Chapter 1:

Basic Concepts and Methods

In This Chapter

Introduction to Human Development

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development

Research Methods and Designs

An Introduction to Human Development

Human Development: Scientific study of age-related changes in:

• Behavior

• Thinking

• Emotion

• Personality

An entire lifespan!

Philosophical RootsOriginal Sin

Augustine of Hippo Humans are born selfish and must seek

spiritual rebirth.

Developmental Outcomes Individuals struggle to overcome immoral

actions.

Philosophical and Scientific Roots Innate Goodness

Jean-Jacques Rousseau• Emphasis on children and basic

goodness of human nature• Nurturance and protection needed

Developmental Outcomes• Children’s environment interferes or

encourages

Philosophical and Scientific Roots The Blank Slate

John Locke• Empiricism• Children as passive recipients of

environmental experiences

Developmental Outcomes

• Individual differences due to experience

Early Scientific TheoriesCharles Darwin

First organized study of human development

Evolution Interplay of genetics and environmental

adaptation

Baby biographies Detailed records of his own children’s

early years

Early Scientific Theories

First scientific study of child development

G. Stanley Hall Psychologist Emphasis on norms or average ages

at which developmental milestones occur

Coined “storm and stress” (adolescence)

The Lifespan PerspectiveOverview

Important changes occur in each period of development.

Children and adults experience major life passages.

Increased longevity

Early Scientific Theories

Systematic description of children across domains, particularly in the first five years of life

Arnold Gesell Maturation occurs “naturally” from

genetically programmed sequence. Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors

The Lifespan PerspectivePaul Baltes

• Multi-contextual nature of development• Plasticity and adaptability at all ages• Interdisciplinary perspective and research• With age, strategies used to maximize gain

and compensate for losses

Domains and Periods of Development

Three broad domain categories:

Periods of Development

Stop and Think!

What marks the end of each of these periods of development?

How do you know?

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development

Nature versus Nurture

Nature Inborn propensities; biological influences Inborn biases

Nurture Learning from environmental experiences Internal models of experience

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Continuity = Quantitative change in amount or degree

Discontinuity = Qualitative, step-like change

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each kind of

change?

Another Way to Look at It!

If development consists only of additions, the concept of stages is not needed.

If development involves reorganization or emergence strategies, quality, or skills, than stages are useful.

Three Kinds of ChangeQualitative Changes in Kind or Type

Normative age-graded universal changes Social clock or age norms

Normative history-graded changes Cohort or generational effects

Non-normative changes Unique, unshared changes or individual

differences

Contexts of DevelopmentVulnerability and Resilience

Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with a child’s environment.

Environments cause differential effects.

Resilient children gain support from optimal environments.

Contexts of DevelopmentGender

Gender matters. Influences individual development Interaction between characteristics and

environment influences and is influenced by gender.

Contexts of DevelopmentOrigins of Delinquency

Patterson et al., 2002

Contexts of Development

Individual differences related to timing Critical period Sensitive period On-time events Off-time events Atypical development “Double Whammy”

Now that you have heard several issues, which do you think are more important in understanding development—nature issues or nurture issues? Why?

What part of the life span interests you the most? What issues would you like to learn about the most?

Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder

Research Methods and Designs

Are theories and hypotheses the same?

Theories

Predictions or hypotheses

The Goals of Developmental Science

Describe development

Explain development

Predict developmental event

Influence some developmental outcome

Descriptive Methods

Variables: characteristics that vary across people

Relationship: when two or more variables vary together

Can you think of two variables we could study to learn about our class?

Descriptive Methods Naturalistic Observations

Descriptive methods: ways to identify relationship

• People observed in their normal environments

• Potential observer biases• Limited generalizability• Time consuming

Descriptive Methods Case Studies and Laboratory

ObservationsCase Studies

In-depth examination of a single individual

Laboratory Observations Controlled setting for study

Descriptive Methods Surveys, Interviews and Questionnaires

Two broad survey areas: Questionnaires Interviews

Methods Questions asked; answers recorded Samples used

Correlations

Correlations Describe the strength of the relationship

between two variables

Positive correlation High scores on one variable usually

accompany high scores on the other.

Negative correlation Scores on two variables move in opposite

directions.

Limitations of Correlations

Correlation is NOT causality.

• Correlations measure the level or degree of covariation between two variables.

• They do not prove causal relationships.

Experimental Designs

Test causal hypotheses.

Randomly assign participants to different treatment and control groups. Experimental (treatment) group Control group

Experimental DesignsVariables

Independent variable or “cause”

Dependent variable or “effect” The dependent variable depends on

the “cause.”

Quasi-experiments Participants not randomly assigned

Experimental DesignsThree General Categories

Let’s take a closer look at each.

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes

Cross-Sectional Designs

People studied from different age groups at same time point

Can indicate possible age differences or age changes

But age-related differences may become confused with cohort or generational effects.

Birth Cohort or Generational Effects

Different generations have unique experiences.

Cohort and generational effects can become entangled.

Can you see any cohort patterns?

Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes

Longitudinal Designs

Same individuals studied over a period of time

Individual consistencies and inconsistencies can be observed.

Net change assessed over time in the same people.

Longitudinal Designs:Some Problems

Practice or testing affect

Study attrition

Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes

Sequential Designs

Combined groups from at least two cohorts followed in a longitudinal study

Comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences

Both aging AND cohort effects are possible.

Figure 1.3 An Example of a Cross-Sequential Design

Cross-Cultural ResearchEthnographies

In-depth descriptions of single culture or context

May compare two or more cultures or subcultures

Can provide both descriptive and interpretive information

Cross-Cultural ResearchBenefits

Cross-cultural Studies• Search for universal and unique

developmental changes

• Demonstrate degree of environmental variation within human development

Research Ethics

Ethics: broad ethical principles for responsible conduct of research and use of any outcomes resulting from research

In Research: Protection of animal rights and human

subjects Universities, government, and organizations

often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).

Research Ethics

Protection from harm

Informed consent

Confidentiality

Knowledge of result

Deception