ACTION VERBS BY SKILL AREA

Detail/Follow-through

Advise Aid Brief Clarify CommunicateCompose Conduct Consult Counsel DefineDeliver Demonstrate Describe Design DevelopDisburse Encourage Explain Express FacilitateGuide Illustrate Influence Inform InstructInterpret Lecture Listen Organize PersuadePhrase Plan Present Research ReviewTeach Train

Customer Service/Human Relations

Adjust Administer Assist Attend CareCommunicate Convey Cure Direct EncourageExplain Guide Help Host PlanPromote Provide

Innovation

Adapt Apply Conceive Create DemonstrateDevelop Forecast Formulate Generate GraphImagine Improve Invent Judge MemorizePerceive Recognize Remember Update Visualize

Leadership

Conduct Decide Define Document ExplainEnlist Inspire Judge Lead LectureMotivate Negotiate Plan Promote SolveSpeak

Accounting/Financial Management

Analyze Appraise Budget Calculate CompileCompute Count Estimate Examine ManageProject Review Tabulate

Communications

Communicate Compare Compose Create DefineDemonstrate Describe Develop Document EditExamine Explain Illustrate Interpret InterpretLecture Listen Present Proofread PublishReport Speak Summarize Translate Write

Research/Investigation

Anticipate Assess Classify Criticize DefineDetermine Diagnose Examine Gather GroupInterview Inquire Inspect Observe OrganizePerceive Plan Recognize Re-evaluate ReviewSolve Structure Survey Synthesize

Design/Performance

Act Arrange Assemble Build ComposeConstruct Create Direct Decorate DemonstrateDesign Draft Draw Express FashionFrame Illustrate Lecture Map ModelMold Orchestrate Perform Photograph ReciteRestore Sculpt Shape Show SingSketch Speak Stage Stencil StyleVisualize Write

Conjunctions: Coordinating, Adverbial, and Subordinating

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are those seven words commonly used to unite two independent clauses. These conjunctions give equivalent value to the two clauses they connect. The following seven words (with the acronym FANBOYS) are coordinating conjunctions:

for and nor but or yet so

Coordinating conjunctions are typically preceded by a comma when both of the clauses are independent. Here are two example sentences:

The teacher announced the postponement of the test, and the students were overjoyed.

I gave my sister a cashmere sweater for Christmas, but she gave me only placemats.

Both of the examples above are two independent clauses joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Practice Exercise: Now you try to write two independent clauses separated with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

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Adverbial Conjunctions

Adverbial conjunctions achieve largely the same ends as the coordinating variety; however, adverbial conjunctions can be used in several different ways. Below is a list of common adverbial conjunctions:

accordinglyalsoanywaybesidesconsequentlyconversely

finally furthermorehencehoweverincidentally instead

likewisemoreover neverthelessnonethelessotherwisesimilarly

subsequentlythen thereforethus

Adverbial Conjunctions are used in three important ways:

1. Adverbial conjunctions help us unite two independent clauses. When adverbial conjunctions are used between two independent clauses, they are preceded by a semicolon and usually followed by a comma.

The mummy was buried in a gold sarcophagus; thus, the archaeologists surmised that he or she was someone of noble birth.

Marcy has always been a good athlete; nevertheless, she failed to win two soccer tournaments, four triathlons, and a rugby tournament.

2. They are used in parenthetical expressions. When an adverbial conjunction interrupts the flow of the sentence, it is surrounded by commas. If the adverbial conjunction comes at the end of the sentence, use a comma before it.

Darryl Strawberry had great potential in baseball; he has, nonetheless, thrown it all away because of his addiction to drugs.

Being of sound mind, I bequeath all of my money to my family. My friend Amy will get my comic book collection and my rock collection, however.

3. They are used as brief introductory phrases. In this case, they are followed by commas.

Incidentally, she said that she would be going to Mexico for Easter.

Furthermore, the banded dune snail is so abundant that it never needed official protection.

Practice Exercise: Now you try to use two of the adverbial conjunction rules listed above.

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Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions begin dependent clauses, clauses that cannot stand alone; they are then joined to independent clauses to make them complete. Below is a general list of subordinating conjunctions:

after althoughas, as ifbecausebeforeeven thoughexcept for if, even ifin order that rather thansince so that than

thatthoughunlessuntilwhen, whenever where, wherever whether whichwhilewhowhom whose

When subordinating conjunctions begin a clause, the clause becomes dependent. To make the idea complete again, we have to add the dependent clause to an independent clause. Note the following examples.

I was thirsty. (This is a simple independent clause).

Because I was thirsty (This is a dependent clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction because; therefore, the clause cannot stand alone.)

Because I was thirsty, I filled my canteen with water at the next creek. (Here, the dependent clause is added to an independent clause to make it complete.)

I like to go skiing (simple independent clause).

I like to go skiing when (now a dependent clause beginning with when)

I like to go skiing when the snow is fresh and the air cold and crisp. (With the dependent clause in the middle, no comma is needed.)

What are the comma rules associated with independent and dependent clauses?

If we begin with a dependent clause, we need a comma at the end of that clause. This set of clauses is an example of the comma rule: DC, IC.

We do not need a comma if our dependent clause comes after our independent clause. This set of clauses is an example of the comma rule: IC+DC.

Note: The comma comes at the end of the introductory dependent clause—not at the end of the dependent word. Consider the following:

Wrong: Although, I like skiing… Correct: Although I like skiing, I do not go often. (The comma comes at the end

of the dependent clause—right before the independent clause.)

Practice Exercise: Now you try to write two sentences using a subordinating conjunction at the beginning of a sentence and in the middle of a sentence.

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The Apostrophe

Possessive nouns usually indicate ownership. For example, we can say Rhonda's purse or the puppy's leash. Often, however, ownership is loosely implied, as in a day's work or a week's paycheck. We can tell if we need to use an apostrophe by seeing if the phrase can be replaced with of. Look back at the preceding examples and note that Rhonda's purse is the purse of Rhonda, the puppy's leash is the leash of the puppy, a day's work is the work of a day, and a week's paycheck is the paycheck of a week.

I. Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive.

Note: The following pronouns are already possessive; therefore, they never take apostrophes. Singular: my, mine, you, yours, her, hers, his, its Plural: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

When to add 's

If the noun does not end in an s, add 's.

Ex: Tanya decided it was time to leave her sister's party.Ex: Allan brought home plenty of money for the children's dresses.

If the noun is singular and ends in s, add 's.

Ex: Vargas's sister is coming to visit over the summer.

Note: If the pronunciation would be awkward with the added 's, some writers use only the apostrophe. Either use is acceptable.

Ex: Sophocles' plays are relevant to modern life.

When to add only an apostrophe

If the noun is plural and ends in s, add only an apostrophe.

Ex: The girls' dresses looked perfect at the wedding.Ex: Two corporations' retirement dinners were held at The Forum last week.Ex: The Millers' vacation lasted two weeks because they stayed in Hawaii to surf.

Joint possession

To show joint possession, use 's (or s') with the last noun only; to show individual possession, make all nouns possessive.

Ex: Ron and Kate's new home is quite beautiful.Ex: Jose's and Javier's expectations for English 56 couldn't have been more

different.

II. Use an apostrophe to mark a contraction or the omission of the first two digits of a year.

Ex: It's a shame that we can’t learn writing by osmosis.Ex: The class of '86 was the best one to graduate from Ridgemont High.

III. Add an apostrophe and an s to the final word in a compound noun.

Ex: My husband and I inherited my father-in-law's carpet business.Ex: The missing words in the ad were somebody else's mistake.

IV. Add an apostrophe and an s to pluralize numbers mentioned as numbers, letters mentioned as letters, words mentioned as words, and abbreviations.

Ex: Margaret skated perfect 8’s.Ex: The bleachers at the football game were marked with large M’s Ex: We have heard enough maybe’s to last a lifetime. Ex: Bars must ask patrons for I.D.’s now to avoid prosecution.

Exception: An s alone is often added to the years in a decade: the 1980s.

Note: The Modern Language Association (MLA) recommends no apostrophe in plurals of numbers and abbreviations. Ex: figure 8s, VCRs.

V. Do not use an apostrophe when the word is simply plural.

Incorrect: User’s of this reference sheet can understand apostrophes more clearly. (The word “Users” is plural—not possessive; therefore, the apostrophe is not

needed.)Correct: Users of this reference sheet can understand apostrophes more clearly.Incorrect: The girls’ at the party had a fabulous time.(The word “girls” is plural; there is no indication of possession here, so no

apostrophe is needed.)

Correct: The girls at the party had a fabulous time.

Eliminating “Corpspeak”

Writing Exercises

The discussions and exercises that follow cover just a few of the factors you must consider when choosing words to build your sentences.

Directions:

1. Read each section.

2. Then for each exercise, in the spaces provided, write your suggested correct ion/s.

3. Save your document and post it the Discussion Board.

Jargon and Slang

Prose need not be pedestrian, but it must always be clear. Today, government offices, businesses, and consumer advocates—among many others—are increasingly emphasizing the use of plain English instead of bureaucratese. Anyone who has ever waded through an insurance form, a lease, a government regulation, or the instructions for preparing a tax return can only cheer.

This isn’t to say that writers should vigorously excise all uncommon or erudite words from their communications. And they must watch nuances in any changes they make. If an unusual word expresses a writer’s meaning and its everyday variant doesn’t, the writer should go with the best word. If the text is awash in jargon and redundancy, however, writers owe it to their readers to clarify meanings.

Each profession has its favorite words, its particular vocabulary, and its sacred cows. Writers can change many of these words to enhance readability or to reach a larger audience and offend no one. Writers must first—and always—respect their intended audience: a specialist writing for other specialists can use expressions that someone writing for a lay audience can’t. On the other hand, a specialist writing specialized language for a lay audience has no audience.

Exercise 1 – Eliminate Pompous Language and Jargon

Rewrite each of these pompous jargon phrases using one or two words at the most. Many of these phrases can be eliminated. If you see any that can, write “Not Needed” in the right-hand column.

Pompous Language What it Really Means

Due to the fact that

For a period of

In accordance with

Pompous Language What it Really Means

In a timely manner

In the near future

Demonstrate/depict

Methodology

Utilize/utilization/utilizing/employ

It should be noted that

Has a responsibility to

One of the keys to

At the present time

For the purpose of

In an effort to

In the amount of

Capability

With respect to/regarding

Remainder

Consequently

Subsequently

It is of interest that

Is responsible for

It is essential to

Ascertain/verify

Is equipped with/exhibits

Prior to/previous to

In the event that/in case of

Has the potential to

It is anticipated that

With the exception of

Wordiness – Get Rid of Extra Words

Don’t use two words to express an idea that can be captured in one. Don’t use words and phrases you’re accustomed to using in speech. Don’t say, I am sincerely pleased. Can you be insincerely pleased? Don’t say, I’m personally pleased. How is personally pleased different from simply being pleased? The extra words get in the way of what you want to say.

Naturally, there are times when we must reach out to make a point with a difficult word because there is no other word available. More often we can find a substitute. This advice is certainly not new. (Stop: Notice how I added certainly to the previous sentence. The word in this context is a characteristic

of speech. No harm. But the way I use it in that sentence adds nothing. In revising the sentence, I would delete the unnecessary certainly.) You’ve heard many times that you should eschew obfuscation.

Exercise 2 – Get Rid of Extra Words to Eliminate Overwriting and to Tighten Ideas

The following sentences contain unrelated or excess ideas, or excess verbiage. Write the sentences in logical order. You may also find problems with inflated words, doublings, and the like. Rewrite the sentences to crystallize the important ideas.

Overwritten Sentence Your Improved, Tightened Sentence

He dropped out of school on account of the fact that it was necessary for him to help support his family.

In the event that you happen to be in agreement with me during the course of the meeting, please speak out.

Regardless of the fact that I was not prepared, I did well on the calculus exam.

Until such time as I have the opportunity to get help with this problem, I will have to cope with it myself.

In the not-too-distant future, first-year college students must all become aware of the fact that there is a need for them to make contact with an academic adviser concerning the matter of a major.

Students in the astronomy course viewed through telescope the eclipse of the moon in the night sky during September.

There is a great deal of doubt as regards the future of financial aid for students.

There are many reasons for taking Study Skills, including learning to budget time and learning efficient notetaking.

The method of writing a draft for a paper in a difficult course which I have found of most use has been the freewriting method.

Noun Addiction

The use of noun modifiers in all manner of writing has increased dramatically in recent years as each sector of the organizational world has found the need to develop its own jargon. If the ad writer can inflict garden fresh on an apathetic public, why can’t Manufacturers Hanover refer to a pilot program to test customer reaction to having banks open on Saturday? Such language sounds more banker-like than, We opened a few locations on Saturday to see how customers would like this new service.

Managers at Pitney Bowes have an even deeper understanding of our markets and customer base. No doubt, it’s easier to understand a customer base than a customer. At many companies it has been a record year because the management team is dedicated to industry leadership as it makes service improvements leading to increased earnings performance. Like the cliché, nounspeak is the lazy writer’s solution—only the companies and names change, the ballpark figures for goal actualizations remain the same.

Noun and Adjective Strings

What is familiarly called jargon often is a noun string, a combination of nouns run together as if they were adjectives. Many phrases that began as noun strings have passed into common usage: health maintenance organization and sample selection basis, for example. Other strings, however, defy understanding.

Example noun strings

Oklahoma Natural Gas Company Employee Counseling Program Evaluation Model

Or community banking funds transfer risk management

Sometimes nouns and adjectives are strung together.

Example noun-adjective string

Urban American Indian Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center

Or Spanish-speaking mental health resource center

Such strings create problems because readers don’t know until they get to the end of the string exactly they are reading about. Even then, they may not be sure. Consider the following example. What seems to be the subject? The very last word? Preparation for what? A meeting . . . What’s the meeting for? Implementation of a paperwork reduction plan . . . , but even that phrase can be broken down further. Untie the noun string.

Example noun string When It Is Untied

paperwork reduction plan implementation meeting preparation

preparation for a meeting to implement a plan to reduce paperwork

One way to attack noun strings is to break them into manageable chunks. Where possible, turn nouns into verbs and insert prepositions and articles to make the meaning clearer and to make the relationships among the elements clear. Consider the noun string that follows. Again, go to the end; the last

word is usually the subject of the phrase or clause. So the subject is information or rather advance information. Then, deciphering the noun string becomes easier.

Example noun string When It Is Untied

computer spreadsheet program advance information

advance information on spreadsheet programs for the computer

As you can see, noun strings are taxing and often frustrating for the reader. Left uncorrected, noun strings obscure meaning and bog the reader down. Make sure what you have written is absolutely clear and unambiguous to your readers.

Exercise 3 – Untie Noun and Adjective Strings

Correct the following noun strings by recasting the words and phrases in a logical order. Start by finding the subject and predicate of the sentence. Then find the important idea and any subordinate ideas. Place these ideas in their proper position (subordinate by using subordinate conjunctions or by placing ideas of lesser importance toward the center of the sentence). As the first sentence shows, making the sentence clearer means changing one phrase into a prepositional phrase. You will probably have to add words to make each sentence read smoothly.

Noun/Adjective String Untied Noun/Adjective String

Rapid operational equipment distribution is a strength of the new plan.

Example: The rapid distribution of operational equipment is one strength of the new plan.

The plant safety standards committee discussed recent air quality regulation announcements.

This paper is an investigation into information processing behavior involved in computer human cognition simulation games.

Based on our extensive training needs assessment reviews and on selected office site visit, there was an identification of concepts and issues to constitute an initial staff questionnaire instrument.

Pancreatic gland motor phenomena are regulated chiefly by parasympathetic nervous system cells.

Diabetic patient blood pressure reduction may be a consequence of renal extract depressor agent

Noun/Adjective String Untied Noun/Adjective String

application.

The program will benefit from computer program advance information.

Your manning-level authorizations reassessment suggestion should lead to major improvements.

The regulation offers an explanation of Communication Center operations personnel training.

Enforcement of guidelines for new car model tire durability is a Federal Trade Commission responsibility.

The main goal of this article is to formulate narrative information extraction rules.

Choose the Active over the Passive Voice

Here’s a trick you can play on yourself: Deny yourself the luxury of using forms of the verb to be. As an experiment, write just a couple of paragraphs in which you do not use one is, are, were, or was. It’s tough work and your story may sound a bit unnatural. But if you try this experiment occasionally, you will be reminded that our language moves best when it is propelled by active verbs, the muscle words of the language.

It was decided is often the language of mystery, of one-upmanship. We can’t blame the decision-maker when we don’t know who made the decision. We decided is the phrase we use when we speak. It is simple, it is natural, it is easy; and it brings humanity into the act. And it provides a doer. You won’t find it easy to write consistently in the active voice if you refuse to identify, either by name or pronoun, those who do things, the doers—the Smiths, the Joneses, the clerks, the managers, and yes, the I and the we.

Four Occasions When the Passive Voice Is the Better Choice

There are four situations in which you can passive voice. In fact, using the passive voice in these instances is not only acceptable, it may be desirable. First, let’s review the parts of a sentence—subject, predicate (verb), object—as they most often occur in the active voice.

Actor/agent [subject] + action [predicate] + thing acted upon [direct object/indirect object].

Or, as a sentence instead of a formula:

The XYZ Company [actor/agent] decided to change [action] its employee pension plan [thing acted upon]

from an ESOP to a 401(k) plan [indirect object].

In the passive voice, the actor or agent is missing, so the subject noun or noun phrase is often also missing, or it is moved from the front of the sentence to the back. This is acceptable construction, as long as writers know what they are doing. The four instances in which writers use passive voice are as follows:

1. When the actor or agent is unknown. This is the overwhelming reason to use passive voice. Sometimes, the writer simply doesn’t know who did the action. And it’s risky to make up or erroneously assign the actor/agent. So you can legitimately write:

It was decided to change the company’s employee pension plan from an ESOP to a 401(k) plan.

However, even not knowing who the actor/agent is, you can still rewrite the example sentence in the active voice, as in:

The company decided to change its employee pension plan from an ESOP to a 401(k) plan.

2. When what happened is more important than who did it. If, for example, a series of routine tests is performed by a company, but the results of those tests are more important than who did it, you can legitimately write:

The ABC series of tests were run and produced expected results. Using these results, we could more precisely predict the cost of implementing

site cleanup.

3. When you want to deliberately distance yourself or your company from bad news. In President Clinton’s priceless prose:

Mistakes were made.

In another example, when a lab technician dropped a costly experimental microcircuit wafer, management had to inform the manufacturer of the breakage and request another wafer (and justify the request). The letter read:

It was found that the wafer had failed catastrophically.

This locution allows you (or your company) to reveal bad news without assigning blame or, worse, being blamed. To be frank, it’s a form of lying, but since we are all human, and therefore subject to human failings, there will be times when you must use the passive voice to avoid the consequences of actions.

4. To form transitions between thoughts. This is the locution writers rely on most to effectively lead readers from one major idea to the next. Using the passive voice informs readers that the discussion

of one major idea is about to end and the next major idea is about to be introduced. For example,

We will develop a simplified matrix of tasks that include all budgetary and operational work packages. These work packages will be scheduled and

monitored by individual program managers.

The second sentence (in the passive voice) leads naturally out of the first (which is active voice) and signals the end of the discussion. The reader intuitively knows to look for the next thesis statement introducing a new topic.

Exercise 4 – Strengthen Ideas by Changing Passive to Active Voice

Rewrite these sentences using the active voice.

Passive Voice Sentence Your Active Voice Sentence

This agreement may be terminated by either party by thirty days’ notice being given to the other party.

Each month price lists were exchanged between the manufacturers, and it was agreed by them that all sales would be based on the lists.

It was insisted by the supplier that the goods were top quality.

It was decided by the administrative committee to request that parking passes be reassigned to reflect the new parking policy.

The form was completed by the requester after the job had been completed by the graphics department.

Exercise 5 – Eliminate Corpspeak

The following memo is laden with corpspeak (and a few other problems). It announces a new company policy on Christmas gifts.

Directions: Retain the policy, but rewrite the memo so that it carries its message more directly, and without corpspeak. Format it as a memorandum.

An analysis completed this past summer established that the cost involved in the administration, purchase and distribution of a corporate Christmas gift to employees produces poor benefit compared to the cost. Therefore, management has made a determination that it would be in the best interest of both employees and the corporation to suspend the practice this year.

Amalgamated President, Timothy Wapshorn, commented that there are limited funds available each year to be applied to the total variety

of employee benefits. It is management’s responsibility to direct these resources, to the greatest extent possible, toward activities where the corporation can provide benefits to employees with greater cost efficiency than the individual could personally achieve. Taking into consideration inflation and the burden of administration and accounting, it is clear that the annual Christmas gift no longer fits that criterion.

Wapshorn stated he hoped that all employees would understand the good intentions of management in this respect and cited the establishment of a dental plan for employees during the preceding year as an example of a meaningful new employee benefit, where the purchasing power of the group works to the greater advantage of the individual.

Common Sentence ErrorsRun-ons (Fused Sentences and Comma Splices)

1. A fused sentence occurs when two independent clauses (sentences) are run together without any punctuation. Consider the following run-ons/fused sentences.

Incorrect:IC IC

I pushed open the door without looking and Darcie's books went flying out of her arms.

IC IC I pushed open the door without looking Darcie's books went flying out of her

arms.

Fused sentences can usually be fixed in one of five ways: by 1) using a period and a capital letter, 2) adding a comma and a coordinating conjunction, 3) using a semicolon, 4) using a semicolon and an adverbial conjunction/transitional phrase and a comma, or by 4) restructuring the sentence (combining or subordinating one of the clauses).

Revised and corrected:

I pushed open the door without looking. Darcie's books went flying out of her arms.

I pushed open the door without looking, and Darcie's books went flying out of her arms.

Because I pushed open the door without looking, Darcie's books went flying out of her arms.

2. Comma splices are another type of run-on and occur when two complete sentences are spliced together with only a comma. Like fused sentences, they can

be remedied by using periods, by adding a coordinating conjunction (since a comma is already there), by using a semicolon/semicolon and joining word, or by restructuring the sentence.

Incorrect:IC IC

Most of us use gestures to communicate, these gestures are often perfectly clear to others.

Revised and corrected using three of the four methods listed above:

Most of us use gestures to communicate; therefore, these gestures are often perfectly clear to others.

Most of us use gestures to communicate, so these gestures are often perfectly clear to others.

Gestures are often perfectly clear to others because most of us regularly use them to communicate.

Fragments

What are fragments? Fragments are clauses or phrases that cannot stand alone because they do not express a complete thought. There are five (5) major types of fragments.

1. Dependent-word fragments: When a clause or phrase begins with a dependent word and is not attached to an independent clause, a fragment problem arises.

Example 1: I miss my parents. Which is why I am going to visit them over Spring Break.

Example 2: Because there is so much reading. Students in English 56 often do not do well.

The second part of the first example begins with the dependent word which, which cannot stand alone, and is therefore a fragment. The simplest way to fix this fragment is to attach it to an independent clause, usually one right near it, and to add a comma.

Example 1 revised: I miss my parents, which is why I am going to visit them over Spring Break.

The first part of the second example begins with the dependent word because and creates a dependent clause. To fix this problem, simply combine the two ideas into one, being sure to separate them with a comma.

Example 2 revised: Because there is so much reading, students in English 56 often do not do well.

2. Verbal phrase fragments: When a phrase begins with a to, ing, or ed verbal, a fragment (a dependent phrase) is created.

Example: a. To capture the bandits. Police set up a perimeter around the ranch.

b. Capturing the bandits. The police celebrated by going home and resting after the long stakeout.

c. Captured by the police. The bandits no longer posed a threat.

All of the above dependent phrases begin with verbals—words that look like verbs but are not—and they cannot stand alone as sentences. The easiest way to fix these phrases, like clauses, is simply to attach them with a comma to a nearby, related independent clause. Examples revised:

a. To capture the bandits, police set up a perimeter around the ranch. b. Capturing the bandits, the police celebrated by going home and resting after

the long stakeout.c. Captured by the police, the bandits no longer posed a threat.

3. Missing-subject fragments: When a phrase begins with a word like and, or, nor, but, etc., a fragment is often created because the phrase lacks a subject or verb or both.

Example: John walked to the post office. And mailed his tax check to the IRS.

The second part of the above sequence cannot stand alone because it lacks a subject—John. The simplest ways to fix this type of fragment are to add a subject—he—and a comma to the second part of the sequence or to remove the period and lowercase the and.

Example revised: John walked to the post office, and he mailed his tax check to the IRS. Or John walked to the post office and mailed his tax check to the IRS.

4. Example and Exception fragments: When writers try to add examples and/or make exceptions, fragments often occur.

Example: a. Rebecca loves to make desserts. For example, truffles, chocolate éclairs, and apple pies. (example fragment)

b. Rebecca loves to make desserts. Including her world-famous truffles and chocolate éclairs and her tasty apple pie. (example fragment)

c. Rebecca loves to make desserts. In spite of her allergy to sugar and flour. (exception fragment)

The second part of the above sequences cannot stand alone. The easiest way to fix most of these types of fragments is to change the wording, attach the fragments to a nearby independent clause, or add a subject and verb to make the phrase into an independent clause. (For the latter, See the second a below.)

Examples revised:

a. Rebecca loves to make desserts, such as truffles, chocolate éclairs, and apple pies

a. Rebecca loves to make desserts. For example, she enjoys making truffles, chocolate éclairs, and apple pies.

b. Rebecca loves to make desserts, including truffles, chocolate éclairs, and apple pies.

c. Rebecca loves to make desserts, in spite of her allergy to sugar and flour.

5. Prepositional phrase fragments: When phrases begin with a preposition, they create phrase fragments.

Example: In the middle of campus on the large lawn area. A lone student sat in the hot sun.

The first part of the above sequence cannot stand alone and needs to be fixed. Like the other fragments we have discussed, this type of fragment can usually be fixed by attaching it to a nearby independent clause.

Example revised: In the middle of campus on the large lawn area, a lone student sat in the hot sun.

Practice Exercise: Underline and correct the fragment or fragments in each numbered item or mark C if the ideas are correct.

1. After it was cleaned and dried. The couple took their new Toyota for a ride around the block.

2. Following in her older sister’s footsteps. Jodi decided to attend law school.

3. The old dog lay. At the end of the corridor.

4. The speaker asked us to imagine a peaceful, serene environment. For example, sitting beside a clear stream and listening to the sounds of birds.

5. Yellowed and nearly falling apart. The newspaper looked like it was from the 1800s instead of just a year ago.

6. I try to pay attention to my older cat. Whenever I get the chance. So that she does not feel left out because of the new kitten.

7. As she looked at the clutter on the top of her desk. Ms. Z wondered if she should just push it off of the desk and into the trash.

8. In the middle of a dark and depressing winter. I like to call in sick and just do nothing but read all day.

9. A frown creased Brianne’s brow. As she studied the intricate directions for setting up her new stereo.

10. The campus looked so pretty. With all of the green grass and the flowering plants.

CLAUSES AND PHRASES

I. CLAUSES: A clause is a group of words with its own subject and verb.

There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent.

1. Independent (main) clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence because it has a subject and verb and expresses a complete idea.

Ex: The lightning flashed in the sky. Ex: The kids are having fun on the rollercoaster.

2. Dependent (subordinate) clause: A dependent clause also contains a subject and verb, but it usually begins with a subordinating conjunction (a dependent word). A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence because it does not express a complete thought.

Ex: after the lightning flashed in the sky (after is a subordinating conjunction.)Ex: although the kids are having fun on the roller-coaster (although is a subordinating conjunction.)

We can join independent and dependent clauses by attaching the two clauses.

Ex: After the lightning flashed, the sky remained imprinted with its image.Ex: Although the kids are having fun on the rollercoaster, they may get sick of it later.

II. PHRASES: A phrase is a group of words without a subject and verb. Like dependent clauses, phrases cannot stand alone.

Ex: traveling in ParisEx: happy and excitedEx: with a loud boom

Use phrases to communicate information less important than what you have put in the clauses. A phrase can be placed before, in the middle of, or after a clause.

Ex: Traveling in Paris, I saw the Eiffel Tower.Ex: The young girl, happy and excited, emerged from the store with her prom dress.Ex: The thunder sounded with a loud boom.

The Apostrophe

Possessive nouns usually indicate ownership. For example, we can say Rhonda's purse or the puppy's leash. Often, however, ownership is loosely implied, as in a day's work or a week's paycheck. We can tell if we need to use an apostrophe by seeing if the phrase can be replaced with of. Look back at the preceding examples and note that Rhonda's purse is the purse of Rhonda, the puppy's leash is the leash of the puppy, a day's work is the work of a day, and a week's paycheck is the paycheck of a week.

I. Use an apostrophe to indicate that a noun is possessive.

Note: The following pronouns are already possessive; therefore, they never take apostrophes. Singular: my, mine, you, yours, her, hers, his, its

Plural: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs

When to add 's

If the noun does not end in an s, add 's.

Ex: Tanya decided it was time to leave her sister's party.Ex: Allan brought home plenty of money for the children's dresses.

If the noun is singular and ends in s, add 's.

Ex: Vargas's sister is coming to visit over the summer.

Note: If the pronunciation would be awkward with the added 's, some writers use only the apostrophe. Either use is acceptable.

Ex: Sophocles' plays are relevant to modern life.

When to add only an apostrophe

If the noun is plural and ends in s, add only an apostrophe.

Ex: The girls' dresses looked perfect at the wedding.Ex: Two corporations' retirement dinners were held at The Forum last week.Ex: The Millers' vacation lasted two weeks because they stayed in Hawaii to surf.

Joint possession

To show joint possession, use 's (or s') with the last noun only; to show individual possession, make all nouns possessive.

Ex: Ron and Kate's new home is quite beautiful.Ex: Jose's and Javier's expectations for English 56 couldn't have been more

different.

II. Use an apostrophe to mark a contraction or the omission of the first two digits of a year.

Ex: It's a shame that we can’t learn writing by osmosis.Ex: The class of '86 was the best one to graduate from Ridgemont High.

III. Add an apostrophe and an s to the final word in a compound noun.

Ex: My husband and I inherited my father-in-law's carpet business.Ex: The missing words in the ad were somebody else's mistake.

IV. Add an apostrophe and an s to pluralize numbers mentioned as numbers, letters mentioned as letters, words mentioned as words, and abbreviations.

Ex: Margaret skated perfect 8’s.Ex: The bleachers at the football game were marked with large M’s Ex: We have heard enough maybe’s to last a lifetime. Ex: Bars must ask patrons for I.D.’s now to avoid prosecution.

Exception: An s alone is often added to the years in a decade: the 1980s.

Note: The Modern Language Association (MLA) recommends no apostrophe in plurals of numbers and abbreviations. Ex: figure 8s, VCRs.

V. Do not use an apostrophe when the word is simply plural.

Incorrect: User’s of this reference sheet can understand apostrophes more clearly. (The word “Users” is plural—not possessive; therefore, the apostrophe is not

needed.)Correct: Users of this reference sheet can understand apostrophes more clearly.Incorrect: The girls’ at the party had a fabulous time.(The word “girls” is plural; there is no indication of possession here, so no

apostrophe is needed.)

Correct: The girls at the party had a fabulous time.

Review of Comma Splices, Fused Sentences, and Fragments

Directions for Part I: In the margin to the left of each number, identify the following as comma splices (CS), fused sentences (FS), fragments (FR), or complete sentences (Complete).

You will need to add words to most of the fragments to make them complete, but try to fix the fused sentences and comma splices without much revising, other than the addition of a coordinating, subordinating, or adverbial conjunctions.

1. I ran the three blocks as fast as I could, however, I missed the bus.

2. Which was why I decided to go to college in the first place.

3. I went out to pizza with friends, to the mall with my parents, and to the ice cream parlor with my girlfriend, then I went home.

4. When applying for a job, whether it is the first time or the tenth.

5. Running is good exercise.

6. Although I have thought long and hard about getting a part-time job.

7. After days of indecision, I finally decided that I would wear the green dress, it did, in fact, look great.

8. The two friends decided to go to Costa Rica for the summer they left right after graduation.

9. Helping himself to a piece of pie, Jim promptly dribbled cherry juice down the front of his shirt.

10. I pushed open the door of the room with my elbow, someone was coming through the other side at the same moment, and my books went flying into the air.

11. The girl and her dog ran down to the beach and started to play Frisbee.

12. Pleased by my B+ on my physics test, I treated myself to Panda Express.

13. Thus, making him one of the most influential people I have ever known.

14. Sometimes I just need to relax the day’s occupations are so tiring.

15. There are some trips I want to take this summer, I want to gamble in Las Vegas, hike in Arizona, and water ski in Michigan.

16. One hopes that the educational process is not too long, then one graduates, gets a full-time job, and looks back wistfully on the relaxed days spent in school.

17. There are many ways to get good grades, for example, you can study more.

18. Such as the classes that I am taking, the homework I have, and the hours I have to study. 19. Socrates claimed that students learn best when engaged in a question and answer dialogue, this is when

the teacher and the student discover ideas together.

20. The beginning of summer is always refreshing to me. Because of the way the air feels.

Part II: Now, fix the ones that you marked as incorrect. Number each one so that I can tell which sentence you are revising.

Handout 8.2: Sentence Revision Exercises

In each of the following exercises, combine the series of short sentences or phrases into one sentence. Use subordination to indicate how the ideas expressed in the sentence relate to each other and to emphasize the most important idea or ideas.

1. It rained this morning. The construction crew stayed indoors. Members played a game of hearts. Valdez won.

2. Thomas Edison was one of America's greatest inventors. Teddy Roosevelt was the twenty-sixth president of the United States. Edison and Roosevelt were friends.

3. The committee must make an important decision. A decision must be reached in two days. Several committee members are out of town.

4. The system is large and convenient and it does not cost very much.

5. Some writers put every idea into a separate sentence. They should try to show the relationships among ideas. To do that, they should reduce unimportant short sentences to words, phrases, or dependent clauses.

6. The committee feels that the present system has three disadvantages: It causes delay in the distribution of incoming mail, duplicates work, and unnecessary delays are created in the work of several other departments.

7. The cost of cotton has increased. All the suppliers have increased their prices. The suppliers are wholesalers.