside Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development

(AAFRD) have annually submitted research proposals to Alberta Agricultural Research Institute

(AARI) for research funding. The general observation during reviewing these proposals has been

that while the objectives of a research proposal are usually clearly stated and the variables to be

measured or the treatments to be compared are usually described in detail, what is often lacking

is a clear and/or detailed description of the proposed experimental design and statistical analysis.

Most often, the total elaboration is limited to just one sentence, such as "the data will be

subjected to a regression analysis". It is no secret that AARI and many other granting agencies

require proposals with a clear outline of experimental design and statistical analysis to ensure the

quality of proposed research. Specifically, the two relevant questions have become part of the

standard criteria set forth by AARI to evaluate the research proposals:

Is the experimental design sound?

Is the statistical technique to be used well explained and appropriate?

Therefore, in designing the research experiments and writing research proposals, researchers

must know just what design, data and analysis are needed to support their proposed hypotheses.

With the recent advance in microcomputers and easy-to-use statistical software, more and more

AAFRD researchers with varying degrees of statistical training are carrying out their own

statistical analysis. There is a real danger of:

Misapplication of statistical methods by the researchers with limited statistical backgrounds

and

Invalid interpretation of outputs from the analysis.

You have the statistics. Now you must write a report. But how do you share your findings?

Whether you're writing a business report or an article for an academic journal, there are four

universal sections required to write a successful statistical analysis report. The key sections are

introduction, methods, results and conclusion. Depending on the nature of your report, you may

also need an abstract, literature review and appendices.

Step 1

Include an abstract for reports longer than a page. The abstract might be the only part of the

report your audience reads. An abstract should summarize your report in 200 words or fewer.

Include the purpose of the report, major findings, statistical methods used and your conclusion.

Step 2

Explain the report's purpose, its importance and why your readers should care in your introduction. You must also describe the statistical approach you applied and your thesis.

Step 3

Skip this step if you're writing a nonacademic statistical analysis report. If you're writing a report for a scholarly journal, however, you typically must include a literature review. A literature review summarizes past research done on your topic and shows other researchers that you're familiar with and knowledgeable about the field.

Step 4

Explain your research design, variables and statistical methods in your methods section. For example, if you conducted a survey, explain what type and how you chose participants. If you conducted an experiment, explain how you structured it.

Step 5

Analyze your statistics and report your findings in the results section. Pick and illustrate relevant results in your study. Interpret these statistics, explaining how they support or undermine your thesis. If possible, explain how these statistics apply to a broader context.

Step 6

Give a concise overview of what you've stated in the results section in the conclusion. Explain the implications of your statistical analysis, how it fits in with your thesis and if any more research needs to be done.

Step 7

Add appendices to your report if you had to cut some of the more irrelevant data from your results section. Add any charts, graphs or tables that may have been truncated for the results section.

Tools of Research

Every profession and professional activity has tools that help improve techniques and assure a

quality product. Research is no exception. The tools of the trade are often classified into three

categories:

Hardware

Software, and

Methods or knowledge

Hardware tools may include hammers, copy machines, trucks, computers, or cell phones.

Software tools relate to computer programs such as word processing or data base programs, and

changeable forms such as written tests, worksheets, or rubrics.

The methods of a profession refer to knowledge and understanding of the procedures involved.

For example, when a medical professional performs a C.T scan on a patient, the machine they

use is considered hardware, the computer program used to collect and analyze the data is the

software, and the use of the machine and software as well as the interpretation of results and

application to treatment is the methods. All three types of tools are typically necessary to every

profession, with research being no exception.

Hardware Tools of Research

The most commonly used hardware tool in research is the computer. We use this device in order

to run software, to measure changes in the autonomic nervous system, and to detect brain

damage and other physical problems. Other instruments that might be seen in social science

research might include a device to measure reflexes or muscle strength, or the hardware, such as

blocks and puzzles, associated with an intelligence test. Hardware provides us with a means to

interact with our subjects and therefore gather information on their performance.

Software Tools of Research

The software tools of research are typically more abundant than hardware tools in the social

sciences. Software is usually thought of to mean computer programs that tell the hardware what

to do, but any tool not related to a physical device can be considered software. Included in this

category is statistical software, consent forms, published tests, questionnaires, observation forms,

and, to a lesser degree, the interview.

Statistical Software

Simple statistical problems, such as determining the mean or the median of a small data set, can

easily be done with a calculator. Most formulas that will be used in a research report, however,

are a lot more complex. While a calculator will work, a statistical program can reduce the

computation time by hours, days, or even weeks. Imagine trying to determine the mean,

standard deviation, t-score, and z-score conversions of twelve data sets each containing 300

subjects. Even the best statistician will spend many hours on this project that could be done by a

computer in a matter of minutes once the data is entered.

The most widely used statistical software used for social science research is the Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and is relatively easy to use if you have basic computer

knowledge. SPSS can perform hundreds of statistical computations and even graph your data.

Another program, SAS, also performs these functions and is gaining popularity with many

researchers. Both, however, can be expensive to purchase so it would be wise to use your

school’s software or look into a student version.

Consent Forms

The consent form is a necessity for anyone doing research with human subjects. The purpose of

the consent form is to provide information to the potential subject regarding the experiment or

study and to answer questions regarding their participation. Consent forms should always

include both potential benefits and harm that may result from participation as well as the option

to quit the study at any time without repercussions.

The title of the study, purpose, and researchers’ names and affiliation are often included toward

the top of the form. Contact information, such as phone numbers, should also be included. The

bulk of the consent form involves the specific procedures that will be used, how the information

gathered during the study will be used, and the expected experience that the subject will endure

if he or she agrees to participate.

Procedures and Requirements

Before a potential subject can consent to any study, especially those involving invasive

techniques, he or she must be made aware of the process that will take place. The procedures

and requirements section explains to the subject what he or she will experience during the study.

If a survey is involved, this section might inform the subject that they will be asked to respond to

questions related to their past work experience or their college grades.

Method Tools of Research

Knowledge of the procedures involved in research is perhaps the most important tool. Without

this, the best computers and most reliable tests would be useless. For the researcher, there are

several important areas that must be mastered, including the knowledge of scientific methods,

the use of statistical software, the practical application of statistical formulas, knowledge of

writing style, and the ability to gather information and critically review the research of others.

For this reason, this text would be considered a method tool in that it is designed to provide

knowledge of research methods and assist you in the process of performing and evaluating the

research of others.

Research Plans Depend on Information You Need and Available Resources

Often, organization members want to know everything about their products, services, programs,

etc. Your research plans depend on what information you need to collect in order to make major

decisions about a product, service, program, etc. Usually, you're faced with a major decision due

to, e.g., ongoing complaints from customers; need to convince funders / bankers to loan money,

unmet needs among customers, the need to polish an internal process, etc.

The more focused you are about what you want to gain by your research, the more effective and

efficient you can be in your research, the shorter the time it will take you and ultimately the less

it will cost you (whether in your own time, the time of your employees and/or the time of a

consultant).

There are trade offs, too, in the breadth and depth of information you get. The more breadth you

want, usually the less depth you'll get (unless you have a great deal of resources to carry out the

research). On the other hand, if you want to examine a certain aspect of a product, service,

program, etc., in great detail, you will likely not get as much information about other aspects as

well.

For those starting out in research or who have very limited resources, they can use various

methods to get a good mix of breadth and depth of information. They can understand more about

certain areas of their products, services, programs, etc., and not go bankrupt doing so.

Key Considerations to Design Your Research Approach

Consider the following key questions when designing your research plan:

1. For what purposes is the research being done, i.e., what do you want to be able to decide as a

result of the research?

2. Who are the audiences for the information from the research, e.g., funders / bankers, upper

management, employees, customers, etc.

3. What kinds of information are needed to make the decisions you need to make and/or to

enlighten your intended audiences, e.g., do you need information to really understand a process,

the customers who buy certain products, strengths and weaknesses of the product or service or

program, benefits to customers, how the product or service or program failed some customers

and why, etc.?

4. From what sources should the information be collected, e.g., employees, customers, groups of

employees or customers, certain documentation, etc.?

5. How can that information be collected in a reasonable fashion, e.g., questionnaires, interviews,

examining documentation, observing staff and/or clients in the program, conducting focus

groups among staff and/or clients, etc?

6. When is the information needed (so, by when must it be collected)?

7. What resources are available to collect the information?

Overall Goal in Selecting Methods

The overall goal in selecting basic business research method(s) is to get the most useful

information to key decision makers in the most cost-effective and realistic fashion. Consider the

following questions:

1. What information is needed to make current decisions about a product or program?

2. Of this information, how much can be collected and analyzed in a low-cost and practical

manner, e.g., using questionnaires, surveys and checklists?

3. How accurate will the information be (reference the above table for disadvantages of

methods)?

4. Will the methods get all of the needed information?

5. What additional methods should and could be used if additional information is needed?

6. Will the information appear as credible to decision makers, e.g., to bankers, funders or top

management?

7. Will the nature of the audience conform to the methods, e.g., will they fill out questionnaires

carefully, engage in interviews or focus groups, let you examine their documentations, etc.?

8. Who can administer the methods now or is training required?

9. How can the information be analyzed?

Note that, ideally, the researcher uses a combination of methods, for example, a questionnaire to

quickly collect a great deal of information from a lot of people, and then interviews to get more

in-depth information from certain respondents to the questionnaires. Perhaps case studies could

then be used for more in-depth analysis of unique and notable cases, e.g., those who benefited or

not from the program, those who quit the program, etc.

Four Levels of Research Results

There are four levels of information that can be gathered from customers or clients, including

getting their:

5. Reactions and feelings (feelings are often poor indicators that your service made lasting

impact)

6. Learning (enhanced attitudes, perceptions or knowledge)

7. Changes in skills (applied the learning to enhance behaviors)

8. Effectiveness (improved performance because of enhanced behaviors)

Usually, the farther your research results get down the list, the more useful is your research

results. Unfortunately, it is quite difficult to reliably get information about effectiveness. Still,

information about learning and skills is quite useful.

General Guidelines for Conducting Interviews

Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The

interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-

up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually

open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself

what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews.

This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.

Preparation for Interview

Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is

comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their

own places of work or homes.

Explain the purpose of the interview.

Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can

you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain

circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be

analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so.

Explain the format of the interview.

Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask

questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.

Indicate how long the interview usually takes.

Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.

Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.

Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record


Types of Interviews

5. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain

as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the

interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".

6. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same

general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus

than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in

getting information from the interviewee.

7. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all

interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer

the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this

approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

8. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and

asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for

those not practiced in interviewing.






















Wording of Questions

Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when

answering questions.

Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g.,

evocative, judgmental wording.

Questions should be asked one at a time.

Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the

program or the respondents' culture.

Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect relationship

that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel defensive, e.g.,

that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future

questions.

Conducting Interview

Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

Ask one question at a time.

Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional reactions to

their responses. Patton suggests acting as if "you've heard it all before."

Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.

Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it may

appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers

to future questions.

Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic) and

now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."

Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take

so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the

interviewer.

Immediately After Interview

Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are

numbered; fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.

Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the

interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there

any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

General Guidelines for Conducting InterviewsInterviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews. This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.

Preparation for InterviewChoose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.

Explain the purpose of the interview. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them or wait until the end of the interview.

Indicate how long the interview usually takes. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record


Types of InterviewsInformal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".

General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee.

Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Types of Topics in Questions Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about: Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be careful to note

that you're looking for feelings Knowledge - to get facts about a topic Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled Background/demographics - standard background questions, such as age, education, etc. Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.

Sequence of QuestionsGet the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the interview before warming up to more personal matters.

Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.

Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.

The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

Wording of QuestionsWording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms when answering questions.

Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.

Questions should be asked one at a time. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the

program or the respondents' culture. Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect

relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel

defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses to this and future questions.

Conducting Interview Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working. Ask one question at a time. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional reactions

to their responses. Patton suggests acting as if "you've heard it all before." Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note, it

may appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may influence answers to future questions.

Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic) and now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."

Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking questions to the interviewer.

Immediately After InterviewVerify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are numbered; fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc. Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?