breaking barriers: delivering water and sanitation to rural people in loreto (peru)

8/14/2019 Breaking barriers: Delivering water and sanitation to rural people in Loreto (Peru)

1/63

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

BREAKING BARRIERS: DELIVERING WATER

AND SANITATION TO RURAL PEOPLE IN LORETO (PERU)

Javier Cejudo

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of

MSc in Engineering for Development

by instructional course

December 2006


2/63


3/63

Summary

The aims of this research are to explore (i) the situation of rural water supply and

sanitation in Loreto (Peru), and (ii) approaches in the design of projects andprogrammes, with the view of assisting development organisations in the preparation

of new projects and programmes in the region.

The outlook for rural water and sanitation in Loreto is quite bleak. Although there

has been several changes in the institutional arrangements, the strategy and the role

of numerous implementing agencies over the past four decades, the available

evidence suggests that there are 'barriers' that are hindering sustainable progress.

i


4/63

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the following people for their supportive help during the preparation

of this dissertation:

My grateful thanks to Alan Cairns of the Vine Trust, Martin Bone and Vannesa

Lovera of Scripture Union Peru for their support to carry out the field work, Arif

Anwar and Ben Fawcett of the University of Southampton for their supervision,

encouragement and advice, and my wife Maria Teresa Leiva for her understanding

and enthusiasm.

The Vine Trust and Scripture Union Peru enabled this research project by creating

the placement but the views and opinions expressed are those of the author alone.

The writing of this dissertation has been possible only because of the help and

support of a large number of people.

Thanks are due to the participants from the communities of San Joaquin de Indiana

and Santa Clara de Nanay, and all those villagers who kindly spent time with me.

The Royal Academy of Engineering, Engineers Without Borders, the University of

Southampton and the Vine Trust provided funds for this study as part of their

objectives but the views and opinions expressed are those of the author alone.

ii


5/63

Dedication

To my wife Maria Teresa Leiva, for her love, support, encouragement and sympathy.

To my children Ana and Marcos, for their smiles and tenderness.

To all those who kindly shared their time and experiences enabling this research

project, for their opinions and ideas.

iii


6/63

Table of Contents

Summary.........................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgements........................................................................................................iiDedication.....................................................................................................................iii

Table of Contents..........................................................................................................iv

List of Figures................................................................................................................v

List of Tables.................................................................................................................vi

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms...........................................................................vii

1Introduction..................................................................................................................1

1.1About the Research Project...................................................................................1

1.2Structure of the Dissertation.................................................................................3

2About the Project Location..........................................................................................4

2.1About Peru............................................................................................................4

2.2The Amazon Basin................................................................................................6

2.3About Loreto.........................................................................................................7

2.4Institutional Framework for Water and Sanitation...............................................8

2.5General View on Water and Sanitation..............................................................12

3A Retrospective View................................................................................................14

3.1Evolving Ideas in Rural Water and Sanitation...................................................14

3.2Alternative Views...............................................................................................21

4Relevant Aspects of the Research .............................................................................24

4.1Objectives............................................................................................................24

4.2Themes................................................................................................................24

4.3Methodology.......................................................................................................25

5An Interpretation of the Reality.................................................................................30

5.1Institutional Capacity..........................................................................................305.2Community Involvement....................................................................................41

5.3The Challenge of Diversity.................................................................................44

6Conclusions and Recommendations..........................................................................47

6.1Conclusions.........................................................................................................47

6.2Recommendations...............................................................................................49

References....................................................................................................................50

iv


7/63

List of Figures

Illustration 1: Geographical Map of Peru......................................................................5Illustration 2: Political Map of Loreto...........................................................................8

v


8/63

List of Tables

Table 1: Roles in the WSS Sector .................................................................................9Table 2: Access to water and sanitation in Peru..........................................................12Table 3: Areas of responsibility in the 1990s..............................................................17Table 4: Institutional model proposed in the 1990s....................................................18

vi


9/63

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

Spanish English

AECI Agencia Espanola deCooperation Internacional

Spanish InternationalCooperation Agency

AIDESEP Asociacin Intertnica deDesarrollo de la Selva Peruana

APCI Agencia Peruana deCooperacin Internacional

Peruvian InternationalCooperation Agency

APRISABAC Proyecto de Atencion Primariaen Salud Basica de Cajamarca

ATDR Administracion Tecnica del

Distrito de Riego

Technical Office of the

Irrigation BoardCONAM Consejo Nacional del

AmbienteNational Council for theEnvironment

CIDA Agencia Canadiense para elDesarrollo International(ACDI)

Canadian InternationalDevelopment Agency

CTAR Consejo Transitorio deAdministracion Regional

Transitory RegionalAdministration Authority

DESA Direccion Ejecutiva de SaludAmbiental

Executive Directorate ofEnvironmental Health

DIGESA Direccin General de Salud

Ambiental

Directorate-General of

Environmental HealthDIRESA Direccion Regional de Salud Regional Directorate of HealthDNS Direccin Nacional de

SaneamientoDRA Demand-responsive approachDRVCS Direccin Regional de

Vivienda, Construccin ySaneamiento

Regional Directorate ofHousing, Construction andSanitation

EPS Empresa prestadora deservicios

Service provider enterprise

FONAM Fondo Nacional del Ambiente

FONCODES Fondo de Cooperacion para elDesarrollo Social Social DevelopmentCooperation FundFONCOMUN Fondo de Compensacion

MunicipalGEF Fondo para el Medio Ambiente

Mundial (FMAM)Global Environment Facility

GOREL Gobierno Regional de Loreto Regional Government of Loreto

GTZ German Agency for TechnicalCooperation (DeutscheGesellschaft fr TechnischeZusammenarbeit)

vii


10/63


11/63

SCD Agencia Suiza para elCooperacion al Desarrollo(COSUDE)

Swiss Agency forDevelopment and Cooperation

STPP Proyecto Piloto de Pequeas

Localidades (PPPL) del PAS

WSP Small Towns Pilot

Project

SUNASS Superintendencia Nacional deServicios de Saneamiento

National Superintendence ofSanitation Services

TCA Tratado de CooperacinAmaznica

Amazon Cooperation Treaty

USAID US Agency for InternationalDevelopment

VMCS Viceministerio deConstruccion y Saneamiento

Viceministry of Constructionand Sanitation

WSS Water supply and sanitation

WSP Programa Agua y Saneamiento(PAS) del Banco Mundial World Bank Water andSanitation ProgramWUSC Servicio Universitation

Mundial del Canada (SUMCanada)

World University Service ofCanada

WWC Consejo Mundial del Agua(CMA)

World Water Council

ix


12/63


13/63

1 IntroductionThe School of Civil Engineering and the Environment at the University of

Southampton offer an MSc programme in Engineering for Development. The taught

modules are followed by a research placement in a developing country which aims to

achieve the following objectives:

To improve the relevance of the MSc training by placing students in developing

countries for short periods, to carry out field investigations and to collect research

data.

To demonstrate to students the application of the taught parts of the course.

To give valuable experience that will be of benefit to the students in gaining

appropriate employment.

To provide organisations working in international development with short-term

inputs by well-trained postgraduate students who can make a useful contribution

to their work.

This dissertation is the output of the research placement carried out by Javier Cejudo

in Peru between July and September 2006 with Scripture Union of Peru1

and the VineTrust of Scotland as Host Organisations. It is submitted in December 2006 to the

School of Civil Engineering and the Environment in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the above-mentioned degree.

1.1 About the Research Project

A recent report published by the World Health Organisation (Pruss-Ustun et al. 2006)

has contributed to better define the links between environment and health. According

to this report, more than 13 million deaths annually are due to preventable

environmental causes. Nearly one third of death and disease in the least developed

regions is due to environmental causes. Over 40% of deaths from malaria and 94% of

deaths from diarrhoeal diseases, two of the world's biggest childhood killers, could be

prevented through better environmental management. It concluded that the four main

diseases influenced by poor environments are diarrhoea, lower respiratory infections,

various forms of unintentional injuries, and malaria. It argued several measures which

1 In Spanish, Union Biblica del Peru

1


14/63

could be taken to reduce this environmental disease burden, including (i) the

promotion of safe household water storage and better hygienic measures, and (ii)

better water resource management.

An estimated five in ten live in a state of poverty in Peru, of whom five out of ten live

in the country's rural area, despite representing only one third of the total population.

Rural people face problems of lack of access to services and opportunities,

compounded by discrimination. Rural people are disproportionately numerous among

the poor. Inadequate diet, precarious living conditions, reduced access to health care,

poor hygiene and lack of education all contribute to higher levels of poverty. Despite

these facts, they are ignored by the government and development programmes.

By improving rural people's access to and use of safe domestic water and sanitation,

interventions can reduce the burden of disease on family members and communities.

It would release valuable time and reduce health costs, enabling rural people to apply

more effort to improving their lives.

The aims of this research are to explore (i) the situation of rural water supply and

sanitation (RWSS) in Loreto, and (ii) approaches in the design of projects and

programmes, with the view of assisting development organisations in the preparation

of new projects and programmes in the region. It is justified because there is little,

good-quality information that focuses specifically on Loreto. It is known that past

attempts to address this issue in the region have involved mistakes being made. Some

knowledge gaps have also been identified in the literature.

Although the rural population in Loreto is relatively small, around half a million

people, the conclusions and recommendations of this study might have some validity

in other parts of the Amazon Basin, the home of roughly 26 million people in total.

The scope of the research is limited in order to keep the project manageable. The

research is concerned with certain factors that have been shown to impact the

sustainability of the projects: (i) the institutional arrangements, (ii) the role of

communities, and (iii) the impact of discriminatory attitudes againstrural people.

2


15/63

1.2 Structure of the Dissertation

The dissertation is organised as follows. Chapter two includes relevant background

information about Peru and Loreto. Chapter three examines the literature on water and

sanitation in Peru in general and in the rural areas of the country in particular. Chapter

four focuses on the research objectives and methodology. A critique of the research

approach concludes the chapter. Chapter five presents the research findings. Chapter

six concludes this analysis and proposes some recommendations.

3


16/63

2 About the Project LocationThe research project is located in a region called Loreto in the Peruvian Amazon

Basin. This chapter introduces some relevant information that will be useful in the

subsequent chapters.

2.1 About Peru

The Republic of Peru is a country in western South America. It is a country with a

long history and many cultural and natural attractions. Peru is home to a wide variety

of indigenous groups that is only rivalled by its biodiversity. Ancient Peru was the

home of several prominent Andean civilizations, most notably that of the Incas whose

empire was captured by the Spanish conquistadors in 1533. Peruvian independence

was declared in 1821.

After 12 years of military rule, Peru returned to democratic leadership in 1980.

Alberto Fujimori2 led the country since his election in 1990 until his ouster in 2000.

After a transitional government, Alejandro Toledo became President (2001-2006),

narrowly defeating Alan Garca. The presidential election of 2006 saw the return of

Alan Garcia, who was president between 1985 and 1990.

In the latest Human Development Report (UNDP 2006), Peru was ranked number 82

in the world with an index of 0.767, which is labelled as medium human development.

To put this in context, the UK and Spain were ranked, respectively, numbers 18 (HDI

0.940) and 19 (HDI 0.938), while Norway was top of the list with a human

development index of 0.965

2.1.1 Basic Geography

Peru covers 1,285,215.60 km

2

and has a border with Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil,Bolivia and Chile (Illustration 1). It is the third largest country in South America, after

Brazil and Argentina. Its size is comparable to the combined areas of Spain, the

United Kingdom and France.

2 Former President Fujimori (currently in Chile) is awaiting extradition proceedings againsthim by the Peruvian government.

4


17/63

The country is divided into three natural regions: Costa or coastal plain, land

adjacent to the Pacific Ocean; Sierra or high and rugged Andes Mountains in the

centre; and Selva or rainforest of the Amazon Basin, the part of the country located

to the east of the Andes. The Selva has two distinctive regions: Selva Alta or

highland rainforest; and Selva Baja or lowland rainforest, the immense flat region

where the Amazon River and its tributaries run. These regions can be identified in

Illustration 1by the coloured areas marking the altitude above sea level.

The weather varies significantly, from tropical in the east to dry desert in the west.

With its unique geography, Peru has 28 of the 32 possible world climates.

2.1.2 Some information about the People

The population of Peru is 27.2 million inhabitants of whom 52% live beneath the

poverty line, as defined by the National Household Survey, ENAHO in its Spanish

acronym (INEI 2006). Extreme poverty affects one out of five people in the country.

Approximately, 65% of the population live in the urban area and 35% live in the rural

area (9.5 million people or 1.9 million households). Whereas poverty affects 73% of

the population in the rural area, 40% are affected in the urban area. Geographically,

the population is distributed over the Costa (14%), Sierra (67%) and Selva (19%).

5

Illustration 1: Geographical Map of Peru


18/63

There are different estimations about the rural population. For the MVCS Ministerio

de Vivienda, Construccion y Saneamiento, the rural population represents 30% of the

total. The main reason is that there are several criteria. The Instituto Nacional de

Estadistica (National Statistics Institute INEI, acronym in Spanish) considers that

rural locality are those villages with less than 100 adjoining houses that are not capital

of a district, or those villages with more than 100 houses that are dispersed and do not

form blocks or urban hubs. However, the MVCS defines rural locality as those places

with up to 2,000 inhabitants. In addition to the categories of 'rural' and 'urban', a third

category has been created: 'small towns' which refer to urban centres with a population

between 2,001 and 30,000 inhabitants.

In the rural area of the three natural regions, different types of communal

organisations can be found. The comunidad campesina (peasant community) is typical

of the Andean centre and south. In the costa, settlements and small towns are

predominant. In theselva region there are two types of communities: comunidades

nativas (indigenous peoples communities) and organizaciones de colonos y mestizos

(organisations of settlers and mestizos).

The country is politically divided into 26 departments, 194 provinces and 1821

districts. Approximately 50% of the districts are considered rural. According to the1993 census, Peru had 84,046 localities of which 75,199 or 89% were rural. It was

estimated that 70% of the rural population lived in communities with less than 500

inhabitants.

Most Peruvians are either indigenous (45%) or mestizos (37%). Other ethnic groups

are: white 15%; black, Japanese, Chinese and other 3% (CIA 2006). Spanish is the

official language nationwide. Quechua, Aymara and other languages are official

regionally.

2.2 The Amazon Basin

Approximately three quarters of the Peruvian territory, including the entire

Region of Loreto, is in the Amazon Basin. The Amazon Basin orAmazonia

encompasses 7 million km2 and covers some 40% of the South American

continent. It is home to the largest rainforest on Earth. The Amazon Rainforest

occupies some 5.5 million km2 in total, representing over half of the planet's

remaining rainforests.

6


19/63

Contrary to popular belief, the Amazon Rainforest is not only in Brazil. Actually, it is

located within eight nations: Brazil (with 68% of the basin), Colombia, Peru (956,751

km2 representing 13% of the basin area and 74% of the Peruvian territory), Venezuela,

Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana and Suriname, as well as French Guiana.

2.3 About Loreto

Loreto is Peru's northernmost region. It is the nation's largest region and one of the

most sparsely populated ones, due to its remote location in the Amazon Rainforest. Its

capital is located in the City of Iquitos, which is politically shared among four districts

(Punchana, San Juan Bautista, Belen and Iquitos)

2.3.1 Basic GeographyLoreto3 occupies an area of 368,851km2, covering 28% of Peru's territory. It is as large

as the UK, Ireland and Denmark combined. It comprises parts of the High and Low

Rainforest. Many rivers cross Loreto's territory, all of which are part of the

Hydrographical Amazonian System. Most of them are navigable. The main river

crossing the region is the Amazon. Other important rivers are Ucayali, Maraon,

Huallaga, Napo, Putumayo, Morona and Pastaza. This territory has wide river flood

beds, which are covered with rainwater and usually are swamped in summer. In theseflood areas there are elevated sectors called restingas, which always stand out on the

Amazonian plain. There are numerous lagoons known as cochas and tipishcas,

surrounded by marshy areas with abundant grass vegetation.

2.3.2 Some Information about the People

Illustration 2 shows the political map of the Loreto Region. The region is divided into

7 provinces and 48 districts. The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are

shown in the same illustration.

3 Its official name is Department of Loreto

7


20/63

Provinces in Loreto4

1 Alto Amazonas (Yurimaguas) and

Datem del Maraon (San Lorenzo)

2 Loreto (Nauta)3 Maynas (Iquitos)

4 Mariscal Ramon Castilla

(Caballococha)

5 Requena (Requena)

6 Ucayali (Contamana)

This vast and diverse region has 884,144 inhabitants, a mere 3% of the country's total

population. Almost half of the population live in Metropolitan Iquitos. Loreto has

approximately a total of 3,000 communities, although the official figure from the

latest census is 2,065. It is estimated that 90% of the communities have less than 500

inhabitants, but they account for only 30% of the population in the region.

2.4 Institutional Framework for Water and Sanitation

Table 1 shows the different public and private institutions with roles in the water and

sanitation sector according to MVCS (2006).

4 The newly created Datem del Maraon Province, which is located in the north westerncorner of the region, is missing

8

Illustration 2: Political Map of Loreto


21/63

Table 1: Roles in the WSS Sector

Role Urban Area Rural Area

Policy

development

MVCS-VMCS-DNS

Prioritising ofinvestments

MVCS

Ministry of Economy and Finances (MEF)5

Regional Directorate of Housing, Construction and Sanitation(DRVCS)

Resourcesassignment

VMCS: DNS DSU VMCS: DNS DSR

MEF

Regulation National Superintendence of Sanitation Services (SUNASS)6

Price-settingEPS shareholders

Local governments

Communal organisations

Technical normsMVCS-VMCS: DNS

MINSA: DIGESA

Planning,development andconstruction

Regional governments

Local governments

Support Program for theSanitation Sector Reform

(PARSSA)7

INADE

DIES

EPS8

Regional governments

FONCODES

MINSA-DIGESA

NGOs

DIES

International cooperationagencies

Service providers

EPS (private, state-owned ormixed)

Local governments

Communal organisations

2.4.1 National Level

The current government policy is driven by the Ministry of Housing, Construction and

Sanitation (MVCS)9, through the Viceministry of Construction and Sanitation

(VMCS)10 and the National Directorate of Sanitation (DNS)11

5 MEF: Ministerio de Economia y Finanzas6 SUNASS: Superintendencia Nacional de Servicios de Saneamiento7 PARSSA: Programa de Apoyo a la Reforma del Sector Saneamiento8 EPS: Empresa Prestadora de Servicios / Service Provider Enterprise9 MVCS: Ministerio de Vivienda, Construccion y Saneamiento

10 VMCS: Viceministerio de Construccion y Saneamiento11 DNS: Direccion Nacional de Saneamiento

9


22/63

The most important effort in rural water and sanitation is the PRONASARPrograma

Nacional de Agua y Saneamiento (National Rural Water and Sanitation Programme)

The Ministerio de Salud (Ministry of Health MINSA, acronym in Spanish), through

the Direccion General de Salud Ambiental (Directorate-General of Environmental

Health DIGESA), is responsible of the development of policies and norms about

water quality, environmental protection and monitoring of diseases related to water

and sanitation. However, in practice, they are also involved in design, implementation,

supervision and evaluation of rural water and sanitation plans. MINSA has direct links

with the communities through its network of health posts and promoters. It is one of

the main counterparts for bilateral aid for projects in RWSS. For instance, the Swiss

Development Cooperation (SDC) supports the projects SANBASUR in Cusco and

APRISABAC in Cajamarca, the later also with the participation of the Netherlands

Development Organisation (SNV)

The Ministry of Economy and Finances (MEF) has among its responsibilities the

assignment of public funds to the RWSS and the policy planning in internal and

external debt.

The Fondo de Cooperacion para el Desarrollo Social (Social Development

Cooperation Fund FONCODES) is part of the Ministerio de la Mujer y Desarrollo

Social MIMDES (Ministry of Women and Social Development) and works

nationally on a wide range of social projects. It is the main funding body for RWSS,

channelling the funds directly to the communities through a communal organisation

set up for each project called Nucleo Ejecutor, or Executing Core. The Nucleo

Ejecutoris elected in general assembly, represents the community and is responsible

of the project management.

The Peruvian government has embarked on the decentralisation of power to regional

and local governments. This process transfers functions, funds, programmes, projects

and assets from Lima to sub-national units, and it is implemented in a progressive way

in several stages. Each sub-national government has different levels of decentralised

responsibilities, depending on whether it has fulfilled certain requirements before the

functions can be transferred.

10


23/63

2.4.2 Regional Level

The GOREL, Gobierno Regional de Loreto (Regional Government of Loreto) is a

devolved institution with technical, budgeting and administrative autonomy. The

second GOREL was elected in November 2006 and the first GOREL in 2001 after a

period of regional affairs run by the Consejo Transitorio de Administracion Regional

(Regional Transitional Authority CTAR)

The DIRESA, Direccion Regional de Salud de Loreto (Regional Directorate of

Health), is a devolved institution of the MINSA. Equally, the DIGESA has

decentralised some of its duties to the DESA,Direccion Ejecutiva de Salud Ambiental

(Executive Directorate of Environmental Health)

The Direccion Regional de Vivienda, Construccion y Saneamiento (Regional

Directorate of Housing, Construction and Sanitation DRVCS, acronym in Spanish)

is a devolved institution of the MVCS Ministerio de Vivienda.

2.4.3 Local Level

At local level there are two forms of government: provincial and district governments

(in Peru they are known as municipios provinciales y distritales)

District governments are the state institution closer to the communities. They participate in the funding of rural water and sanitation, principally by providing

technical assistance to the communities, and assist in the planning of local investment

in coordination with the regional government.

2.4.4 Civil Society and the Private Sector

The main role that NGOs and international cooperation agencies play in RWSS is

training, health education, technical assistance and funding. The following NGOs are

working in the sector with a presence nationwide: CARE, Asociacion Servicios

Educativos Rurales (SER), Agencia Adventista para el Desarrollo y Recursos

Asistenciales (ADRA), World University Service of Canada (WUSC), Caritas,

Asociacion Benefica Prisma, DIACONIA Asociacion Evangelica Luterana de Ayuda

para el Desarrollo Comunal and CENCA Instituto de Desarrollo Humano, among

others. The presence of NGOs and other development organisations in Loreto working

in water and sanitation projects is very limited in comparisons with other departments

in the Costa and the Sierra.

11


24/63

Some training and research organisations are working in the sector, such as Oficina de

Asesoria y Consultoria Ambiental (OACA), DESCO Centro de Estudios y

Promociones del Desarrollo, Centro Ecumenico de Promocion y Accion Social

(CEDEPAS) and Alternativa Centro de Investigacion Social y Education Popular.

2.5 General View on Water and Sanitation

2.5.1 Some Statistics

According to the government figures for 2004 (MVCS 2006), in the rural areas 3

million people (38%) have no access to potable water and 5.6 million (70%) lack

adequate disposal of excreta and residual waters. In sharp contrast, in the urban areas,

19% and 32% are not served with potable water and sanitation (sewer or latrines),respectively.

Table 2 contains the goals for coverage in 2015 set by the government in order to

meet the Millennium Development Goals.

Table 2: Access to water and sanitation in Peru

Population served with

potable water

Population served with

sanitation (sewer or

latrines)

2004 2015 2004 2015

Urban 81% 87% 68% 84%

Rural 62% 70% 30% 60%

Total 76% 82% 57% 77%

The government (MVCS 2006) estimated that in 2004 only 22% of the effluents from

urban sewers received treatment. In the rural areas treatment does not exist. This posesa serious problem of environmental contamination. To achieve the MDGs, the

government's target is to achieve 100% treatment for all the urban population with

sewage.

In the 2004 ENAHO12 - National Household Survey (INEI 2006), it was found that

60% of households had a tap inside their dwellings connected to the water potable

network, whereas for 19% the water supply was a river, stream or similar. For poor

12 ENAHO: Encuesta Nacional de Hogares

12


25/63

households, these rates worsen to 45% and 29% respectively. The findings for excreta

disposal also showed differences between poor and non poor. In 27% of poor

households there was a connection to sewage (62% for non poor), 22% used a latrine

(11% for non poor) and one in three did not have any sanitation service (one in ten for

non poor households). Data in the ENAHO was not disaggregated for urban versus

rural area, neither for each department.

2.5.2 Investment in the Sector

The government (MVCS 2006) calculated that in the period between 2000-2005, it

invested a total of US$833 million in the water and sanitation sector in Peru. The rural

areas (0-2000 inhabitants) and small towns (2001-30000 inhabitants) received

US$123 million through the regional governments (US$60 million), FONCODES

(US$55 m) and PRONASAR (US$8 m). In the period 1990-99, the figures were

US$2,444 million in the country as a whole and US$425 million in rural settings. The

cholera epidemic of 1991 caused this relatively high level of investment in the 1990s.

PRONASAR began in 2004 and will continue until the end of 2008. The total cost is

US$80 million, of which US$50 million are a loan from the World Bank, US$25

million are ordinary resources from the state treasury and US$5 million are a donation

from the Government of Canada.

According to a recent study (Rivas-Llosa 2006), in 2004 Peru received circa US$390

million in development aid, from both governmental (multilateral 15% and bilateral

57%) and non governmental sources (the remaining 28%). This represented almost

one fourth of the total public investment in the country. In terms of implementing

agencies, more than half of the foreign aid was channelled through NGOs, while the

Peruvian state managed 46% of the total aid assistance. Peru is one of the three

countries in South America with the highest level of foreign aid. South America

received US$2,800 million, far less than areas of the world with greater priority:

Africa US$26,000 million and Asia US$21,000 million.

13


26/63


27/63

3.1.1 Period 1960-1994

From the mid 1960s until the mid 1990s, under the Ley General de Saneamiento

Basico Rural 1962 (Rural Basic Sanitation Act), rural water and sanitation was

attended to by the Directorate of Basic Rural Sanitation (DISABAR)13 in the Ministry

of Health (MINSA)14

FONCODES15, originally the abbreviation forFondo Nacional de Compensacion y

Desarrollo Social, then renamed Fondo de Cooperacion para el Desarrollo Social,

was created in 1991 with funds gained through debt-swap. It was conceived as a

mechanism for resource-mobilization for poverty reduction. It has been a major player

in rural water and sanitation (RWSS) ever since its inception, receiving an even

balance of both praise and criticism.

Two important international events in the water and sanitation agenda took place

during this period: the 1990 New Delhi Consultation, following the International

Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, and the 1992 Dublin Conference on

Water and the Environment, in preparation for the Earth Summit.

In a retrospective review on the Water and Sanitation Program experience marking its

twentieth year of activity, Black (1998) recounted that a new vision regarding the role

of government was agreed at the New Delhi Consultation. The recommendation was

that governments should shift from financing and building to ensuring that services

could be supplied by other institutions, both public and private. National sector policy

development, creation of implementing bodies, regulation and price-setting, provision

of technology options, planning, training, and monitoring sector performance should

be the main roles of governments.

In 1991 a cholera epidemic in Peru caused a relatively high level of investment in the

1990s. However, Calderon (2004) said that the increase in the coverage of the water

and sanitation services was achieved with low sustainability.

13 DISABAR: Direccion de Saneamiento Basico Rural

14 MINSA: Ministerio de Salud15 FONCODES: Fund for Social Development Cooperation

15


28/63

3.1.2 Period 1994-2001

The Ley General de Servicios de Saneamiento 1994 (Sanitation Services Act)

modified the institutional and legal arrangements of 1962. The urban area was to be

attended by service provider enterprises (EPS)16, which could be from either the public

or the private sector. In the rural areas, the service provision was passed to communal

organisations, with advice from the EPS. The Ministry of Presidency (PRES) 17was

responsible for the formulation of policies regarding the development of the water and

sanitation sector.

According to Black (1998), the New Delhi Consultation concluded that no longer

were water and sanitation services regarded as an unqualified social right, to be met

from the public purse without thought given to economic and environmental

constraints. The effective spread of services, including to the poor, required an

entirely different set of stakeholder and partnership relationships. The Peruvian

government did not follow these ideas, as Calderon (2004) confirmed when he said

that in the 1990s FONCODES paid attention only to the construction of infrastructure,

without proper training for the operation and maintenance of the system and

consideration of hygiene promotion. Also its projects generated the perception among

the beneficiaries that water supply services should be provided by the state free of

charge, and gave FONCODES a paternalistic image (Calderon 2004)

In an assessment of the rural water and sanitation sector commissioned by the World

Bank for the Government of Peru (Bakalian et al 1999), it was concluded that the

sector faced two restrictions for its development: (i) low sustainability of the strategies

at implementation level, and (ii) the absence of a consolidated institutional

framework. The strategies that led to low sustainability of services included:

Limited community participation in the design and implementation of services.

Funding policy that is paternalistic and orientated to subsidy.

Centralised decision-making process that does not consider the local governments.

Absence of legal recognition of the communal management organisations.

16 EPS: Entidad Prestadora de Servicios17 PRES: Ministerio de la Presidencia

16


29/63

Unclear ownership of the systems developed with public funds. As a consequence,

in the case of FONCODES and MINSA all the systems were part of their assets.

Construction of infrastructure separated from health and hygiene education.

Limited inclusion of successful experiences in the design of new investments.

Absence of a sanitation strategy.

Weakness in the capacity of the communal organisations to manage, operate and

maintain the systems, due to poor training.

Lack of incentives for the participation of service providers from the private sector.

The following issues characterised the institutional framework (ibid):

Absence of a development plan for the rural water and sanitation sector.

Superposition of duties and disorder in the institutional framework.

Incomplete legal and institutional framework.

Table 3 shows that there was more than one public organisation for each area of

responsibility. It was highlighted that there were no coordination mechanisms

established at institutional level (Bakalian et al 1999).

Table 3: Areas of responsibility in the 1990s

Policy-making Regulation Planning

PRESS X X X

SUNASS X X

MINSA-DIGESA X X

District governments18 X X

CTAR X

FONCODES X X

18 'Municipios distritales' is the term used in Peru

17


30/63

On the international stage, a need for a shift from the traditional supply-driven

approach to a new demand-responsive approach had become clear by the 1990s

(Black 1998). In order to overcome the restrictions on the development of the water

and sanitation sector, Bakalian et al (1999) proposed the adoption of a new conceptual

framework based on the demand-responsive approach (DRA) and the reorganisation

of the institutional framework. Table 4 shows the institutional model that was

proposed.

Table 4: Institutional model proposed in the 1990s

Role Responsible

Responsible PRES

Executor PRONASAR

Promotion Local Government

Demand Community

Needs assessment NGO or Private

Preparation of Technical Proposal Local Government or Private

Approval FONCODES

Contracting Community

Construction NGO or Private

Supervision FONCODES and Local Government

Training in Operation and Maintenance NGO or Private

Health and Hygiene Education NGO or Private

Management, Operation and Maintenance Administration Board (JA)19

It was also argued (Bakalian et al 1999) that the following factors were necessary for

the services to be sustainable:

The implementation of projects is demanded by an organised community, with their

participation throughout the entire project

Communities contribute towards a percentage of the total costs in order to cover the

value of labour and/or local materials

19 JA: Junta Administradora

18


31/63

Local governments cover at least 10% of the budget

Communal organisations are responsible for the management, operation and

maintenance of the services

The legal ownership of the systems is transferred to the communities

Training and education in health and hygiene is included in the projects

The national programme is funded by a public body that adopts the proposed

strategy.

An organisation dedicated to the development of sustainable human resources is

created

3.1.3 Period 2001-2006

The government, in itsPlan Nacional de Saneamiento 2006-2015 (National Sanitation

Plan), indicated that lack of access to potable water is a sign of poverty and that

access to water services is a fundamental right and is essential for human

development (MVCS 2006). It stated that the government is committed to the

fulfilment of the MDG drinking water and sanitation target. It also argued that

improved water and sanitation services will contribute to overcome poverty, to

guarantee people's health, to reduce mortality and morbidity rates, and to promote

gender equality and environmental conservation.

In the early years of the present century the government reluctantly accepted the

recommendations from the non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and international

cooperation agencies and adopted a demand-responsive approach instead of the

supply-driven approach, which had led to unsustainable systems that were the result

of a top-down approach (Calderon 2004). This new direction was assisted by the

devolution process that started in 2001 and the creation one year later of the Ministry

of Housing, Construction and Sanitation (MVCS)20

20 MVCS: Ministerio de Vivienda, Construccion y Saneamiento

19


32/63

The Peruvian government recognised (MVCS 2006) that until PRONASAR21

(National Rural Water and Sanitation Programme) was set up in 2002, the main

emphasis was placed on the construction of infrastructure, without giving

consideration to the sustainability of the systems built. In addition to the improvement

or extension of existing infrastructure and the construction of new systems,

PRONASAR, in the rural areas, comprises creation and training of community-based

service providers, building local capacities as well as promoting good hygiene

practices.

The National Sanitation Plan will undertake the following actions in the RWSS sector

during the period 2006-2015 (MVCS 2006):

Promote demand for services

Increase accessibility of potable water by connections and tap stands, the latter with

greater incidence in communities with a greater dispersal of the population

Promote solutions with latrines for the safe disposal of human excreta.

Direct the donations from international technical cooperation towards this.

A contribution of at least 20% of the cost shared between the community and the

local authority is contemplated in order to fund the investments.

Service charges paid by users must cover, as a minimum, the costs of operation and

maintenance.

Encourage community participation on the decisions about the services.

The creation of communal organisations will be encouraged, before any

construction work begins.

The RWSS sector faces several problems at an institutional level. Calderon (2004)

arrived five years later to conclusions similar to Bakalian et al (1999). There were

several national agencies working in the sector with little or no coordination, making

the duplication of efforts a sad reality. In addition, it was also found that national

21 PRONASAR: Programa Nacional de Agua y Saneamiento Rural

20


33/63


34/63


35/63

needs. He did not propose that indigenous societies should keep their philosophy of

life under a glass bell. On the contrary, he believed that an endogenous 'development'

is possible, that is to say the pursuit of happiness and well-being from within their

own paradigms and realities but with a degree of adaptation to the present and future

challenges.

Gasche (2004) identified that the principles, motivations and purpose of the methods

used to design and implement projects are alien to both the rhythm of life and the

conception of well-being implicit in the sociocultural universe of Amazon forest

peoples. He continued with a suggestion to solve the problem: in order to be able to

develop methods and tools that will narrow the gap between the sociocultural universe

of Amazon forest peoples and the urbanites' one, the first step is to be able to

positively value the forest way of life.

In order to consider the alterity in the planning and implementation of development

projects, an approach that has emerged and is gaining popularity is based on the

notion of 'intercultural equity', which refers to a strategic and political concept that

looks for the learning, the mutual communication, the respect, the non-exclusion, the

empowerment between the different cultures and within a culture that ensures spaces

for interaction and development, for the mutual benefit, the well-being and the humandevelopment (Klarenbeek & Meza 2003)

The concept of 'participatory' methods to formulate rural development projects has

gained strength over the last decade or so. It is seen by many as the silver bullet that

will avoid the past failures to promote sustainable projects. Gasche (2004) is less

enthusiastic and criticised the validity of participatory methods in forest communities.

23


36/63

4 Relevant Aspects of the ResearchThe aims of this research are to explore (i) the situation of rural water supply and

sanitation (RWSS) in Loreto, and (ii) approaches in the design of projects and

programmes, with the view of assisting development organisations in the preparation

of new projects and programmes in the region. The research has been undertaken in

three phases:

Phase 1: (June July 2006) An overview of the current situation through a

literature review

Phase 2: (July September 2006) Information from key informants to gain field

experience from others; field visits to selected sites; analyse data collected.

Phase 3: (October December 2006) Prepare dissertation; submission to the

University of Southampton and Host Organisations.

4.1 Objectives

The review of literature shows that despite decades of investment in RWSS and a

number of changes of strategy, the sector does not seem prepared as yet to deliver safe

water and adequate sanitation to the inhabitants of the rural area. The literature reviewalso identifies knowledge gaps, for instance on the understanding of the key factors

having an impact on the sustainability of the systems, and the degree to which the

dominant paradigms are valid in the rural parts of Loreto. In response, the objectives

of the research are set as follows:

Enhance the understanding of the factors limiting the development of the rural

water and sanitation sector in Loreto.

Make recommendations to development practitioners on the way to promote

sustainable solutions to water supply and sanitation services in Loreto.

4.2 Themes

A number of topics have been identified where it is believed that existing information

is insufficient and there is a need to generate new knowledge. The fact that a particular

topic has not been selected as a theme for this research does not mean that it is not

24


37/63

judged to be important, but a balance had to be struck between keeping the project

manageable and researching water and sanitation issues in Loreto. The themes worked

on are:

Institutional Capacity

Community Involvement

The Challenge of Diversity

4.3 Methodology

The fieldwork took place between 3rd July and 14th September 2006. The following

research techniques were used: interviews, focus groups, documentary sources and

observation. The fieldwork was based in Iquitos and included trips to a number of

rural communities in the region. It mainly involved spending time talking to people

and observing. Information was collected from individuals and from groups. Iquitos

was chosen as the base because it offers the best opportunities for networking and

arranging trips.

The contact details of the interviewees were found using a publicly available

directory, namely the Directory of Development Organizations 2006 available at

www.devdir.org, and thanks to personal and institutional directories provided by

several interviewees.

It was made clear to people that they would not directly benefit from participating in

the research, nor would they suffer any adverse consequence by not participating. The

following information was given to each participant:

Purpose of the research: To carry out a study on the water and sanitation sector in

Loreto for the sponsors, with the view of identifying opportunities for participationand potential partners.

Who the sponsors are: Vine Trust of Scotland and Scripture Union of Peru

Possible benefits of the study: Improved design and implementation of projects and

programmes

Researcher's contact details

25


38/63

It was appreciated that peoples time is very valuable and should not be wasted. Every

effort was taken to ensure that no-one had already gathered the information sought

before embarking on fieldwork.

The researcher has have been furnished with a range of advice and information which

has been of invaluable assistance in identifying both problems and opportunities. The

researcher also benefited from participating26 in the International Workshop on the

Amazon Basin: Towards a Responsible Management of the Water and Sanitation

Services held in Iquitos (22-24 August 2006)

4.3.1 Observation

Exploratory trips to twenty two villages in the region were part of the research. Theobjective of the visits was to catch a glimpse of rural life in the Peruvian Amazon

Basin.

Particular attention was paid to the ethnic background of the villagers, their daily

activities and routine, communal organisation, infrastructure (health, education,

transport, water and sanitation, energy, telecommunications), means of transport and

the spatial distribution of population. Observations also provided some indication

about the interaction between outsiders and residents.

4.3.2 Interviews

Fifty one-to-one interviews27 were conducted to forty key informants and the

responses were recorded taking notes. It was more like a conversation, an

'unstructured' interview as it is called, with no standard questions but topic areas,

namely (i) background information about the organisation and its experiences in water

and sanitation, (ii) personal experiences and views, (iii) suggestions for further

reading and networking.

This type of interview was considered to be useful because it helps to explore the

issues in question and leaves open what is important to discuss. It also proved to be a

successful tool in locating relevant literature and obtaining contact details of key

informants.

26 The researcher's presentation and further information on the event is available at

http://www.wsp.org/Iquitos.asp27 Excluding conversations with villagers during the visits to rural communities

26


39/63

People were contacted mainly by calling at their offices without prior arrangement. In

the majority of the cases it was not necessary to call back because interviewees were

willing to participate. No material recompense was offered as an incentive to

participate.

4.3.3 Focus Groups

Focus group was chosen as a research tool because the groups could provide

invaluable information on how people think and on peoples ideas. It was also thought

that it would be enjoyable for the participants.

On three occasions, groups of people were brought together for a discussion. Two of

them were held in rural villages, namely San Joaquin (Province of Maynas, District ofIndiana) and Santa Clara de Nanay (Province of Maynas, District of San Juan

Bautista). They were selected because examples of good practice in community

managed systems were thought to exist.

Another focus group was held in Iquitos with representatives from the national

government (FONCODES, DRVCS), regional government (Office for International

Cooperation) and civil society (MCLCP, Red Cross of Peru, Scripture Union). The

aim was to enhance the understanding of the approaches employed and the

coordination arrangements in place.

No material recompense was offered as an incentive to participate. However, it is

common practice in Peru to serve snacks and drinks halfway through or at the end of

meetings, which was greatly appreciated by participants.

4.3.4 Problems and Difficulties

The level of collaboration among the informants was high. No significant problems

were encountered during the fieldwork. However, it is worth noting several matters.

Due to the nature of the placement, it was not possible to finalise all the details of the

research project before leaving Southampton. This led to the need to reorientate the

research focus during the first few weeks in Peru.

The sponsors did not have relevant experience in research, nor resources allocated. As

a result, the fieldwork was organised and undertaken with little or no assistance, apart

from financial and moral support. The heavy workload of the sponsors' staff was also

another factor that explains their lack of involvement.

27


40/63

Raising expectations was an issue with almost every respondent. Although this

research work is embedded within a programme of practical work that is expected to

follow, it was explained to respondents that their situation may not be transformed by

this research. It was stressed that the sponsors had not participated in any project in

the water and sanitation sector and that there were no funds available from the

sponsors.

4.3.5 Critique of the Research Approach

With the wisdom of hindsight, the main limitations of the research can be presented as

follows:

The researcher had a lack of experience in these matters. For instance, the

researcher acted as facilitator for the focus groups, which requires an experienced

one rather than a beginner.

Although no material recompense was offered as an incentive to participate, it was

evident that respondents felt they could obtain some kind of benefit by participating

in the research. This might have affected the trueness of their contributions.

The amount of time spent in rural villages was limited and probably insufficient. Itwas certainly insufficient to learn about their way of life, concept of well-being and

expectations, as well as their experiences with implementing agencies. There was

no chance to meet with representative from indigenous peoples and communal

organisations.

Other techniques such as questionnaires were considered but not used because it was

thought that respondents would not be able to express themselves fully. People's

experiences and views in some depth could not be obtained using questionnaires.

Strictly speaking, observation should avoid interaction with people. However, it was

accepted that talking to people was part of the exercise. It is recognised that the value

of the information obtained has a limited value for the research, but it has a great

significance for the researcher and the way he sees life in the Amazon Basin. A

desktop study alone would have not provided a sympathetic insight into the reality.

28


41/63

The researcher hopes that this work will encourage others to challenge the dominant

models, paradigms, stereotypes, prejudices and myths. The researcher fully recognises

that his own prejudices are present and have influenced the entire undertaking. Any

constructive, critical review of this work is more than welcome. The researcher takes

the liberty of suggesting that the findings and conclusions of this research are taken as

hypothesis for further research. It is not the researcher's intention to carve any ideas in

stone.

29


42/63

5 An Interpretation of the RealityThe following research findings are based on field studies and the development of

personal ideas, and are organised and analysed in the themes presented in the previous

chapter: (i) institutional capacity, (ii) community involvement, and (iii) the challenge

of diversity. Many examples and testimonials have been carefully taken to illustrate

certain issues throughout the discussion that follows.

5.1 Institutional Capacity

Adequate institutional and organisational support is considered by the literature to be

important to ensure the proper use of investments in water supply and sanitation

systems. Strengthening of local capacities and institution building are areas of work

supported by various international development agencies and NGOs. Community

management has become a leading concept for implementing water and sanitation

systems in rural areas.

While the literature says that democratisation and decentralisation are creating

opportunities for local governments and citizens to have more control over their own

community services and development plans, this research finds that their capacities to

seize these opportunities are often lacking. Several attempts to reform the public

institutions have been made from Lima, but in a distant place like Loreto they seem to

be working on the traditional premises.

An important part of the political debate takes place around what is perceived as

excessive concentration of power in the capital Lima and the virtues of the

decentralisation process. In spite of several years of this long and painful process,

centralism from Lima is still a reality equally acknowledged and criticised.

The decentralisation process is taking more time than expected and the central

government and the Regional Government of Loreto28 (GOREL) accuse each other of

the delay. In Lima the argument is that Iquitos is not ready to take over, while Iquitos

argues that Lima does not want to move forward at a faster pace.

28 The official name is 'Regional Government of the Department of Loreto'

30


43/63

Testimonial:

The devolution process is slow because the civil servants in Lima are reluctant, some of

them will loose their jobs in favour of new positions in sub-national governments

V.Z. - Official in the GOREL

The understanding of the decentralisation system seems to be poor, even politicians

and officials seem not to be fully aware of who is responsible for what. The situation

is prone to be confusing when considering that responsibilities are being transferred

from central government departments (for example, MINSA Ministerio de Salud) to

territorial departments of the same government (DIRESA Direccion Regional de

Salud, following with this example). This territorial departments are supposed to

coordinate their work with departments of the regional government (in this case, the

Gerencia Regional de Desarrollo Social)

Testimonial

People in the streets are badly informed about the decentralisation and they do not have

commitment to the process.

H.R. - Ombudsman's Advisor

The sub-national governments eagerly await the functions to be transferred. They

argue that the additional funding that should accompany the decentralisation will be

invested in the communities more wisely and efficiently. Obviously, the

decentralisation will be a big fiasco if the regional and local institutions are not

strengthened.

Testimonial:

The problem is that the money stays in Lima and does not reach Iquitos

V.Z. - Official in the GOREL

Centralism can also be seen in how the foreign aid is spent. Rivas-Llosa (2006)

highlighted what he called 'aid focalisation': the regions with greater levels of extreme

poverty do not receive proportionally more aid; on the contrary, as an example in

round figures for 2004, Lima with 250000 people in extreme poverty received

approximately US$50 million, while Loreto with 400000 people in the same category

31


44/63

benefited from only US$8 million. The same 'focalisation' has been seen by this

research in the water and sanitation sector, making Loreto a region with relatively

fewer programmes and projects.

There is an attempt by the GOREL to manage the international cooperation in Loreto

through the Office for International Cooperation (OCI, acronym in Spanish). Its role is

to facilitate the implementation of programmes and projects, as well as the arrival of

funding and donations, from international development organisations.

At national level, there are different ministries with responsibilities in the water and

sanitation sector who wish to become a major player in the sector, or do not want to

lose the status of a key actor in the sector. As examples to illustrate this point, the

research points to the turbulent, competitive relationship between three ministries:

MIMDES-FONCODES, MVCS and MINSA-DIGESA.

Example: PRONASAR.

National Water and Sanitation Programme, PRONASAR, was an initiative by the Ministry

of Housing, Construction and Sanitation - MVCS with a budget of US$80 million.

FONCODES, part of the Ministry of Women and Social Development - MIMDES,

participated in the design in 2002 and was responsible for the implementation of the

components in RWSS for communities with up to 2000 people (400 households) for a total

of US$68 million (US$52 million for rehabilitation and extension of existing systems,US$16 million construction of new systems)

After the change of government in July 2006, 2006 FONCODES stop being an

implementing agency. In September of the same year FONCODES launched the

programme 'Agua para Todos Rural' (Water for All Rural), targeting communities with less

than 1000 people. Its aim is to contribute towards the government objections to eradicate

poverty and under 5s malnutrition. It was presented to the public as a complementary

programme to the PRONASAR run by the MVCS.

There is no project supported by PRONASAR in Loreto.

32


45/63

Example: Proyecto Amazonia, MINSA- DIGESA

DIGESA carried out the Amazon Basin Project in 1999 as an intervention to improve the

environmental health of communities in the Selvaby introducing composting latrines and

household filters. It chose to select areas not prone to flooding, despite the fact that 80% of

the territory in the Amazon Basin is flooded during 5 month every year. The latrines and

water filters were donated to the communities.

In 2002, as part of an evaluation, Executive Directorate of Environmental Health (DESA)

visited a community in District of Mazan (Province of Maynas) and collected data using

questionnaires and taking samples of water and faeces. The report from DESA to DIGESA

said that the composting latrines had been abandoned after three or four months of use.

The community complained about unpleasant odours and flies. It was indicated to the

community that people were probably at fault because they had not followed the instruction

of use, such as adding ash after each use. In respect of the water filters, Proyecto Mi

Agua, it was recommended the supply of certain materials and the repair of some parts of

the filter. People were reported to be satisfied with the filters. The report highlighted that in7 out of 8 samples the water was not suitable for drinking.

The state has been proven to be largely ineffective in rural areas. As a result, this

research found public institutions themselves adopt the approach of concentrating

efforts in and around Iquitos, whose peri-urban and urban population is said to be 40-

50% of Loreto. When an initiative is designed, it is very rarely appropriate for the

conditions in Loreto, not just because of the challenges posed by dispersed population

and transport difficulties, but also because the institutions in the region do not have

enough resources to implement the plans properly.

Example: Human resources in Loreto

Gerencia Regional de Recursos Naturales y del Medio Ambiente: 5 people

DESA: 14 people, 2 of them working exclusively in water and sanitation

DRVCS: 4 people

ATDR Iquitos: 6 people

There are instances where legislation is introduced in Lima that addresses an issue at

national level, but in reality its conception is based on the situation in the Costa or the

Sierra, making that legislation not relevant or applicable in the Selva. In the case of

the water and sanitation sector,Ley General de Aguas 1969 (Water Act) is often used

as an example.

33


46/63

Example: Water use licensing

Under the Water Act 1969, the Ministry of Agriculture, through the ATDR (Technical Office

of the Irrigation Board) in the National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA), has the

duty to gather the information needed for the optimal management of the water resources

in the various catchments.

Scarce water resources in the Costa are under increasing pressure. In order to build a

sustainable future, water resources will have to be used efficiently, effectively and wisely.

In this context it makes sense to try to know how much water is used, by whom, and

where.

All water users have the statutory obligation to apply for a licence. Licensing comprises an

application with the following information: identification of the water user, description of the

system (water quality, intake, treatment, quantity), geographical location and type of use.

In Loreto people do not think that they need to apply for a licence and say that the Water

Act does not apply in the region. In any case, the licensing process has been proven to be

not practical for the region.

Current initiatives drawn in Lima often have a limited understanding of the conditions

under which public institutions in Loreto are working. This lack of understanding

results in initiatives that fail to meet their objectives.

Example: Regional needs assessment of water and sanitation

This study, developed and managed by MVCS, is part of the efforts to improve the national

information system on water and sanitation. It covers communities with a population above

200 inhabitants.

It started in July 2005 with a training workshop in Lima for all the directors of regional

offices, followed by training workshops in every province and district organised by the

respective Direccion Regional, DRVCS.

Data was collected by each DRVCS between October 2005 and April 2006, and then sent

to Lima for analysis by DNS. It comprised two parts: water and sanitation services survey

and infrastructure register.

The DNS in Lima set the target that at least 70% of the communities in each district should

be evaluated. In Loreto there are approximately 3,000 communities, of which 90% have

less than 500 people. The task of achieving the 70% target proved to be beyond the reach

of the resources allocated for the study and the capacity and willingness to cooperate

shown by the local authorities. In fact, only 300 communities were assessed.

It intended to be a participatory process, involving public and private institutions. The

MVCS identified institutions working in the WSS sector and planned to generate synergies

and strategic alliances, and benefit from their experience, knowledge and resources. None

of the NGOs identified have presence in Loreto. In Loreto the process involved local

governments, their civil servants responding to the questionnaires.

34


47/63

This work established that centralism does not impact only on the public institutions.

National and international NGOs tend to stay in the Costa orSierra, near Lima and

the road network, and do not set up offices and programmes in Loreto. The poor

transport communication with Iquitos, which is accessed from Lima by air (1.5 hour

flight) or by intermodal boat-road transport which takes up to one week, does not play

in its favour, but is not the only reason for its isolation from the centre of power.

The high transport costs in Loreto are time and time again mentioned as a reason for

not working in this region. The argument used is that the transport costs in Loreto are

so high in comparison with the total budget that it is more cost effective and greater

impact in communities is achieved by implementing projects in more accessible parts

of the country.

In Loreto no such a thing as 'transport infrastructure' exists, apart from a 'white

elephant' called road Iquitos Nauta that crosses 115 km through the rainforest. River

boats of different materials, capacity and power, public and private, are the only

means of transport. Most of the rivers are navigable. However, river transport is

impeded or made difficult in the dry season when the water level lowers significantly

in many rivers in the region.

The interviews discovered that staff in organisations related to water and sanitation

tend to associate 'Loreto' with 'failure' since the region is covered with unsuccessful

projects. Many projects in a wide range of sectors, including rural development, water

and sanitation, environment, health, education, and energy, have been unsustainable

after a few years from completion.

Interaction between rural people, civil society organisations and the state is difficult.

An important constrain is the poor access, understood as a combination of mobility

(transport infrastructure and means of transport) and the location, price and quality of

economic and social services. the presence of the state itself is very limited or simply

does not exist. In many cases only schools and health posts are available in some rural

communities. Several forms of formal authority can be found in rural communities,

namely the Teniente Gobernadoron behalf of the Prefecto de Loreto (appointed by

the Ministry of Interior) and the Agente Municipal working for the Municipio

Distrital. Some communities have a Traditional Chief. Rural people trust and rely

primarily upon their own informal institutions and networks in order to survive.

35


48/63

There are no professional engineers for RWSS, just people with training and

qualifications in standard engineering practices developed for and validated in urban

settings. This is a clear weakness in the human resources available to any agency

intending to promote water and sanitation projects in Loreto.

Testimonial:

There are only three sanitary engineers in Loreto. They obtained their qualifications in

Lima in the only school of sanitary engineering in the country.

P.F. Consulting engineer

According to the research findings, the environment is the most popular sector for

development organisations working in Loreto. This is justified because the region issituated in the Amazon Rainforest, whose conservation is a matter of great concern in

the international agenda. Health, education and capacity development are other

popular areas of action for NGOs in Loreto.

Environment: conservation of biological diversity, natural resources management,

promotion of sustainable use of biodiversity, income generating opportunities

through non-timber forest products, ecotourism, contamination

Health: infrastructure, education to communities, human resources development

Education: mainly bilingual education, intercultural or multicultural programmes

for indigenous peoples, and other education approaches for and by indigenous

peoples.

Capacity development: democratisation, decentralisation, good governance,

transparency, institution building, strengthening of local capacities.

In general, water and sanitation are included in projects where the emphasis is on

other development sectors. Health projects usually include WSS because of concerns

with cholera and other serious diseases. Unsafe water and inadequate sanitation is

linked to considerable economic losses, due to health costs and loss of income, which

force people to increase the use of natural resources to generate income with the

subsequent negative impact on the environmental.

36


49/63


50/63

Testimonial

Many mayors and councillors in rural areas behave as if they were the 'lords' in a feudal

society. They do not seem to differentiate between public and private ownership, they feel

they are entitled to transfer public funds and assets to their own capital. Another

characteristic of the political class in the rural communities is the lack of education, many

have not even completed primary education.

H.R. - Advisor to the Ombudsman's Office

Testimonial:

Do you see those people accompanying the candidate to the province government? If this

candidate win the mayor seat, they will get a job for as long as he remains in office. The

same will happen if any other candidate wins. Take the money and run! That's the

politicians' motto.Person in the street observing a political procession

Testimonial

Low cost systems such as artisanal filters are not attractive to politicians.

M.M. - International development agency worker

NGOs are also considered to be corrupted. NGOs have sometimes been called 'for-

profit-organisations without an aim' (Spanish: organizaciones de lucro sin fin) instead

of not-for-profit organisations (organizaciones sin fin de lucro)

5.1.1 Platforms for Coordination and Discussion

Professionals from different organisations and background are involved in the

achievement of sustainable WSS services for the rural poor. Each needs to know not

only his/her own role and objectives, but also the experiences and approaches which

guide the others. This does not happen in Loreto. Furthermore, the available evidencesuggests that there are no specific studies for rural water and sanitation in Loreto. It

might be that information has not been consolidated into a form which could be most

useful to agencies and has not been made available to a wider audience.

There is no institutional, permanent coordination between civil society and state for

issues concerning water and sanitation in Loreto. Neither is there a platform on which

to coordinate actions among NGOs themselves. In other areas, such as poverty

38


51/63

reduction, the Coordination Group in the Fight Against Poverty (MCLCP)29 is a

reference point. In health,ForoSaludand Regional Council on Health (CRS-Loreto)30

are active groups. Environmental issues are addressed to the Regional Council on the

Environment (CAR-Loreto)31. The effectiveness, level of participation and willingness

of these groups to collaborate could be improved. Nonetheless, it is a good sign that

people from different institutions are sitting around a table to discuss a common

agenda.

Testimonial

Environmental NGOs work on their own, without considering the institutional policies and

plans. There is a need for greater coordination between the regional government and the

civil society.

N.B. - Official in the GOREL

The MCLCP is an organisation set up to promote civil society participation in poverty

eradication. It works on the premise that poverty eradication can only be achieved

through coordination forums involving all the stakeholders and through strengthening

the local capacities and institution building. The executive committee for the regional

office of Loreto is composed of representatives from the international cooperation,

central government, regional government and civil society organisations. A important

area of work is the strengthening of the capacities in the communities and local

governments in order to make the participatory budget process a democratic and

effective way to direct investment towards poverty eradication.

Testimonial:

The regional government is not interested in forming part of the MCLCP and has tried to

jeopardise any progress towards an agreed agenda for development and poverty

eradication in Loreto.

R.C. - Activist

The Regional Council for the Environment (CAR Loreto) is an advisory body to the

public institutions. It has representatives from public institutions, research centres,

NGOs and other civil society organisations. The CAR is convened by the National

29 Mesa de Concertacion para la Lucha Contra la Pobreza

30 Consejo Regional de Salud31 Consejo del Ambiente Regional

39


52/63

Council for the Environment (CONAM), which is a central government body with

regional offices. Any organisation interested in environmental matters can apply to

become a member.

The Regional Council on Health (CRS Loreto) is an advisory body to the public

institutions. It has representatives from public institutions, research centres, NGOs and

other civil society organisations. The CAR is convened by Regional Directorate of

Health (DIRESA). There is one representative from the NGOs in the CRS. NGOs

meet before each meeting of the CRS to discuss the agenda.

The Foro de la Sociedad Civil en Salud, ForoSalud, is a civil society group with an

agenda on health. It promotes debate, assessment, knowledge sharing, preparation of

proposal and the collective construction of consensus around the health problems of

the country. It considers horizontal issues to health, such as human rights, social

development, poverty, gender and interculturality. There are regional groups of

ForoSalud, but not yet in Loreto. However, there is an active group in Iquitos trying to

set up ForoSalud. ForoSalud coordinates actions with thematic discussion groups, one

of them in 'Health and the Environment' known as Group on Health and the

Environment.32

The number of coordination forums on water and sanitation is limited at national

level. The Comite Sectorial de Agua y Saneamiento (Water and Sanitation Sector

Committee) brings together national and international, public and private institutions

working in the sector. It is convened by the World Bank Water and Sanitation

Program (WSP) and is integrated by CIDA, SDC-AGUASAN, WSP, CEPIS-PAHO,

PRONASAR, SUNASS, DIGESA, SANBASUR, ADRA, CARE-PROPILAS,

CENCA, WUSC, Plan Internacional, Intervida-Solaris, Prisma, Kallpa, SER and

Consorcio Casma.

The Peruvian International Cooperation Agency (APCI, acronym in Spanish),

convenes the Grupo Agua, or Water Group, in Lima in an attempt to coordinate

efforts among the bilateral and multilateral aid agencies. It is integrated by the World

Bank Water and Sanitation Program, Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC), CEPIS-

32 Spanish: Mesa de Salud y Medio Ambiente

40


53/63

PAHO, GTZ-KfW German International Cooperation, Japanese Bank for

International Cooperation (JBIC), Canadian International Development Agency

(CIDA), Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and European Union (EU)

The Peru Water Partnership33 is a platform for discussion integrated by public, private

institutions and civil society organisations involved in water resources management. It

is making an ef

breaking barriers: delivering water and sanitation to rural people in loreto (peru)

Documents