Brazil

This article is about the country. For other uses, seeBrazil (disambiguation).

Coordinates: 10°S 52°W / 10°S 52°WBrazil ( i/brəˈzɪl/; Portuguese: Brasil [bɾaˈziw] [11]), of-ficially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese:República Federativa do Brasil, listen [12]), is thelargest country in both South America and the LatinAmerican region. It is the world’s fifth-largest country,both by geographical area and by population.[13] It is thelargest Portuguese-speaking country in the world, and theonly one in the Americas.[14]

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has acoastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi).[15] It borders all otherSouth American countries except Ecuador and Chileand occupies 47.3 percent of the continent of SouthAmerica.[16] Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropi-cal forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecologicalsystems, and extensive natural resources spanning nu-merous protected habitats.[15] This unique environmentalheritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries,and is the subject of significant global interest and debateregarding deforestation and environmental protection.Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior tothe landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral,who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazilremained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the cap-ital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio deJaneiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rankof kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdomof Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence wasachieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire ofBrazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutionalmonarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratifica-tion of the first constitution in 1824 led to the forma-tion of a bicameral legislature, now called the NationalCongress. The country became a presidential republicin 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritar-ian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil’scurrent constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as afederal republic.[17] The federation is composed of theunion of the Federal District, the 26 states, and the 5,570municipalities. Brazil has the world’s highest populationof Roman Catholics and is the world’s most populousCatholic-majority country.Brazil’s economy is the world’s ninth-largest by nominalGDP and seventh-largest by GDP (PPP) as of 2015.[8][18]

A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 hadone of the world’s fastest growing major economies, withits economic reforms giving the country new interna-tional recognition and influence.[19] Brazil’s national de-velopment bank plays an important role for the coun-try’s economic growth.[20] Brazil is a foundingmember ofthe United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul,Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP and the Latin Union. Brazil is aregional power in Latin America and a middle power ininternational affairs,[21] with some analysts identifying itas an emerging global power.[22] One of the world’s ma-jor breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer ofcoffee for the last 150 years.[23]

1 Etymology

Main article: Name of Brazil

The word “Brazil” comes from brazilwood, a tree thatonce grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast.[24] In Por-tuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the wordbrasil commonly given the etymology “red like an em-ber”, formed from Latin brasa (“ember”) and the suf-fix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).[25] As brazilwood pro-duces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the Eu-ropean cloth industry and was the earliest commerciallyexploited product from Brazil.[26] Throughout the 16thcentury, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvestedby indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Braziliancoast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostlyPortuguese, but also French) in return for assorted Euro-pean consumer goods.[27]

The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Por-tuguese records, was the “Land of the Holy Cross” (Terrada Santa Cruz),[28] but European sailors and merchantscommonly called it simply the “Land of Brazil” (Terra doBrasil) on account of the brazilwood trade.[29] The pop-ular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted theofficial Portuguese name. Early sailors sometimes alsocalled it the “Land of Parrots” (Terra di Papaga).[30]

In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay,Brazil is called “Pindorama”. This was the name the in-digenous population gave to the region, meaning “land ofthe palm trees”.[31]

1

2 2 HISTORY

2 History

Main article: History of Brazil

2.1 Pre-Cabraline era

Main article: Pre-Cabraline BrazilOne of the earliest human remains found in the

Megaliths in the Solstice Archaeological Park, in Amapá, erectedbetween 500 and 2000 years ago, probably to carry outastronomical observations.

Americas, LuziaWoman, were found in the area of PedroLeopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of hu-man habitation going back at least 11,000 years.[32][33]The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemi-sphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil andradiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000BC). The pot-tery was found near Santarém and provides evidence thatthe tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoricculture.[34]

Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territoryof current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous popu-lation of 7 million people,[35] mostly semi-nomadic whosubsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agri-culture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprisedseveral large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the Tupis,Guaranis, Gês and Arawaks). The Tupí people were sub-divided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás, and therewere also many subdivision of the other groups.[36]

Before the arrival of Europeans, the boundaries betweenthese groups and their subgroups were marked by warsthat arose from differences in culture, language and moralbeliefs.[37] These wars also involved large-scale militaryactions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals onPOWs.[38][39] While heredity had some weight, leader-ship status was more subdued over time, than allocatedin succession ceremonies and conventions.[40] Slaveryamong the Indians had a different meaning than it hadfor Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socio-

economic organization, in which asymmetries were trans-lated into kinship relations.[41]

2.2 Portuguese colonization

Main article: Colonial BrazilThe land now called Brazil was claimed for the

Representation of the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in PortoSeguro, 1500.

Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrivalof the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro ÁlvaresCabral.[42] The Portuguese encountered indigenous peo-ples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke lan-guages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought amongthemselves.[43] Though the first settlement was founded in1532, colonization was effectively begun in 1534, whenKing Dom João III of Portugal divided the territory intothe fifteen private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies ofBrazil.[44][45]

However, the decentralized and unorganized tenden-cies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, andin 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them intothe Governorate General of Brazil, a single and cen-tralized Portuguese colony in South America.[45][46] Inthe first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous andEuropean groups lived in constant war, establishingopportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages againsteach other.[47][48][49][50] By the mid-16th century, canesugar had become Brazil’s most important exporta-tion product,[43][51] and slaves purchased in Sub-SaharanAfrica, in the slave market ofWestern Africa[52] (not onlythose from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angolaand Mozambique), had become its largest import,[53][54]to cope with plantations of sugarcane, due to increasinginternational demand for Brazilian sugar.[55][56]

By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports beganto decline,[57] and the discovery of gold by bandeirantesin the 1690s would become the new backbone of thecolony’s economy, fostering a Brazilian Gold Rush,[58] at-tracting thousands of new settlers to Brazil, from Portugaland all Portuguese colonies around the World,[59] whichin turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and oldsettlers.[60]

2.4 Independent Empire 3

Painting showing the arrest of Tiradentes; he was sentenced todeath for his involvement in the best known movement for inde-pendence in Colonial Brazil.

Portuguese expeditions known as Bandeiras graduallyadvanced the Portugal colonial original frontiers inSouth America to approximately the current Brazilianborders.[61][62] In this era other European powers tried tocolonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguesehad to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s,in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahiaand Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, af-ter the end of Iberian Union.[63]

The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil hadtwo objectives that would ensure colonial order, andthe monopoly of its wealthiest and largest colony: bothkeep under control and eradicate all forms of slaves’rebellion and resistance, such as the Quilombo of Pal-mares,[64] as well as repress all movements for autonomyor independence, such as the Minas Conspiracy.[65]

2.3 United Kingdom with Portugal

Main article: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil andthe Algarves

In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatenedthe security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Re-gent João, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move theroyal court from Lisbon to Brazil.[66] There they estab-lished some of Brazil’s first financial institutions, such asits local stock exchanges,[67] a National Bank, and endedthe monopoly of the colony trade with Portugal, openingit to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forcedinto exile, the Prince Regent ordered the Portuguese con-quest of French Guiana.[68]

With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courtsof Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Re-gent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the headof an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony.In 1815, in order to justify continuing to live in Brazil,where the royal court had thrived for the past six years,the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal,Brazil, and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental

transatlantic monarchic state.[69] However, such a ploydidn't last long, since the leadership in Portugal resent-ful with the new status of its larger colony, continued torequire the return of court to Lisbon (as postulated bythe Liberal Revolution of 1820), as well as groups ofBrazilians, impatient for practical and real changes stilldemanded independence and a republic, as showed bythe 1817 Pernambucan Revolt.[69] In 1821, as a demandof revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto,[70] D.João VI was unable to hold out any longer, and departedfor Lisbon. There he swore oath to the new constitution,leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent ofthe Kingdom of Brazil.[71]

2.4 Independent Empire

Main articles: Independence of Brazil and Empire ofBrazilTensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased,

Declaration of the Brazilian independence by the later EmperorPedro I on September 7, 1822.

and the Portuguese Cortes, guided by the new politicalregime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried tore-establish Brazil as a colony.[72] The Brazilians refusedto yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them,declaring the country’s independence from Portugal on 7September 1822.[73] Amonth later, Prince Pedro was de-clared the first Emperor of Brazil, with the regnal title ofDom Pedro I, resulting in the foundation of the Empireof Brazil.[74]

The Brazilian War of Independence, which had al-ready begun along this process, spread through northern,northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province.[75] Withthe last Portuguese soldiers surrendering on 8 March1824,[76] Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 Au-gust 1825.[77]In 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrativeturmoil and political dissensions with both liberal andconservative sides of politics, including an attempt ofrepublican secession,[78] as well as unreconciled with theway that absolutists in Portugal had given to the succes-sion of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaimhis daughter’s crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne infavor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became

4 2 HISTORY

the Empire’s second monarch, with the regnal title ofDom Pedro II).[79]

Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil between 1831 and 1889.

As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutionalpowers until he became of age, a regency was set up bytheNational Assembly.[80] In the absence of a charismaticfigure who could represent a moderate face of power,during this period a series of localized rebellions tookplace, as the Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada,the Sabinada, and the Ragamuffin War, which emergedfrom the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the centralpower, coupled with old and latent social tensions pecu-liar of a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nationstate.[81] This period of internal political and social up-heaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcomeonly at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of theregency, which occurred with the premature coronationof Pedro II in 1841.[82]

During the last phase of the monarchy, internal politicaldebate was centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlanticslave trade was abandoned in 1850,[83] as a result of theBritish' Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a longprocess of internal mobilization and debate for an ethicaland legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was theinstitution formally abolished.[84]

The foreign affairs in the monarchy were basically re-lated issues with the countries of the Southern Cone withwhich Brazil has borders. Long after the Cisplatine Warthat resulted in independence for Uruguay,[85] Brazil won

three international wars during the 58-year reign of PedroII. These were the Platine War, the Uruguayan War andthe devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort inBrazilian history.[86][87]

On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economicstagnation, in attrition with the majority of Army offi-cers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for differ-ent reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a militarycoup.[88]

2.5 Early republic

Proclamation of the Republic, 1893, oil on canvas by BeneditoCalixto (1853–1927).

In half of the first 100 years of republic in Brazil, the Army exer-cised power directly or through figures like Getúlio Vargas (cen-ter).

Main articles: República Velha, Estado Novo (Brazil)and Second Brazilian Republic

The “early republican government was little more than amilitary dictatorship, with army dominating affairs bothat Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the pressdisappeared and elections were controlled by those inpower”.[89] In 1894, following the unfoldings of two se-vere crises, an economic along with a military one, therepublican civilians rose to power.[90][91][92]

2.6 Contemporary era 5

Little by little, a cycle of general instability sparked bythese crises undermined the regime to such an extent,that by 1930 in the wake of the murder of his run-ning mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidateGetúlio Vargas supported by most of the military, led asuccessful revolt.[93][94] Vargas was supposed to assumepower temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, ex-tinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency pow-ers and replaced the states’ governors with his ownsupporters.[95][96]

In the 1930s, three major attempts to remove Vargas andhis supporters from power occurred: in the second halfof 1932, in November 1935, and in May 1938.[97][98][99]Being the second one, the communist revolt, used as anexcuse for the preclusion of elections, put into effect by acoup d'état in 1937, which made the Vargas regime a fulldictatorship, noted for its brutality and censorship of thepress.[100]

In foreign policy, the success in resolving border disputeswith neighboring countries in the early years of the re-publican period,[101] was followed by a failed attempt toexert a prominent role in the League of Nations,[102] af-ter its involvement in World War I.[103][104] In World WarII Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when thecountry entered on the allied side,[105][106] after suffer-ing retaliations undertaken by Nazi Germany and FascistItaly, due to the country having severed diplomatic rela-tions with Axis powers in the wake of the Pan-AmericanConference.[107]

With the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas’s position became un-sustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another mil-itary coup, with Democracy being “reinstated” by thesame army that had discontinued it 15 years before.[108]Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a polit-ical crisis, after having returned to power by election in1950.[109][110]

2.6 Contemporary era

Main articles: Brazilian military government and Historyof Brazil since 1985Several brief interim governments succeeded after Var-gas’s suicide.[111] Juscelino Kubitschek became presidentin 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards thepolitical opposition that allowed him to govern withoutmajor crises.[112] The economy and industrial sector grewremarkably,[113] but his greatest achievement was the con-struction of the new capital city of Brasília, inauguratedin 1960.[114] His successor was Jânio Quadros, who re-signed in 1961 less than a year after taking office.[115]His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presi-dency, but aroused strong political opposition[116] andwas deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in amilitary regime.[117]

The new regime was intended to be transitory[118] but

Construction of Brasília, the new capital, in 1959

it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dic-tatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institu-tional Act in 1968.[119] The oppression was not lim-ited to only those who resorted to guerrilla tactics tofight the regime, but also reached institutional oppo-nents, artists, journalists and other members of civilsociety,[120][121] inside and outside the country (throughthe infamous "Operation Condor").[122][123] Despite itsbrutality, like other totalitarian regimes in history, dueto an economic boom, known as an “economic miracle”,the regime reached its highest level of popularity in theearly 1970s.[124]

Soldiers guarding the Guanabara Palace in Rio de Janeiro duringthe 1964 Brazilian coup d'état.

Slowly however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorialpower that had not slowed the repression, even after thedefeat of the leftist guerrillas,[125] plus the inability to deal

6 3 GEOGRAPHY

with the economic crises of the period and popular pres-sure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from theregime side was led by Generals Geisel and Golbery.[126]With the enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazilbegan its slow return to democracy, which would be com-pleted during the 1980s.[82]

Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarneyassumed the presidency, becoming unpopular during histenure due to his failure in controlling the economic crisisand hyperinflation inherited from themilitary regime.[127]Sarney’s unsuccessful government allowed the electionin 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, whowas subsequently impeached by the National Congressin 1992.[128] Collor was succeeded by his Vice-PresidentItamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Car-doso as Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produceda highly successful Plano Real,[129] that, after decades offailed economic plans made by previous governments at-tempting to curb hyperinflation, finally granted stabilityto the Brazilian economy,[130][131] leading Cardoso to beelected that year, and again in 1998.[132]

Ulysses Guimarães holding the Constitution of 1988 in his hands.

The peaceful transition of power from Fernando Hen-rique to his main opposition leader, Luís Inácio Lula daSilva, who was elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006,proved that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving itslong-sought political stability.[133] Lula was succeeded in2011 by the current president, Dilma Rousseff, the coun-try’s first woman president and as such one of the mostpowerful women in the world.[134][135]

In June 2013, following the viral phenomenon of world-wide manifestations (such as the "Arab Spring", the"Occupy Wall Street" and the "Spanish Indignados"),[136]numerous protests erupted in Brazil. For days, hundredsof thousands of people took to the streets in several citiesto protest.[137] Initially a movement against the increasein public transport fares, it assumed gigantic proportions,sparked by the excessive use of force by the state po-lices, turning into a series of huge demonstrations bygroups and individuals, angry about a range of issues(including new stadium projects for international sportsevents, demands on quality of public services, anger aboutcorruption, and opposition to a constitutional amendment

proposal, PEC 37, which is interpreted by some as anattempt to curb repression of corruption[138][139]). Thusit became a movement containing conflicting ideologies,with so far no single political agenda nor recognizableleadership.[140][141][142]

3 Geography

Topographic map of Brazil

View of the Serra dos Órgãos, Rio de Janeiro, part of the Serrado Mar.

Main article: Geography of Brazil

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast ofSouth America and includes much of the continent’sinterior,[143] sharing land borders with Uruguay to thesouth; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Boliviaand Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; andVenezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseasdepartment of French Guiana to the north. It sharesa border with every South American country exceptEcuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of

3.1 Climate 7

oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha,Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindadeand Martim Vaz.[15] Its size, relief, climate, and naturalresources make Brazil geographically diverse.[143] Includ-ing its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°Nand 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, andthird largest in the Americas, with a total area of8,515,767.049 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi),[144] including55,455 km2 (21,411 sq mi) of water.[15] It spans fourtime zones; from UTC−5 comprising the state of Acreand the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4 inthe western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (thenational time) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.[145]Brazil is the only country in the world that lies on theequator while having contiguous territory outside thetropics. Brazilian topography is also diverse and includeshills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Muchof the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.[146] The main upland areaoccupies most of the southern half of the country.[146]The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad,rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[146]

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complexmass of ridges andmountain ranges reaching elevations ofup to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).[146] These ranges includethe Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serrado Mar.[146] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form amajor drainage divide, separating rivers that flow southinto the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into theOrinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. Thehighest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994metres (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[15]

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, oneof the world’s most extensive, with eight major drainagebasins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[147] Majorrivers include the Amazon (the world’s second-longestriver and the largest in terms of volume of water), theParaná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includesthe Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu,Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[147]

Panorama of the Chapada Diamantina from the PaiInácio Hill, in the Chapada Diamantina National Park,

Bahia.

3.1 Climate

Main article: Climate of Brazil

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weatherconditions across a large area and varied topography,but most of the country is tropical.[15] According to theKöppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic sub-types: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical,temperate, and subtropical. The different climatic condi-tions produce environments ranging from equatorial rain-forests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast,to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropicalsavannas in central Brazil.[148] Many regions have starklydifferent microclimates.[149][150]

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northernBrazil. There is no real dry season, but there are somevariations in the period of the year when most rainfalls.[148] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[150] withmore significant temperature variation between night andday than between seasons.[149]

Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, character-istic of a savanna climate.[149] This region is as exten-sive as the Amazon basin but has a very different cli-mate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.[148] Inthe interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more ex-treme. The semiarid climatic region generally receivesless than 800 millimetres (31.5 in) of rain,[151] most ofwhich generally falls in a period of three to five monthsof the year[152] and occasionally less than this, creatinglong periods of drought.[149] Brazil’s 1877–78 GrandeSeca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil’s history,[153]caused approximately half a million deaths.[154] A simi-larly devastating drought occurred in 1915.[155]

South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly mostof the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfallchanges, with rain falling throughout the year.[148] Thesouth enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters andaverage annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64.4°F);[150] winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the high-est areas.[148][149]

3.2 Biodiversity and environment

Main articles: Wildlife of Brazil, Deforestation in Braziland Conservation in Brazil

Brazil’s large territory comprises different ecosystems,such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having thegreatest biological diversity in the world,[156] with theAtlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatestbiodiversity.[157] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest

8 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

grows under temperate conditions.[157] The rich wildlifeof Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scien-tists estimate that the total number of plant and animalspecies in Brazil could approach four million, mostlyinvertebrates.[157]

Larger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars,ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivorespeccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, andarmadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and manyspecies of New World monkeys are found in the north-ern rain forests.[157][158] Concern for the environmenthas grown in response to global interest in environmen-tal issues.[159] Brazil’s Amazon Basin is home to an ex-tremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha. Despite its reputation as a ferociousfreshwater fish, the red-bellied piranha is actually a gen-erally timid scavenger. Biodiversity can contribute toagriculture, livestock, forestry and fisheries extraction.However, almost all economically exploited species ofplants, such as soybeans and coffee, or animals, such aschickens, are imported from other countries, and the eco-nomic use of native species still crawls. In the BrazilianGDP, the forest sector represents just over 1% and fishing0.4%.The natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened bycattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, reset-tlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlifetrade, dams and infrastructure, water pollution, cli-mate change, fire, and invasive species.[156] In many ar-eas of the country, the natural environment is threat-ened by development.[160] Construction of highways hasopened up previously remote areas for agriculture andsettlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundatedwildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted thelandscape.[159][161] At least 70 dams are said to be plannedfor the Amazon region, including the controversial BeloMonte hydroelectric dam.[162]

4 Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Brazil, Federal government ofBrazil and Elections in BrazilThe form of government is that of a democratic

Palácio do Planalto, the official workplace of the President ofBrazil.

federative republic, with a presidential system.[17] Thepresident is both head of state and head of governmentof the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[17] withthe possibility of re-election for a second successive term.The current president is Dilma Rousseff, who was inau-gurated on 1 January 2011.[163] The President appointsthe Ministers of State, who assist in government.[17] Leg-islative houses in each political entity are the main sourceof law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federa-tion’s bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamberof Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary author-ities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively.Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy In-dex 2010.[164]

The Brazilian Federation is the “indissoluble union” ofthe States, the Municipalities and the Federal District.[17]The Union, the states and the Federal District, andthe municipalities, are the “spheres of government”.The federation is set on five fundamental principles:[17]sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, thesocial values of labour and freedom of enterprise, andpolitical pluralism. The classic tripartite branches ofgovernment (executive, legislative and judicial under achecks and balances system) are formally established bythe Constitution.[17] The executive and legislative are or-ganized independently in all three spheres of government,while the judiciary is organized only at the federal andstate/Federal District spheres.

National Congress of Brazil, seat of the legislative branch.

All members of the executive and legislative branches aredirectly elected.[165][166][167] Judges and other judicial of-ficials are appointed after passing entry exams.[165] Formost of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is com-pulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old andoptional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 orbeyond 70.[17]

Together with several smaller parties, four political par-ties stand out: Workers’ Party (PT), Brazilian SocialDemocracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Move-ment Party (PMDB) and Democrats (DEM). Fifteen po-litical parties are represented in Congress. It is commonfor politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportionof congressional seats held by particular parties changesregularly.[168] Almost all governmental and administra-

4.2 Military 9

tive functions are exercised by authorities and agenciesaffiliated to the Executive.

4.1 Law

Main articles: Law of Brazil, Law enforcement in Braziland Crime in Brazil

Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions[169]and civil law concepts prevail over common law prac-tice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, play-ing a complementary role. Court decisions set out inter-pretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding onother specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works ofacademic jurists have strong influence in law creation andin law cases.

Supreme Federal Court of Brazil serves primarily as the Consti-tutional Court of the country.

The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution,which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is thefundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation andcourt decisions must conform to its rules.[170] As of April2007, there have been 53 amendments. States have theirown constitutions, which must not contradict the FederalConstitution.[171] Municipalities and the Federal Districthave “organic laws” (leis orgânicas), which act in a similarway to constitutions.[172] Legislative entities are the mainsource of statutes, although in certain matters judiciaryand executive bodies may enact legal norms.[17] Jurisdic-tion is administered by the judiciary entities, although inrare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Fed-eral Senate to pass on legal judgments.[17] There are alsospecialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[17] Thehighest court is the Supreme Federal Court.This system has been criticized over the last few decadesfor the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on ap-peal may take several years to resolve, and in some casesmore than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.[173]Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the firstcourt in the world to transmit its sessions on television,and also via YouTube.[174][175] More recently, in Decem-

ber 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to displayitems on the day planner of the ministers, to inform thedaily actions of the Court and the most important deci-sions made by them.[176]

4.2 Military

Main article: Brazilian Armed ForcesThe armed forces of Brazil are the second largest in Latin

Brazilian Army participating in UN peacekeeping mission inHaiti.

NAe São Paulo, aircraft carrier of the Brazilian Navy.

America by active personnel and the largest by the level ofmilitary equipment.[177] It consists of the Brazilian Army(including the Army Aviation Command), the BrazilianNavy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation),and the Brazilian Air Force.The Army has 235,978 active personnel.[178] Also it hasthe largest number of armored vehicles in South Amer-ica, plus armored vehicles to transport troops and maintanks[179] It has a large elite unit specializing in unconven-tional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Com-mand, unique in Latin America,[180][181][182] plus a Strate-gic Rapid Action Force, made up of elite units highlymobilized and prepared (Special Operations Brigade,Infantry Brigade Parachutist,[183][184] 1st Jungle InfantryBattalion (Airmobile)[185] and 12th Brigade Light In-fantry (Airmobile)[186] to act anywhere in the country,

10 4 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

in short time, the external aggression hypothesis.[187] AsBrazil adopts conscription, its military is one of theworld’s largest with effective estimated at more than 1600 000 men ages reservist per year.[188] The states’Military Police and theMilitary Firefighters Corps are de-scribed as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitu-tion, but are under the control of each state’s governor.[17]The Navy once operated some of the most powerfulwarships in the world with the two Minas Geraes-classdreadnoughts, which sparked a South American dread-nought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.[189]Today, it is a green water force and has a group of special-ized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC,unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platformsalong its coast.[190] It’s the only navy in Latin Americathat operates an aircraft carrier, NAe São Paulo,[191] andone of the ten navies of the world to operate this type ofship.[179] The Air Force, it is the largest in Latin Amer-ica has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effectiveabout 67 thousand military.[192]

Brazil has not been invaded since 1865 during theParaguayan War.[193] Additionally, Brazil has no con-tested territorial disputes with any of its neighbours[194]and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Boliviahave with each other.[195][196] The Brazilian military hasalso three times intervened militarily to overthrow theBrazilian government.[197] It has built a tradition of par-ticipating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haitiand East Timor.[198]

4.3 Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign relations of BrazilBrazil’s international relations are based on Article

Diplomatic missions of BrazilBrazilNations hosting a diplomatic mission of BrazilNations with a non-resident mission of Brazil

4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international coopera-tion and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guid-ing principles of Brazil’s relationship with other countriesand multilateral organizations.[199] According to the Con-stitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreignpolicy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing andconsidering all diplomatic nominations and international

treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreignpolicy.[200]

Brazil’s foreign policy is a by-product of the country’sunique position as a regional power in Latin America,a leader among developing countries, and an emergingworld power.[201] Brazilian foreign policy has generallybeen based on the principles of multilateralism, peacefuldispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs ofother countries.[202]

An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil’s foreignpolicy is providing aid as a donor to other developingcountries.[203] Brazil does not just use its growing eco-nomic strength to provide financial aid, but it also pro-vides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all,a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve gover-nance levels.[203] Total aid is estimated to be around $1billion per year that includes:[203]

• technical cooperation of around $480 million ($30million in 2010 provided directly by the BrazilianCooperation Agency (ABC))

• an estimated $450 million for in-kind expertise pro-vided by Brazilian institutions specialising in tech-nical cooperation

In addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission inHaiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions totheWorld Food Programme ($300million).[203] This is inaddition to humanitarian assistance and contributions tomultilateral development agencies. The scale of this aidplaces it on par with China and India.[203] The BrazilianSouth-South aid has been described as a “global model inwaiting.”[204]

4.4 Law enforcement and crime

Main articles: Law enforcement in Brazil and Crime inBrazilIn Brazil, the Constitution establishes five different po-

Helicopter of the Federal Police Department.

lice agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Depart-ment, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police,

11

Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first threeare affiliated with federal authorities and the last two aresubordinate to state governments. All police forces arethe responsibility of the executive branch of any of thefederal or estadual powers.[17] The National Public Secu-rity Force also can act in public disorder situations arisinganywhere in the country.[205]

The country still has above-average levels of violent crimeand particularly high levels of gun violence and homi-cide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO)estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhab-itants, one of the highest rates of intentional homicideof the world.[206] The number considered tolerable by theWHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.[207]However, there are differences between the crime ratesin the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homiciderate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 in-habitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000inhabitants.[208]

Brazil also has high levels of incarceration and the thirdlargest prison population in the world (behind only Chinaand the United States), with an estimated total of ap-proximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the in-dex registered in 1992.[209] The high number of pris-oners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system,leading to a shortfall of about two hundred thousandaccommodations.[210]

4.5 Administrative divisions

Main articles: States of Brazil and Municipalities ofBrazilSee also: Regions of Brazil

Brazil is a federation composed of 26 States, one Federaldistrict (which contains the capital city, Brasília) andMunicipalities.[17] States have autonomous administra-tions, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxescollected by the Federal government. They have a gov-ernor and a unicameral legislative body elected directlyby their voters. They also have independent Courts ofLaw for common justice. Despite this, states have muchless autonomy to create their own laws than in the UnitedStates. For example, criminal and civil laws can be votedby only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniformthroughout the country.[17]

The states and the federal district may be grouped into re-gions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast andSouthern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical,not political or administrative divisions, and they do nothave any specific form of government. Although definedby law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statisticalpurposes, and also to define the distribution of federalfunds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous adminis-trations, collect their own taxes and receive a share oftaxes collected by the Union and state government.[17]Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, butno separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law or-ganized by the state can encompass many municipalitiesin a single justice administrative division called comarca(county).

5 Economy

Main article: Economy of BrazilSee also: Brazilian real

Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin Amer-ica, the world’s eight largest economy at market exchangerates and the seventh largest in purchasing power par-ity (PPP), according to the International Monetary Fundand the World Bank. Brazil has a mixed economy withabundant natural resources. The Brazilian economy hasbeen predicted to become one of the five largest in theworld in the decades to come, the GDP per capita fol-lowing and growing,[212] provided that large investmentsin productivity gains are made to substitute the GDPgrowth of the last decade that is attributable to the in-crease in the number of people working.[213] Its currentGDP (PPP) per capita is $15,153 in 2014[6] putting Brazilin the 77th position according to IMF data. Active inagricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectorsBrazil has a labor force of over a 107 million (ranking 6thworldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64thworldwide).[214]

The country has been expanding its presence in interna-tional financial and commodities markets, and is one of agroup of four emerging economies called the BRIC coun-tries.[215] Brazil has been the world’s largest producer ofcoffee for the last 150 years.[23] It has become the fourthlargest car market in the world.[216] Major export prod-ucts include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles,ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orangejuice, soybeans and corned beef.[217] In total, Brazil ranks23rd worldwide in value of exports.Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, theRussian default in 1998[219] and the series of adverse fi-nancial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Braziltemporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float[220] scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, untildefinitively changing the exchange regime to free-float inJanuary 1999.[221]

Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescuepackage in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,[222] then a recordsum. Brazil’s central bank paid back the IMF loan in2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.[223]One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt

12 5 ECONOMY

Combine harvester n a rice plantation in Santa Catarina. Brazilis the third largest exporter of agricultural products in theworld.[218]

with was an excess of speculative short-term capital in-flows to the country, which may have contributed to a fallin the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during thatperiod.[224] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI),related to long-term, less speculative investment in pro-duction, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.[225]Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a majorpart in the Central bank’s role of setting out short-terminterest rates as a monetary policy measure.[226]

Central Bank of Brazil, in Brasília

Between 1993 and 2010, 7012 mergers & acquisitionswith a total known value of $707 billion with the involve-ment of Brazilian firms have been announced.[227] Theyear 2010 was a new record in terms of value with 115billion USD of transactions. The largest transaction withinvolvement of Brazilian companies has been: Cia Valedo Rio Doce acquired Inco in a tender offer valued atUS$18.9 billion.Corruption costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone,with 69.9% of the country’s firms identifying the issue as

a major constraint in successfully penetrating the globalmarket.[228] Local government corruption is so preva-lent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it sur-passes certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. aradio station is present to divulge the findings of corrup-tion charges.[229] Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthenawareness which is indicated by the Transparency Inter-national’s Corruption Perceptions Index; ranking Brazil69th out of 178 countries in 2012.[230] The purchasingpower in Brazil is eroded by the so-called Brazil cost.[231]

The economy of the resource-rich nation had been boom-ing until 2010, but stagnation followed and a recession isnow underway, along with inflation and charges of cor-ruption and the bankruptcy of a major oil business. An-gry demonstrators in 2014 complained beforehand at thehigh $11.5 billion (USD) cost of sponsoring the FIFAWorld Cup, but Brazilians took pride in its smooth func-tioning. Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff faced a con-servative challenger for her re-election bid in the October26, 2014, runoff,[232] but managed to secure a re-electionwith just over 51% of votes.[233]

5.1 Components and energy

Main articles: Agriculture in Brazil, Industry in Braziland Energy policy of BrazilBrazil’s diversified economy includes agriculture, indus-

P-51, an oil platform of Petrobras.

try, and a wide range of services.[234] Agriculture and al-lied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accountedfor 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007.[235]Brazil is one of the largest producer of oranges, coffee,sugar cane, cassava and sisal, soybeans and papayas.[236]

The industry — from automobiles, steel andpetrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumerdurables— accounted for 30.8% of the gross domes-tic product.[235] Industry is highly concentrated inmetropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, PortoAlegre, and Belo Horizonte.[237]

Brazil is the world’s tenth largest energy consumer withmuch of its energy coming from renewable sources, par-ticularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam

5.2 Tourism 13

is the world’s largest hydroelectric plant by energygeneration.[238] The first car with an ethanol engine wasproduced in 1978 and the first airplane engine runningon ethanol in 2005.[239] Recent oil discoveries in the Pre-salt layer have opened the door for a large increase in oilproduction.[240] The governmental agencies responsiblefor the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and En-ergy, theNational Council for Energy Policy, theNationalAgency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and theNational Agency of Electricity.[241]

The Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River, located on theborder between Brazil and Paraguay, is the secondlargest of the world (the first is the Three Gorges Dam,in China). Approximately 75% of the Brazilian energymatrix, one of the cleanest in the world, comes from thehydropower.

5.2 Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Brazil

Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the econ-omy of several regions of the country. The country had5 million visitors in 2010, ranking in terms of interna-tional tourist arrivals as the second destination in SouthAmerica, and third in Latin America after Mexico andArgentina. Revenues from international tourists reachedUS$6 billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis.[242] Historical records of 5.4 mil-lion visitors and US$6.8 billion in receipts were reachedin 2011.[243][244]

Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, acombination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation,mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well ascultural tourism. Among the most popular destinationsare the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in theNortheast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Re-gion, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cul-tural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to SãoPaulo city.[245]

In terms of the 2015 Travel and TourismCompetitivenessIndex (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that

make it attractive to develop business in the travel andtourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked inthe 28st place at the world’s level, third in the Americas,after Canada and United States.[246][247] Brazil’s maincompetitive advantages are its natural resources, whichranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered,and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its manyWorld Heritage sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil’smain weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure re-mains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the qualityof roads ranking in 105th place; and the country contin-ues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges,as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and secu-rity have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from128th in 2008.[247]

Snorkeling in the city of Bonito, Mato Grosso do Sul. The riversin the region are known for their crystal clear waters.

According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO),international travel to Brazil accelerated in 2000, partic-ularly during 2004 and 2005. However, in 2006 a slow-down took place, and international arrivals had almost nogrowth in 2007–08.[248][249][250] In spite of this trend, rev-enues from international tourism continued to rise, fromUSD 4 billion in 2005 to 5 billion in 2007, despite 330000 fewer arrivals. This favorable trend is the result of thestrong devaluation of the US dollar against the BrazilianReal, which began in 2004, but which makes Brazil amore expensive international destination.[251] This trendchanged in 2009, when both visitors and revenues fell asa result of the Great Recession of 2008–09.[252] By 2010,the industry had recovered, and arrivals grew above 2006

14 6 INFRASTRUCTURE

levels to 5.2 million international visitors, and receiptsfrom these visitors reached USD 6 billion.[242] In 2011the historical record was reached with 5.4 million visi-tors and US$6.8 billion in receipts.[243][244]

Despite continuing record-breaking international tourismrevenues, the number of Brazilian tourists travelling over-seas has been growing steadily since 2003, resulting in anet negative foreign exchange balance, as more moneyis spent abroad by Brazilians than comes in as receiptsfrom international tourists visiting Brazil. Tourism ex-penditures abroad grew from USD 5.8 billion in 2006, toUSD 8.2 billion in 2007, a 42% increase, representing anet deficit of USD 3.3 billion in 2007, as compared toUSD 1.5 billion in 2006, a 125% increase from the pre-vious year.[253] This trend is caused by Brazilians takingadvantage of the stronger Real to travel and making rel-atively cheaper expenditures abroad.[253] Brazilians trav-eling overseas in 2006 represented 4% of the country’spopulation.[254]

In 2005, tourism contributed with 3.2% of the coun-try’s revenues from exports of goods and services, andrepresented 7% of direct and indirect employment inthe Brazilian economy.[255] In 2006 direct employmentin the sector reached 1.9 million people.[256] Domestictourism is a fundamental market segment for the indus-try, as 51 million people traveled throughout the countryin 2005,[257] and direct revenues from Brazilian touristsreached USD 22 billion,[258] 5.6 times more receipts thaninternational tourists in 2005.In 2005, Rio de Janeiro, Foz do Iguaçu, São Paulo,Florianópolis and Salvador were the most visited citiesby international tourists for leisure trips. The most popu-lar destinations for business trips were São Paulo, Rio deJaneiro and Porto Alegre.[259] In 2006 Rio de Janeiro andFortaleza were the most popular destinations for businesstrips.

The city of Rio de Janeiro is featured in tourism in Brazil.

6 Infrastructure

6.1 Science and technology

Main article: Brazilian science and technologyTechnological research in Brazil is largely carried out in

National Synchrotron Light Laboratory in Campinas, state of SãoPaulo, the only particle accelerator in Latin America.

Control room of Brazilian Space Agency at the Alcântara LaunchCenter.

public universities and research institutes, with the ma-jority of funding for basic research coming from var-ious government agencies.[260] Brazil’s most esteemedtechnological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, theButantan Institute, the Air Force’s Aerospace TechnicalCenter, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporationand the INPE.[261][262] The Brazilian Space Agency hasthe most advanced space program in Latin America, withsignificant resources to launch vehicles, and manufac-ture of satellite.[263] Owner of relative technological so-phistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft,as well as being involved in space research, having a Ve-hicle Launch Center Light and being the only countryin the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team buildingInternational Space Station (ISS).[264]

The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deepwater, from where extracts 73% of its reserves. Uraniumis enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory, mostlyfor research purposes (as Brazil obtains 88% from itselectricity from hydroelectricity[265]) and the country’sfirst nuclear submarine will be delivered in 2015 (byFrance).[266] Brazil is one of the three countries in LatinAmerica[267] with an operational Synchrotron Labora-tory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, materialscience and life sciences. And Brazil is the only LatinAmerican country to have a semiconductor company with

6.2 Transport 15

its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC.[268] According tothe Global Information Technology Report 2009-2010of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the 61 world’slargest developer of information technology.[269]

Brazil also has a large number of outstanding scien-tific personalities. Among the most renowned Brazil-ian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landellde Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besidesAlberto Santos-Dumont,[270]Evaristo Conrado Engel-berg,[271]Manuel Dias de Abreu,[272] Andreas Pavel[273]e Nélio José Nicolai.[274] Brazilian science is repre-sented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicalPathfinder of Pi Meson),[275] Mário Schenberg (consid-ered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),[276] JoséLeite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of UNESCOScience Prize),[277] Artur Ávila (the first Latin Ameri-can winner of Fields Medal)[278] and Fritz Müller (pio-neer in factual support the theory of evolution by CharlesDarwin).[279]

6.2 Transport

Main article: Transport in BrazilBrazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and

Internal view of Recife International Airport, voted the best in thecountry.[280]

passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 mil-lion km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of pavedroads increased from 35,496 km (22,056mi) (22,056mi)in 1967 to 184,140 km (114,419 mi) (114,425 mi) in2002.[282]

The first investments in road infrastructure have given upin the 1920s, the government of Washington Luis, be-ing pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas andEurico Gaspar Dutra.[283] President Juscelino Kubitschek(1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília,was another supporter of highways. Kubitschek was re-sponsible for the installation of major car manufacturersin the country (Volkswagen, Ford and General Motorsarrived in Brazil during his rule) and one of the pointsused to attract them was, of course, support for the con-

Line 4 station of the São Paulo Metro. The São Paulo metrowas voted the most efficient of the Americas, and the 7th in theworld.[281]

struction of highways. With the implementation of Fiat in1976 ending an automobile market closed loop, from theend of the 1990s the country has received large foreigndirect investments installing in its territory other majorcar manufacturers and utilities, such as Iveco, Renault,Peugeot, Citroen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz,BMW, Hyundai, Toyota among others.[284] Brazil is theseventh most important country in the auto industry.[285]

Brazil’s railway system has been declining since 1945,when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The to-tal length of railway track was 30,875 km (19,185 mi)in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Fed-eral Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatizedin 2007.[286] The São Paulo Metro was the first under-ground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systemsare in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Hori-zonte, Brasília, Teresina and Fortaleza.The country has an extensive rail network of 28,538kilometers in length, the tenth largest network in theworld.[287] Currently, the Brazilian government, unlikethe past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an ex-ample of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulohigh-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities ofthe country to carry passengers.There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including land-ing fields: the second largest number in the world, af-ter the United States.[288] São Paulo-Guarulhos Interna-tional Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiestairport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, whilehandling the vast majority of commercial traffic for thecountry.[289]

For freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g.the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only bymeans of the Solimões- Amazonas waterway (3,250 km(2,019 mi) with 6 meters minimum depth). The countryalso has 50 000 km of waterways.[287]

Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the coun-try. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free portsat Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Ita-

16 6 INFRASTRUCTURE

jaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba,Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are themost important.[290] Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18days before being serviced, container ships 36,3 hours onaverage.[291]

6.3 Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in BrazilAmong the achievements in the water supply and san-

Water treatment plant in Coronel Fabriciano, Minas Gerais.

itation sector is an increase in access to water piped onpremises from 79% to 92% between 1990 and 2010; anincrease in access to Improved sanitation from 68% to79% in the same period;[292] a functioning national sys-tem to finance water and sanitation infrastructure; a highlevel of cost recovery compared to most other develop-ing countries; as well as a number of notable technicaland financial innovations such as Condominial sewerageand an output-based subsidy for treated wastewater calledPRODES.Among the challenges is the still high number of poorBrazilians living in urban slums (Favela) and in rural areaswithout access to piped water or sanitation; water scarcityin the Northeast of Brazil; water pollution, especially inthe South-East of the country; the low share of collectedwastewater that is being treated (35% in 2000); and long-standing tensions between the federal, state andmunicipalgovernments about their respective roles in the sector.

6.4 Health

Main article: Health in BrazilThe Brazilian public health system, the National HealthSystem (SUS), is managed and provided by all levels ofgovernment.[293] The public health services are universaland available to all citizens of the country for free. Never-theless, millions of affluent Brazilians have private healthcare coverage.[294]

The Albert Einstein Hospital in São Paulo is one of the most well-known health units in Brazil.

According to the Brazilian Government, the most serioushealth problems are:[295]

• Childhood mortality: about 2.51% of childhoodmortality, reaching 3.77% in the northeast region.

• Motherhood mortality: about 73.1 deaths per100,000 born children in 2002.

• Mortality by non-transmissible illness: 151.7 deathsper 100,000 inhabitants caused by heart and circu-latory diseases, along with 72.7 deaths per 100,000inhabitants caused by cancer.

• Mortality caused by external causes (transportation,violence and suicide): 71.7 deaths per 100,000 in-habitants (14.9% of all deaths in the country), reach-ing 82.3 deaths in the southeast region.

In 2002, Brazil accounted for 40% of malaria cases in theAmericas.[296] Nearly 99% are concentrated in the LegalAmazon Region, which is home to not more than 12% ofthe population.[296]

6.5 Education

Main article: Education in Brazil

The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines andBases of National Education determine that the FederalGovernment, States, Federal District and municipalitiesmust manage and organize their respective education sys-tems. Each of these public educational systems is respon-sible for its own maintenance, which manages funds aswell as the mechanisms and funding sources. The con-stitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% offederal taxes and municipal taxes for education.[297]

According to the IBGE, in 2011, the literacy rate of thepopulation was 90.4%, meaning that 13 million (9.6% of

17

Courtyard of the ancient Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortifica-tion and Design, the first institution of higher education in Brazil,created in 1792 and forerunner of the Federal University of Riode Janeiro (UFRJ).

population) people are still illiterate in the country; func-tional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population.[298]Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, where 19.9% of thepopulation is illiterate.[299]

Higher education starts with undergraduate or sequentialcourses, which may offer different options of specializa-tion in academic or professional careers. Depending onthe choice, students can improve their educational back-ground with courses of post-graduate studies or broadsense. To attend a higher education institution is required,by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education, complet-ing all levels of education suited to the needs of all stu-dents of teaching kindergarten, elementary and medium,provided the student does not hold any disability, whetherphysical, mental, visual or hearing.

6.6 Media and communication

Main article: Communications in BrazilThe Brazilian press has its beginnings in 1808 with the

President Dilma Rousseff at Jornal Nacional news program.Rede Globo is the second largest commercial television networkof the world.[300]

arrival of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, hitherto

forbidden any activity of the press – was the publicationof newspapers or books. The Brazilian press was officiallyborn in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808, with the creationof the Royal Printing, National Press by the Prince RegentDom João.[301]

The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper pub-lished in the country, began to circulate on 10 Septem-ber 1808.[302] Largest newspapers nowadays are Folha deS.Paulo (from the state of São Paulo), Super Notícia (Mi-nasGerias 296.799), OGlobo (RJ 277.876) andOEstadode S. Paulo (SP 235.217).[303]

Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with aspeech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on20 April 1923 with the creation of “Radio Society of Riode Janeiro.”[304]

Television in Brazil began officially on 18 Septem-ber 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by AssisChateaubriand.[305] Since then television has grown in thecountry, creating large public networks such as Globo,SBT, Record and Bandeirantes. Today it is the most im-portant factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, in-dicated by research showing that as much as 67%[306][307]

of the general population follow the same daily soap operabroadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard(based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted29 June 2006 and launched in 2 November 2007.[308] InMay 2010, Brazil launched TV Brasil Internacional, aninternational television station, initially broadcasting to49 countries.[309]

7 Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Brazil and Brazilian peo-pleSee also: Immigration to Brazil and List of Brazilianstates by population densityThe population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008PNAD, was approximately 190 million[310] (22.31 inhab-itants per square kilometre or 57.8/sq mi), with a ra-tio of men to women of 0.95:1[311] and 83.75% of thepopulation defined as urban.[312] The population is heav-ily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhab-itants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) re-gions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% ofthe Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 millioninhabitants.The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 andrecorded a population of 9,930,478.[313] From 1880 to1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.[314] Brazil’s popula-tion increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, be-cause of a decline in the mortality rate, even though thebirth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the an-nual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% inthe 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life ex-

18 7 DEMOGRAPHICS

Population density of Brazilian municipalities.

pectancy rose from 44 to 54 years[315] and to 72.6 yearsin 2007.[316] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s,from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05%in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of–0.29% by 2050[317] thus completing the demographictransition.[318]

In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%[319] and among theyouth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in theNortheast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.[320]Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural populationand lower (9.05%) among the urban population.[321]

7.1 Race and ethnicity

Main article: Race and ethnicity in Brazil

According to the National Research by Household Sam-ple (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million)as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28%(about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called in-dígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand)did not declare their race.[322]

In 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated thatBrazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from theirestimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have thelargest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[323]

Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, consider-able miscegenation between Amerindians, Europeans,and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country(with European ancestry being dominant nationwide ac-cording to the vast majority of all autosomal studies un-dertaken covering the entire population, accounting for

between 65% to 77%).[327][328][329][330]

Brazilian society is more markedly divided by socialclass lines, although a high income disparity is foundbetween race groups, so racism and classism can beconflated. Socially significant closeness to one racialgroup is taken in account more in the basis of appear-ance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent thatfull siblings can pertain to different “racial” groups.[331]Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a mi-nority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselvesWhite or Black if socially upward.[332] Skin color and fa-cial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually,Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ances-try is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significantnon-European contribution, but the individual variationis great).[330][333][334][335]

The brown population (officially called pardo in Por-tuguese, also colloquially moreno)[336][337] is a broad cat-egory that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindiansin general, and descendants of Whites and Natives),mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Braziliansand Natives).[336][337][338][339][340] People of considerableAmerindian ancestry form the majority of the popula-tion in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Westernregions.[341]

Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials canbe found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern re-gion from Bahia to Paraíba[340][342] and also in north-ern Maranhão,[343][344] southern Minas Gerais[345] and ineastern Rio de Janeiro.[340][345] From the 19th century,Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five mil-lion people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazilbetween 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese,Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish,Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.[346]

7.2 Religion

Main article: Religion in BrazilFurther information: Roman Catholicism in Brazil andProtestantism in BrazilReligion in Brazil formed from the meeting of theCatholic Church with the religious traditions of enslavedAfrican peoples and indigenous peoples.[347] This con-fluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization ofBrazil led to the development of a diverse array ofsyncretistic practices within the overarching umbrellaof Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by tradi-tional Portuguese festivities,[348] and in some instances,Allan Kardec's Spiritism (most Brazilian Spiritists arealso Christians). Religious pluralism increased duringthe 20th century,[349] and the Protestant community hasgrown to include over 22% of the population.[350] Themost common Protestant denominations are Pentecostaland Evangelical ones. Other Protestant branches with

7.4 Language 19

Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida inAparecida do Norte, São Paulo, is the second largest Catholicchurch in the world.

a notable presence in the country include the Baptists,Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tra-dition.[351]

Roman Catholicism is the country’s predominant faith.Brazil has the world’s largest Catholic population.[352] Ac-cording to the 2000 Demographic Census (the PNADsurvey does not inquire about religion), 73.57% ofthe population followed Roman Catholicism; 15.41%Protestantism; 1.33% Kardecist spiritism; 1.22% otherChristian denominations; 0.31% Afro-Brazilian reli-gions; 0.13% Buddhism; 0.05% Judaism; 0.02% Islam;0.01% Amerindian religions; 0.59% other religions,undeclared or undetermined; while 7.35% have noreligion.[353]

However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particu-larly Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread inBrazil, while the proportion of Catholics has droppedsignificantly.[354] After Protestantism, individuals pro-fessing no religion are also a significant group, exceed-ing 7% of the population as of the 2000 census. Thecities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho havethe greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil.Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Ro-man Catholic in the country.[355] Greater Rio de Janeiro,not including the city proper, is the most irreligious andleast Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while GreaterPorto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the oppositesides of the lists, respectively.[355]

7.3 Urbanization

Main articles: List of largest cities in Brazil andMunicipalities of Brazil

According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography andStatistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of thepopulation, while the Southeast region remains the mostpopulated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.[356] Thelargest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio

de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeast-ern Region — with 19.5, 11.5, and 5.1 million inhabi-tants respectively.[357] The majority of state capitals arethe largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, thecapital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capitalof Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropoli-tan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santosand the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), RioGrande do Sul (Sinos Valley) and Santa Catarina (ItajaíValley).[358]

7.4 Language

Main articles: Languages of Brazil, Portuguese language,Brazilian Portuguese and List of endangered languages inBrazilThe official language of Brazil is Portuguese[360] (Article

Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo, Brazil.

13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil),which almost all of the population speaks and is virtu-ally the only language used in newspapers, radio, televi-sion, and for business and administrative purposes. Themost famous exception to this is a strong sign languagelaw that was passed by the National Congress of Brazil.Legally recognized in 2002,[361] the law was regulatedin 2005.[362] The law mandates the use of the BrazilianSign Language, more commonly known by its Portugueseacronym LIBRAS, in education and government services.The language must be taught as a part of the educationand speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRASteachers, instructors and translators are recognized pro-fessionals. Schools and health services must provide ac-cess ("inclusion") to deaf people.[363]

Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development,mostly similar to 16th-century Central and Southern di-alects of European Portuguese[364] (despite a very sub-stantial number of Portuguese colonial settlers, and morerecent immigrants, coming from Northern regions, andin minor degree Portuguese Macaronesia), with a few in-fluences from the Amerindian and African languages, es-pecially West African and Bantu restricted to the vocab-ulary only.[365] As a result, the language is somewhat dif-ferent, mostly in phonology, from the language of Por-

20 8 CULTURE

tugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries (the di-alects of the other countries, partly because of the morerecent end of Portuguese colonialism in these regions,have a closer connexion to contemporary European Por-tuguese). These differences are comparable to those be-tween American and British English.[365]

Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in theAmericas, making the language an important part ofBrazilian national identity and giving it a national culturedistinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.[366]

Pomerode, Santa Catarina, is one of the municipalities witha cooficial language. In this region, Hunsrückisch andPomeranian, German dialects, are two of the minor languages.

In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Coun-tries (CPLP), which included representatives from allcountries with Portuguese as the official language,reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese or-thography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazilon one side and the remaining lusophone countries on theother. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed intolaw by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6-year adaptation period, during which both orthographieswill co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free toestablish their own transition timetables.[367]

Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation.One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages arespoken in remote areas and a significant number ofother languages are spoken by immigrants and theirdescendants.[365] In the municipality of São Gabriel daCachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered SouthAmerican creole language – or an 'anti-creole', accord-ing to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilianlanguages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that,together with its southern relative língua geral paulista,once was a major lingua franca in Brazil, being replacedby Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led bymajor political changes), Baniwa and Tucano languageshad been granted co-official status with Portuguese.[368]

There are significant communities of German (mostly theBrazilian Hunsrückisch, a HighGerman language dialect)and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) originsin the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ances-

tors’ native languages were carried along to Brazil, andwhich, still alive there, are influenced by the Portugueselanguage.[369][370] Talian is officially a historic patrimonyof Rio Grande do Sul,[371] and two German dialects pos-sess co-official status in a few municipalities.[372]

Learning at least one second language (generally Englishor Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of themandatory education system (primary and secondary ed-ucation, there called ensino fundamental and ensino mé-dio respectively). Brazil is the first country in SouthAmerica to offer Esperanto to secondary students.[373]

8 Culture

Interior of the São Francisco Church and Convent in Salvador,Bahia, one of the richest expressions of Brazilian baroque.

Main article: Culture of Brazil

The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portugueseculture, because of its strong colonial ties with thePortuguese empire.[374] Among other influences, the Por-tuguese introduced the Portuguese language, RomanCatholicism and colonial architectural styles. The cul-ture was, however, also strongly influenced by African,indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures andtraditions.[375]

Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by thecontributions of Italian, German and other European aswell Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrivedin large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil.[376]The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil’s languageand cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cui-sine, music, dance and religion.[377]

Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century intodifferent styles that range from Baroque (the domi-nant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)[378][379]to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism,Surrealism and Abstractionism. Brazilian cinema datesback to the birth of the medium in the late 19th centuryand has gained a new level of international acclaim sincethe 1960s.[380]

8.2 Literature 21

8.1 Music

Main article: Music of BrazilThe music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion

Men playing berimbau and pandeiro in a capoeira circle.

of European and African elements.[381] Until the nine-teenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of theinfluences that built Brazilian music, although many ofthese elements were not of Portuguese origin, but gener-ally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Gar-cia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Vienneseclassicism.[382] The major contribution of the African el-ement was the rhythmic diversity and some dances andinstruments that had a bigger role in the development ofpopular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twen-tieth century.[381]

Popular music since the late eighteenth century beganto show signs of forming a characteristically Braziliansound, with samba considered the most typical and on theUNESCO cultural heritage list.[383] Maracatu and Afoxêare two Afro-Brazilian music traditions that have beenpopularized by their appearance in the annual BrazilianCarnivals.[384] The sport of capoeira is usually playedwith its own music referred to as capoeira music, which isusually considered to be a call-and-response type of folkmusic.[385]

Choro is a very popular music instrumental style. Its ori-gins are in 19th-century Rio de Janeiro. In spite of thename, the style often has a fast and happy rhythm, char-acterized by virtuosity, improvisation, subtle modulationsand full of syncopation and counterpoint.[386] Bossa novais also a well-known style of Brazilian music developedand popularized in the 1950s and 1960s.[387] The phrase“bossa nova” means literally “new trend”.[388] A lyricalfusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large fol-lowing starting in the 1960s.[389]

The Rio Carnival, a type of samba parade.

8.2 Literature

Machado de Assis, poet and novelist, founder of the BrazilianAcademy of Letters.

Main article: Brazilian literature

Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to thewritings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, suchas Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna,flora and commentary about the indigenous populationthat fascinated European readers.[390]

Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism —novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de

22 8 CULTURE

Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar,in his long career, also treated indigenous people asheroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema andUbirajara.[391] Machado de Assis, one of his contempo-raries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gaininternational prestige from critics worldwide.[392][393][394]

The Brazilian Modernism, evidenced by the Week ofModern Art in 1922, was concerned with a nation-alist avant-garde literature,[395] while Post-Modernismbrought a generation of distinct poets like João Cabralde Melo Neto, Carlos Drummond de Andrade, Viniciusde Moraes, Cora Coralina, Graciliano Ramos, CecíliaMeireles, and internationally known writers dealing withuniversal and regional subjects like Jorge Amado, JoãoGuimarães Rosa, Clarice Lispector and Manuel Ban-deira.[396][397][398]

8.3 Cuisine

Main article: Brazilian cuisineSee also: List of Brazilian dishes

Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting thecountry’s varying mix of indigenous and immigrant pop-ulations. This has created a national cuisine marked bythe preservation of regional differences.[399] Examplesare Feijoada, considered the country’s national dish;[400]and regional foods such as vatapá, moqueca, polenta andacarajé.[401]

Brigadeiro is a typical sweet of Brazilian cuisine.

The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil’s na-tive liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is themain ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.[402]

An average meal consists mostly of rice and beans withbeef and salad.[403] Often, it’s mixed with cassava flour(farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, friedmeat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch andserved in most typical restaurants.[404] Popular snacksare pastel (a pastry); coxinha (chicken croquete); pãode queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca);

pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (Lebanese pas-try); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry)and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heartof palm.Brazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros (choco-late fudge balls), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (co-conut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese witha guava jam known as goiabada). Peanuts are used tomake paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local com-mon fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa,cashew, guava, orange, passionfruit, pineapple, and hogplum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates,popsicles and ice cream.[405]

8.4 Cinema

Main article: Cinema of BrazilThe Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th cen-

Gramado Film Festival

tury, during the early days of the Belle Époque. Whilethere were national film productions during the early 20thcentury, American films such as Rio the Magnificent weremade in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city.[406]The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), thelatter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through theprolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at releaseand failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowa-days and placed among the finest Brazilian films of alltime.[407] The 1941 unfinished film It’s All True was di-vided in four segments, two of which were filmed inBrazil and directed byOrsonWelles; it was originally pro-duced as part of the United States’ Good Neighbor Policyduring Getúlio Vargas’ Estado Novo government.During the 1960s the Cinema Novo movement roseto prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha,Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni andArnaldo Jabor. Rocha’s films Deus e o Diabo na Terra doSol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered tobe some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilianfilm history.[408]

During the 1990s Brazil saw a surge of critical and com-mercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (1995), O

8.6 National holidays 23

Que É Isso, Companheiro? (1997) and Central do Brasil(1998), all of which were nominated for the AcademyAward for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter re-ceiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Mon-tenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directedby Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scor-ing 90% on Rotten Tomatoes,[409] being placed in RogerEbert's Best Films of the Decade list[410] and receivingfour Academy Award nominations in 2004, includingBest Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include theSão Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivalsand the Gramado Festival.

8.5 Sports

Stamp for the victory of the Brazilian team at the 1970 FIFAWorld Cup

Main article: Sport in Brazil

The most popular sport in Brazil is football.[411] TheBrazilian men’s national team is ranked among the best inthe world according to the FIFAWorld Rankings, and haswon the World Cup tournament a record five times.[412]

Volleyball, basketball, auto racing, and martial arts alsoattract large audiences. The Brazil men’s national vol-leyball team, for example, currently holds the titles ofthe World League, World Grand Champions Cup, WorldChampionship and the World Cup.Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beachfootball,[413] futsal (indoor football)[414] and footvolleyemerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martialarts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,[415] Vale tudo,[416]and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[417]

In auto racing, three Brazilian drivers have wonthe Formula One world championship eighttimes.[418][419][420]

Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sport-ing events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup[421] and re-cently has hosted the 2014 FIFAWorld Cup.[422] The SãoPaulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the an-nual Grand Prix of Brazil.[423]

Senna, one of the biggest names in F1's history.

São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan AmericanGames in 2007.[424] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeirowas selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016Paralympic Games, making it the first South Americancity to host the games[425] and second in Latin Americaafter Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted theFIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won oneof its two world championship titles.[426]

8.6 National holidays

9 See also• Index of Brazil-related articles

• List of Brazilians

• Outline of Brazil

10 References[1] Exército Brasileiro. “Hino à Bandeira Nacional” (in Por-

tuguese). Retrieved January 29, 2014..

[2] “Demographics”. Brazilian Government. Archived fromthe original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 8 October2011.

[3] Libras, Brazilian Portuguese sign language, is officiallyrecognized as a legal means of communication in “Lei10.436”. Brazilian Government. Retrieved 23 July 2015.

[4] “Caracteristicas da População e dos Domicílios do CensoDemográfico 2010 — Cor ou raça” (PDF). Retrieved 7April 2012.

[5] “Brazil”. IBGE population estimates.

[6] “Brazil”. International Monetary Fund (IMF). Retrieved29 October 2014.

[7] IMF,April 2015

24 10 REFERENCES

[8] IMF, October 2015

[9] Country Comparison to the World: Gini Index – BrazilThe World Factbook. Retrieved on 3 April 2012.

[10] “2015 Human Development Report Summary” (PDF).United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Re-trieved 14 December 2015.

[11] The European Portuguese pronunciation is IPA: [bɾɐˈziɫ]

[12] José María Bello (1966). A History of Modern Brazil:1889–1964. Stanford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-8047-0238-6.

[13] S. George Philander (2012). Encyclopedia of GlobalWarming and Climate Change, Second Edition. PrincetonUniversity. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-4129-9261-9.

[14] John J. Crocitti; Monique Vallance (2011). Brazil Today:An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic. South DakotaState University. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-313-34673-6.

[15] “Geography of Brazil”. The World Factbook. Central In-telligence Agency. 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2008.

[16] “BRAZIL – Land”.

[17] “Brazilian Federal Constitution” (in Portuguese). Presi-dency of the Republic. 1988. Retrieved 3 June 2008.“Brazilian Federal Constitution”. v-brazil.com. 2007.Retrieved 3 June 2008. Unofficial translate

[18] “CIA – The World Factbook – Country Comparisons –GDP (purchasing power parity)". Cia.gov. Retrieved 25January 2011.

[19] Clendenning, Alan (17 April 2008). “Booming Brazilcould be world power soon”. USA Today – The Asso-ciated Press. p. 2. Retrieved 12 December 2008.

[20] Fernando J. Cardim de Carvalho (January 2013).“Relative insulation”. D+C Development and Coopera-tion/ dandc.eu.

[21] Clare Ribando Seelke (2010). Brazil-U. S. Relations.Congressional Research Service. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4379-2786-3.

[22] Jorge Dominguez; Byung Kook Kim (2013). BetweenCompliance and Conflict: East Asia Latin America andthe New Pax Americana. Center for International Affairs,Harvard University. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-1-136-76983-2.

[23] Jeff Neilson, Bill Pritchard (26 July 2011). Value ChainStruggles. John Wiley & Sons. p. 102.

[24] Boris Fausto (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cam-bridge University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-521-56526-4.

[25] Jon S. Vincent. Ph.D. (2003). Culture and Customs ofBrazil. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-313-30495-8.

[26] Richard P. Tucker (2007). Insatiable Appetite: The Eco-logical Degradation of the Tropical World. University ofMichigan. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-7425-5365-1.

[27] Wayne E. Lee (2011). Empires and Indigenes: Intercul-tural Alliance, Imperial Expansion, and Warfare in theEarly Modern World. NYU Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-8147-6527-2.

[28] Bonnier Corporation (1880). Popular Science. BonnierCorporation. p. 493. ISSN 0161-7370.

[29] Jean de Léry (1990). History of a Voyage to the Land ofBrazil, Otherwise Called America. University of CaliforniaPress. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-520-91380-6.

[30] Jayme A. Sokolow. Ph.D. (2003). The Great Encounter:Native Peoples and European Settlers in the Americas,1492–1800. M.E. Sharpe. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-7656-0982-3.

[31] Maria Herrera-Sobek (2012). Celebrating Latino Folk-lore. ABC-CLIO. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-313-34340-7.

[32] About.com, http://gobrazil.about.com/od/ecotourismadventure/ss/Peter-Lund-Museum.htm

[33] Robert M. Levine; John J. Crocitti (1999). The BrazilReader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press.pp. 11–. ISBN 978-0-8223-2290-0. Retrieved 12 De-cember 2012.

[34] Science Magazine, 13 December 1991 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/254/5038/1621.abstract

[35] Levine, Robert M. “The History of Brazil” PalgraveMacmillan, 2003 ISBN 1403962553 page 32

[36] Ibidem, Levine 2003. Page 31

[37] Fausto, Carlos “Os Índios antes do Brasil” (“The Indiansbefore Brazil”) (Portuguese) Jorge Zahar Ed. 2000 ISBN857110543X pages 45–46, 55 (last paragraph)

[38] Gomes, Mercio P. “The Indians and Brazil” UniversityPress of Florida 2000 ISBN 0813017203 pp. 28–29

[39] Ibidem Fausto 2000, pp 78 to 80

[40] Ibidem Fausto 2000

[41] Ibidem Fausto 2000, page 50

[42] Boxer, p. 98.

[43] Boxer, p. 100.

[44] Boxer, pp. 100–101.

[45] Skidmore, p. 27.

[46] Boxer, p. 101.

[47] Meuwese, Mark “Brothers in Arms, Partners in Trade:Dutch-Indigenous Alliances in the Atlantic World, 1595–1674” Koninklijke Brill NV 2012 ISBN 9789004210837Chapter III

[48] Metcalf, Alida C. “Go-betweens And the Colonization ofBrazil: 1500–1600” University of Texas Press 2005, page70, 79 and 202 View on Google Books

[49] Ibidem Crocitti & Vallance 2012

25

[50] Minahan, James B. “Ethnic Groups of the Americas”ABC-CLIO 2013 ISBN 9781610691635 Page 300, 1stcolumn View on Google Books

[51] Skidmore, p. 36.

[52] Richard Middleton and Anne Lombard “Colonial Amer-ica: A History to 1763” Wiley-Blackwell Publishing 1stedition 1992 ISBN 978-1-4443-9628-7 Chapter 2, Sec-tion 4 (final, last page and half of previous one) View onGoogle Books

[53] Boxer, p. 110

[54] Skidmore, p. 34.

[55] Boxer, p. 102.

[56] Skidmore, pp. 32–33.

[57] Boxer, p. 164.

[58] Boxer, pp. 168, 170.

[59] Boxer, p. 169.

[60] Kohn, George C. “Dictionary of Wars” Facts on File, Inc.1st edition 1986 page 174 View on Google Books

[61] “The New Cambridge Modern History, Volume 3” Cam-bridge University Printing house (1st edition 1957), Stan-dard Book Number 521045452, page 498 View onGoogle Books

[62] Corrado, Jacopo “The Creole Elite and the Rise ofAngolan Protonationalism” Cambria Press 2008 ISBN9781604975291 Pages 95 (Brazil) and 145, note 5 Viewon Google Books

[63] Bethell, Leslie “Colonial Brazil” Cambridge UniversityPress 1987 pages 19, 74, 86, 169–70

[64] Schwartz, Stuart B. “Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels” Boardof Trustees of the University of Illinois 1992 ISBN0252065492 Chapter 4 View on Google Books

[65] MacLachlan, Colin M. “A History of Modern Brazil: ThePast Against the Future"; Scholarly Resources Inc. 2003page 3 View on Google Books

[66] Boxer, p. 213

[67] Marta Barcellos & Simone Azevedo; Histórias do Mer-cado de Capitais no Brasil (“Financial Markets’ Historiesin Brazil”) (Portuguese) Campus Elsevier 2011 ISBN 85-352-3994-4 Introduction (by Ney Carvalho), Intro. pagexiv

[68] Bueno, p. 145.

[69] Jeffrey C.Mosher (2008). Political Struggle, Ideology, andState Building: Pernambuco and the Construction of Brazil,1817–1850. U of Nebraska Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8032-3247-1.

[70] Jeremy Adelman (2006). Sovereignty and Revolution inthe Iberian Atlantic. Princeton University Press. pp. 334–. ISBN 978-0-691-12664-7.

[71] Lustosa, pp. 109–110

[72] Lustosa, pp. 117–119

[73] Lustosa, pp. 150–153

[74] Vianna, p. 418

[75] Diégues 2004, pp. 168, 164, 178

[76] Diégues 2004, pp. 179–180

[77] Lustosa, p. 208

[78] Ibidem Fausto 1999, pages 82–83

[79] Lyra (v.1), p. 17

[80] Carvalho 2007, p. 21

[81] Ibidem Fausto 1999, Chapter 2, 2.1 to 2.3

[82] Ibidem Fausto 1999

[83] Bethell, Leslie “The Abolition of the Brazilian SlaveTrade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade” CambridgeUniversity Press 1970, “Cambridge Latin American Stu-dides”, Chapters 9 to 12. View on Google Books

[84] Scott, Rebecca and others, The Abolition of Slavery andthe Aftermath of Emancipation in Brazil, Duke UniversityPress 1988 ISBN 0822308886 Seymour Drescher, Chap.2: “Brazilian Abolition in Comparative Perspective”

[85] Levine, Robert M. “The history of Brazil” GreenwoodPublishing Group, Inc. 1999, page 62, last paragraphView on Google Books

[86] Lyra (v.1), pp. 164, 225, 272

[87] Ibidem Fausto 1999, Chapter 2, page 83, and 2.6 “TheParaguayan War”

[88] Smallman; Shall C. Fear anMemory in the Brazilian Armyand Society, University of North Carolina Press 2002ISBN 0-8078-5359-3 Chapter 1, “The Overthrow of theEmpire,” pp. 16–18

[89] Ibidem Smallman 2002, end of Chapter 1, from page 18“Military rule”

[90] Smallman 2002, pages 21 to 26

[91] Triner, Gail D. “Banking and Economic Development:Brazil, 1889–1930” Palgrave™ 2000, pages 69 to 74ISBN 0-312-23399-X

[92] Needell, Jeffrey D. “A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Cul-ture and Society in Turn-of-the-Century Rio de Janeiro”Cambridge University Press 2010, pages 10 and 12

[93] Levine; Robert M. &Crocitti; John J. “The Brazil Reader:History, Culture, Politics” DukeUniversity Press 1999, IV– The Vargas Era

[94] Keen, Benjamin / Haynes, Kate “A History of LatinAmerica; Volume 2” Waldsworth Cengage Learning2004, pages 356–57

[95] McCann; Frank D. “Soldiers of the Patria: A Historyof the Brazilian Army, 1889–1937” Stanford UniversityPress 2004, Page 303 2nd paragraph ISBN 0-8047-3222-1

26 10 REFERENCES

[96] Ibidem Williams 2001

[97] E. Bradford Burns; “A History of Brazil” Columbia Uni-versity Press 1993 Page 352 ISBN 978-0-231-07955-6

[98] Dulles, JohnW.F. “Anarchists and Communists in Brazil,1900–1935” University of Texas Press 2012 ISBN 0-292-74076-X

[99] Frank M. Colby, Allen L. Churchill, Herbert T. Wade &Frank H. Vizetelly; “The New international year book”Dodd, Mead & Co. 1989, p. 102 “The Fascist Revolt”

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11 Bibliography• Azevedo, Aroldo. OBrasil e suas regiões. São Paulo:Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971. (Portuguese)

• Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II andthe Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stan-ford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8047-3510-7

• Boxer, Charles R.. O império marítimo português1415–1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras,2002. ISBN 85-359-0292-9 (Portuguese)

• Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. São Paulo:Ática, 2003. (Portuguese) ISBN 85-08-08213-4

• Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira.Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002. (Portuguese)

• Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo:Companhia das Letras, 2007. (Portuguese)

• Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4thed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996. (Portuguese)

• Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio deJaneiro: Objetiva, 2004. (Portuguese)

• Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Ca-marão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Bri-tannica do Brasil, 1987. (Portuguese)

• Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. Brasil e Ar-gentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850–2002), 2nd ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. ISBN85-7326-308-3 (Portuguese)

• Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo:Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 85-359-0277-5(Portuguese)

• Janotti, Aldo. OMarquês de Paraná: inícios de umacarreira política num momento crítico da históriada nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990.(Portuguese)

• Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v.1. Belo Hori-zonte: Itatiaia, 1977. (Portuguese)

• Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v.3. Belo Horizonte:Itatiaia, 1977. (Portuguese)

• Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhumcaráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006.ISBN 85-359-0807-2 (Portuguese)

• Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografiageral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981.(Portuguese)

• Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Re-publics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942.

• Peres, Damião (1949) O Descobrimento do Brasilpor Pedro Álvares Cabral: antecedentes e inten-cionalidade Porto: Portucalense. (Portuguese)

• Scheina, Robert L. Latin America: A Naval History,1810–1987. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press,1987. ISBN 0-87021-295-8.

• Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. As barbas do Imperador:D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos. 2nd ed. SãoPaulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998. ISBN 85-7164-837-9. (Portuguese)

• Skidmore, Thomas E. Uma História do Brasil. 4thed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. (Portuguese)ISBN 85-219-0313-8

35

• Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: ohomem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: Civ-ilização Brasileira, 2008. (Portuguese) ISBN 978-85-200-0864-5.

• Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial.Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. ISBN 85-7302-441-0 (Portuguese)

• Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço– Geografia do Brasil. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática,1988. (Portuguese)

• Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial,monarquia e república, 15th ed. São Paulo: Melho-ramentos, 1994. (Portuguese)

12 Further reading

• Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Op-position in Military Brazil. Austin, TX: Universityof Texas Press.

• Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability:The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso. World De-velopment (pp. 1805–1819).

• “Background Note: Brazil”. US Department ofState. Retrieved 16 June 2011.

• Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way ofLife. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc.

• Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge:CUP.

• Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas inBrazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of CaliforniaPress.

• Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil.Cambridge: CUP.

• Furtado, Celso. The Economic Growth of Brazil: ASurvey from Colonial to Modern Times. Berkeley,CA: University of California Press.

• Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Mu-nicipality and Representative Government in Brazil.Cambridge: CUP.

• Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul.Chichester: Summersdale.

• Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracyin Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change.Macmillan.

• Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Back-ground of Modern Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: Uni-versity of California Press.

• Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Poli-tics in a New Economic Powerhouse. Boulder West-view.

• Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black Into White:Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. Oxford:Oxford University Press.

• Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil.New York, New York: Columbia University Press.

• TheWorld Almanac and Book of Facts: Brazil. NewYork, NY: World Almanac Books. 2006.

13 External links• Official Tourist Guide of Brazil

• Brazilian Federal Government

• Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics

• Brazil at UCB Libraries GovPubs

• Brazil at DMOZ

• Country Profile from the U.S. Library of Congress(1997)

• Video report on Brazil in 1961

• Brazil from the BBC News

• Key Development Forecasts for Brazil fromInternational Futures

• Democracy in Brazil from the Dean Peter KroghForeign Affairs Digital Archives

• Works related to CIAWorld Fact Book, 2004/Brazilat Wikisource

• Geographic data related to Brazil at OpenStreetMap

36 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text• Brazil Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil?oldid=696507764 Contributors: Joao, Peter Winnberg, Brion VIBBER, Bryan Derk-

sen, Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, -- April, Andre Engels, LA2, Scipius, Youssefsan, Danny, Jcra, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, Zoe,Graham, Rsabbatini, Olivier, Leandrod, Edward, Infrogmation, DopefishJustin, Pgunn, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Hoshie, Mic, Ixfd64, 172,Pedreco, Delirium, Arpingstone, Tregoweth, CesarB, Egil, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Docu, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, An-gela, Jebba, Darkwind, Ugen64, Glenn, Vzbs34, Nikai, Cadr, Jiang, Tobias Conradi, Mxn, Raven in Orbit, Dwo, Mulad, Emperorbma,RodC, Timwi, RickK, Colipon, Fuzheado, Rednblu, Marco Neves, WhisperToMe, Wik, Prumpf, AlexBrainer, Tpbradbury, MaximusRex, Grendelkhan, Taxman, VeryVerily, Ed g2s, Jmartinezot, Topbanana, Bjarki S, Warofdreams, Bloodshedder, Renato Caniatti~enwiki,Italo Svevo, Wetman, SuPERLman, Secretlondon, Hajor, JorgeGG, PuzzletChung, Fito, Robbot, Vardion, Astronautics~enwiki, Mori-ori, Fredrik, Korath, RedWolf, Moncrief, Nurg, Romanm, Merovingian, PedroPVZ, (:Julien:), Yacht, ThaGrind, Bkell, Doidimais Brasil,Hadal, JesseW, JackofOz, Refdoc, Mushroom, Vikingstad, Anthony, JerryFriedman, Kairos, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Carnildo, AlanLiefting, Svato, Xyzzyva, Alexwcovington, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Lunkwill, MaGioZal, Phil5329, Dsloan, P3navy04, Sj, Sentinel,NoahLevitt, Nichalp, Netoholic, Meursault2004, MSGJ, Everyking, Curps, Alison, David Johnson, Varlaam, Cantus, Rick Block, Broux,FatTux, DO'Neil, Guanaco, Jorge Stolfi, Mboverload, Siroxo, Allstar86, Redux, Gzornenplatz, VampWillow, Avala, SWAdair, Bobblewik,Deus Ex, Jurema Oliveira, Golbez, Mateuszica, Wmahan, Mdob, Pinnecco, Simulcra, Utcursch, 159753, Geni, Knutux, Abu badali, Slowk-ing Man, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Ran, Antandrus, Eroica, R-Joe, Domino theory, Gunnar Larsson, PDH, Jossi, DNewhall, Rdsmith4, Julinho,JimWae, Secfan, Al-Andalus, Vbs, Bumm13, Kurogawa, Ultranol, Two Bananas, Sam Hocevar, Beelzebubs, Bepp, Aaron Einstein, Raylu,Catstamford, Neutrality, Meesham, Dcandeto, Fermion, Jh51681, Danga, Karl Dickman, Ozzyprv, Cvalente, Adashiel, Grunt, Eisnel,Gazpacho, Amgreg, Mike Rosoft, D6, Freakofnurture, AliveFreeHappy, Zarxos, CALR, DanielCD, EugeneZelenko, MysteryDog, Dis-cospinster, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Caesar, Qutezuce, FiP, MCBastos, Vsmith, Mecanismo, Wk muriithi, HeikoEvermann,Gimferrer, Deborahhosen, Odin’s Eye, Xezbeth, Mjpieters, Quiensabe, Sn0wflake, SpookyMulder, SamEV, Bender235, Dewet, ESkog,JJJJust, STGM, Kelvinc, Neko-chan, Fenice, Nabla, Brian0918, Taksim25, CanisRufus, Yasis, Omnibus, Diego UFCG~enwiki, Zscout370,El C, Aesopian, Carlon, Lankiveil, Bletch, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Marx Gomes, Claviola, Kross, Barfooz, Aude, Shanes, Joaopais, SietseSnel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown, Dtrielli, Bendono, Aaronbrick, Bill Thayer, Rockslave, Grick, Bobo192, Afc, Dralwik, Ypacaraí,Infocidal, Cesar Moura, Chan Han Xiang, Ludger1961, Jasonjmartin, Cmdrjameson, Angie Y., Adrian~enwiki, Richi, Giraffedata, Home-rjay, Jerryseinfeld, Man vyi, Nk, TheProject, PeterisP, Pschemp, RonaldoBr, Haham hanuka, Ral315, Polylerus, Pharos, Mareino, San-martin, Poli, Jumbuck, ApS Camper, OneGuy, Alansohn, Gary, Etxrge, Hektor, PMLF, ThePedanticPrick, Buaidh, Mr Adequate, Improv,Andrewpmk, Paleorthid, Ricky81682, TintininLisbon, Leonardo Alves, Riana, Sade, Calton, MarkGallagher, Hoary, Sligocki, ChiPHeaD,Richarddd, Harburg, InShaneee, Cdc, Malo, Avenue, Katefan0, Bart133, Sir Joseph, Marianocecowski, Ronark, Benson85, SidP, Amarao,Pablosaraiva, Indech, Gdavidp, AfC, KingTT, Fourthords, Dalillama, Cyberanto, Suruena, Garzo, Leoadec, Evil Monkey, Tony Sidaway,Jonildosb, Carioca, Birdmessenger, Sciurinæ, Uli82, RicoCorinth, Kusma, Versageek, Rfredian, MIT Trekkie, Ringbang, Axeman89,Tobyc75, Nightstallion, Blaxthos, HenryLi, Bookandcoffee, Kardrak, Ceyockey, Oleg Alexandrov, Mahanga, DanielVonEhren, Lssilva,Cloretti, Stemonitis, Weyes, Angr, Velho, Jeffrey O. 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38 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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14.2 Images 39

KPWD, Dataexpertgenius, Thiago Uzumaki, BD2412bot, Volkstod, Lux-hibou, The Quixotic Potato, Ameteurdemographer, Orelbon,Paanur, GATO12, Nezi1111, Retention7 and Anonymous: 2620

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wikipedia/commons/3/30/0741_NOV_B_05_Esplanada_dos_Ministerios_Brasilia_DF_03_09_1959.jpg License: CC BY 3.0Contributors: Arquivo Público do Distrito Federal Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

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• File:ARCHELLA_E_THERY_Img_05.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/ARCHELLA_E_THERY_Img_05.png License: Attribution Contributors: Revista disponível na web; http://confins.revues.org/document3483.html Originalartist: ARCHELLA & THÉRY, 2008

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utors: Flickr Original artist: Copa Gov• File:Bonito_scan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Bonito_scan.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:

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cense: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Fotos produzidas pelo Senado Original artist: Senado Federal

40 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Chapada_Diamantina_Panorama_(cropped).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Chapada_Diamantina_Panorama_%28cropped%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Cleide Isabel

• File:Coat_of_arms_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Coat_of_arms_of_Brazil.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Portal of the Brazilian Government (accessed in November 11th, 2010) Original artist: BrazilianGovernment

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• File:Estação_de_tratamento_de_água_de_Coronel_Fabriciano_MG.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Esta%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_tratamento_de_%C3%A1gua_de_Coronel_Fabriciano_MG.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: HVL

• File:Fernando_de_Noronha_11.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Fernando_de_Noronha_11.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fabricio Ferreira Silva

• File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Here, based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: Governmentof Argentina

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14.2 Images 41

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• File:Flag_of_Peru.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Flag_of_Peru.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: Peru Original artist: David Benbennick

• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

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• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and colorguidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

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42 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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14.2 Images 43

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• File:Selo_da_Copa_de_1970_3_cruzeiros.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Selo_da_Copa_de_1970_3_cruzeiros.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Selo Postal Original artist: Brasil Correio

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• File:US_Navy_100316-N-9116F-001_A_Brazilian_U.N._peacekeeper_walks_with_Haitian_children_during_a_patrol_in_Cite_Soleil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/US_Navy_100316-N-9116F-001_A_Brazilian_U.N._peacekeeper_walks_with_Haitian_children_during_a_patrol_in_Cite_Soleil.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 100316-N-9116F-001 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,filefrom=100316-N-9116F-001#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class David A. Frech

• File:Ulyssesguimaraesconstituicao.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Ulyssesguimaraesconstituicao.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 br Contributors: http://memoria.ebc.com.br/agenciabrasil/galeria/2009-10-05/5-de-outubro-de-2009, http://memoria.ebc.com.br/agenciabrasil/sites/_agenciabrasil/files/gallery_assist/3/gallery_assist637843/constituinte20.jpg Original artist: Ar-quivo ABr

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44 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0