bisbee deportation
DESCRIPTION
This paper analyzes the Bisbee Deportation using a variety of primary and secondary sources.TRANSCRIPT
Bisbee Deportation: Dynamite, Copper, and Jingoism
Liam Donovan Senior Division Historical Paper 2261 words
1
It was 1917 and WWI was underway. The United States was finally committed to the war,
consuming over one million metric tons of copper every year (Gunter and Kundig 7), with much of it
going to the war effort (Nicholl). Across the country, every issue was increasingly stripped of
nuance, framed in black and white, patriotic and enemy. In this dichotomy, the IWW, or
International Workers of the World, were firmly lumped on the side of the traitors. Referenced
colloquially as “I Won’t Work” (Brockbank) or, more derisively as “I Will Work for [Kaiser]
Wilhelm”, the IWW was widely seen as more interested in undermining the war effort than
contributing. Indeed, there was plenty of truth to this, as their view of the war as simply an
oppressive capitalist device meant that they attempted to evade the draft (Morse 11) and sold “IWW
bonds” in an attempt to divert funding for the war in the form of Liberty Bonds (Beerman 3).
2
Growth in Copper Production, from Gunder & Kundig
In this context, conflict between the IWW and patriotic citizens seemed inevitable. The spark
occurred in July 1917, when the IWW organized a nationwide strike from Butte to Bisbee in an
attempt to bring down the war machinery and especially to halt the draft (Haywood 1). Initially, they
succeeded, especially in Arizona, reducing copper production by 75% (Tombstone Daily Review).
However, this was met with staunch opposition from locals, leading to one of the largest vigilante
actions of the 20th century: the Bisbee Deportation. Although the deportation is widely viewed today
as an illegal triumph of capital over labor, the true history is much more nuanced, including a
staunchly prolabor sheriff, deception by the mining companies, and fear of IWW terrorism.
The history of labor in Bisbee started long before the IWW arrived in town in 1917. As
wartime demand for miners shifted from silver and gold to the copper mines of Bisbee to produce
3
bullets, WFM (Western Federation of Miners) members from Colorado migrated to Bisbee, taking
their union with them (Brockbank). The WFM successfully organized and held a strike as early as
1907 (Nicholl), though they received few of their demands. Nonetheless, conditions were good and
wages high in the mines (Park 120), and the WFM successfully organized relief efforts for the
families of dead miners, and provided an effective front for bargaining with the company. However,
as demand for miners continued to grow, new cohorts of more radical miners from Montana and
Idaho arrived (Brockbank), providing fertile ground for the IWW to organize. The IWW itself,
however, didn’t significantly establish itself in Bisbee until the war started. As their own papers
(Executive Committee 1) show, wages were already above the union scale, and conditions for miners
were similarly acceptable. As a result, the primary impetus for the IWW to move in was the unique
ability Bisbee afforded for them to disrupt the war effort.
But how receptive was Bisbee to these plans? Prior to the arrival of the IWW, the miners
were split between “cousinjacks”, skilled and highlypaid Cornish and American workers, and
“bohunks” less skilled workers from Eastern Europe who often spoke poor English (Houston). As
the war commenced, the cousinjacks were extremely jingoistic (due to their affiliation with the
Allied Powers), attempting to do everything in their power to produce as much copper as possible.
This sentiment, of course, meshed well with the mine owners, for whom the rise in copper demand
caused by the war meant increased profits. However, for the bohunks, many of whom were from
Axis Powers, the story was more complicated. Even if they were patriotic Americans, they were
regarded with suspicion by most citizens, and comparatively few bought liberty bonds
(Characteristics of Bisbee Deportees 36). Most of those eventually deported were Bohunks or
4
Mexicans, who were not even allowed to work in the higherpaid underground jobs (Dodge),
supposedly for safety reasons relating to their accented English (Houston).
The stable balance between the mine owners and labor, as represented by the WFM, was thus
disrupted when 68 IWW organizers moved in to Bisbee, in an attempt to poach members from the
WFM and especially recruit the foreign immigrants most labor unions excluded (Phillips 13).
“Big” Bill Haywood, the main IWW organizer in Bisbee (Anarchy Archives)
The IWW attempted to project a thuggish reputation to accomplish their goals, even deriding
fellow union leader Samuel Gompers as being too “soft” on the capitalists (“Good for Bisbee” 1), an
approach that inspired fear among lawabiding citizens. When the IWW set its sights on Bisbee in an
attempt to disrupt the nexus of the war effort (Morse 10), they were true to form. Bereft of a real
labor agenda, the as they moved in on WFM membership, fights broke out both above and below
ground (Brockbank), and many citizens felt unsafe as a result (Goldwitzer). Not only that, but they
quickly escalated attacks against the rival WFM, even threatening to firebomb the WFM newspaper
5
(State v Wooton). Of course, the main target of their ire was the mine owners themselves, and the
IWW called a strike on the 26th of June, more interested in bringing the mines to their knees than in
obtaining any reasonable concessions (Morse 11). As part of their efforts to disrupt the mines, they
threatened the families of those miners who continued to work (Goldwitzer), mainly cousinjacks
(Houston). There were even multiple reports of dynamite planted in the mines (Woods), a single
stick of which could halt the copper production for months (Bledsoe 3). With these clear threats to
the safety of the town, the organization later known as the Loyalty League was built, with the
purpose of stopping IWW interference. Interestingly, the WFM viewed the Loyalty League and the
IWW as two sides of the same coin, both paid by the mining companies to disrupt the WFM
organizing efforts (“Letter to The Members of Citizens Protective League and Loyalty League” 4).
The last background factor that allowed the deportation to occur was the patriotic fervor
surrounding World War I. That same month, the Bisbee Evening Ore, which was linked to the WFM
and billed itself as the “People’s Paper” (Bisbee City Directory 21) warned of “Russian and German
agitators” circling the town hoping to find classified information, and warned citizens to “guard their
mouths” (3), for fear of information about this important copper production facility leaking out to the
Central Powers. Closer to home, Arizona was worried about Pancho Villa’s raids into the United
States (“Red Lopez” 5), incursions that took on increasingly sinister implications with the discovery
of the Zimmerman Telegram. Combined with the deepseated mistrust and racism against Mexicans
in Bisbee (O’Neill 7), a message from Germany inciting Mexico to take over Arizona made Bisbee
residents increasingly inclined to see traitors around every corner. When the IWW came to town,
their attempts to agitate for higher pay for Mexicans and their involvement in the Mexican
6
Revolution (O’Neill 5), combined with their street brawls and IWW bonds, painted them as a perfect
scapegoat.
But what were the motivations of Sheriff Wheeler, the man who organized the deputization and
deportation? Far from being a company hack, as one might expect, Wheeler was the epitome of the
cowboy Robin Hood. Like a hero out of a western novel, Wheeler was known for his heroism
against banditry and kindness to his prisoners, paying for their food in jail out of his own salary (“A
Russian Trick”). One famous story has him fatally wounding a bandit in a gun duel, then bidding
onlookers to treat the bandit first because he was “hurt worse”, demonstrating both his keen aim and
soft heart (Medigovich 4). These tendencies made him naturally reluctant to deputize against labor
(Beerman 2), and he refused to take bribes from the companies, who were understandably eager to
see the IWW out of town. Indeed, in an 1907 Bisbee strike called by the WFM, he was the man
responsible for preventing the companies from calling in federal troops to crush the picket lines
(Lindquist 4). What, then, changed his mind and turned him against the IWW? Initially, he claimed
it was the same fear that gripped the town as a whole: that the IWW’s organizing was part of a
larger, Germanbacked conspiracy (Wheeler 1). However, later investigation by the Governor of
Arizona, George Hunt, revealed no evidence of German spies among those deported (Hunt 3), and
Wheeler later claimed to be “unconcerned” about the threat of German spies (Bruère 13). In fact, as
Wheeler revealed in an interview later that year, he was less worried about the the strike than that
Bisbee Mexicans would “take advantage of the disturbed conditions of the strike” to “murder
American women and children” (Bruère 14), the same racist undertones that plagued Bisbee
throughout the war.
7
After weeks of strikes, on July 12th, 1917, Sheriff Wheeler and his 1500 deputies decided to act, on
a secret plan known only to those involved (Lindquist 3): to deport the strikers to the New Mexican
desert. To this end, they rounded up around 800 strikers, all those who would not work (“A Russian
Trick”), and loaded them in boxcars. Although every effort was made to spare the loyal miners,
some innocents were inevitably deported as well. Most egregiously, one man who had taken 30 days
leave to build himself a house was deported for “refusing to work” (Vercellino). Compounding the
problem, many deported spoke little English and so could not explain themselves (Medigovich 6).
The IWW miner, a Mr. Cleary, was also deported. Despite all this, the deportees were treated well
(Hunt 2), and set up in army camps with adequate food, water and shelter. Incredibly for such a large
and violent action, only two men were killed, when a particularly quickwitted miner shot through
the door at the men coming to deport him, killing one before being shot in turn by another deputy
(Nicholl).
Inside Bisbee, the mood was initially jubilant. State senators praised the deportation for turning
Bisbee into an “AllAmerican camp” freed from IWW troublemakers (O’Neill 10), and citizens
zealously defended the deportation as “saving lives and preventing sabotage” (Bledsoe 5). In one
particularly memorable incident, a reporter who asked too many incisive questions was beaten on the
behind by a garden hose until he fled town to Tombstone (Bledsoe 4). The companies, of course,
moved quickly to secure the advances they had made against potential strikers, requiring every
incomer to have a passport and a means to support themselves, and continuing small deportations
into the fall of 1917 to root out the last of the IWW sympathizers (Lindquist 6). However, the strike
8
even yielded tangible benefits for the miners: the companies ended up acquiescing to many IWW
demands, such as wetting drill bits and replacing unsafe carbide lamps, after the deportation to quell
further unrest (Houston). Thus, ironically enough, the initial strategic calculation of the IWW that
Bisbee was capitalism’s soft point during a period of unprecedented copper consumption was
exactly on target.
When the passion of the moment subsided and the rumors of Russian spies quashed (Hunt 2), on the
other hand, the citizens of Bisbee were held in opprobrium by the whole nation. The Bisbee Evening
Ore, a cheerleader for the deportation, published a scathing report by Wilson, the president at the
time. Very selective bolding (of the parts potentially justifying the deportation) did not conceal the
report’s description of the Deportation as a “blot on the state’s image” ("Governor Campbell Flays
IWW” 1). Furthermore, this condemnation had tangible consequences, both for Wheeler and the city
of Bisbee. A letter to the Loyalty League from its delegation to Washington states that their attempt
to convince Wilson to set a minimum price for Bisbee copper (profitable to both company men and
workers) was stymied due to his opposition to Deportation (3). Instead of agreeing, Wilson
condescendingly lectured them on the “need to make sacrifices”, with the implication of atonement
for the extrajudicial action of the Deportation. The consequences visited on Wheeler, who assumed
the whole blame for the action as opposition mounted ("Governor Campbell Flays IWW” 1), though,
were more severe. Internally torn by his actions, he enlisted in the Army to escape the town he rent
apart (Larkin). However, when he came back, he lost his next election due to his support of the
Deportation (Houston), receiving less than onethird of the primary votes (“Hunt Carries County” 1).
In a final disgrace, he was reduced to being a carnival trick shooter, a sad end for this proud Western
9
sheriff (“A Russian Trick”). And beyond the travails of disgraced politicians, many Bisbee homes
were torn apart, with the company refusing to let deported miners back in the town to reunite with
their wives and children (a sad irony, for Wheeler claimed he authorized the deportation for the
protection of women and children). Furthermore, although aid to the families of the deported was
initially generous, it was soon replaced by oneway train tickets and other encouragements to get out
of town (O’Neill 6), excluding a group of families permanently from the beautiful town of Bisbee.
Nonetheless, despite the popular conception of the Deportation as an illegal, cruel, and
blatantly extrajudicial action, it was supported by the majority of the Bisbee citizens, and even the
union newspaper (“Arizona Justified and Willing” 2). In the rounding up of 800 potentially violent
men, only one deportee was killed, a remarkable and humane feat. Furthermore, deportees and their
familieswere well cared for, and considering the speed necessary to act before the IWW blew up the
mines and disrupted the war effort it was perhaps the best available option, and arguably justifiable
in the heat of the moment. It quelled worse violence, but cemented the control of Big Copper over
Bisbee and planted the seeds of dissention that persist to this day.
10
Bisbee Deportation Annotated Bibliography
Liam Donovan
Senior Division Historical Paper
Bibliography Length: 2258 words
11
Primary Sources
"Arizona Justified and Willing; Now Let Washington Do Her Part." The Bisbee Evening Ore 13 July
1917: 2. In contrast with the legacy of the IWW as fighters for labor deported by the
capitalists, this WFM newspaper article is jingoistic and antiIWW, recommending that
the government put them in internment camps.
Bisbee City Directory. 1918. Business Directory. Bisbee.
This source has information on many figures involved in the Bisbee Deportation: the
Bisbee Ore magazine, which according to testimony was threatened by the IWW, was a
labor paper, not affiliated with the mine companies. Also, it provides evidence Mr.
Wootton’s prominent place in the town’s business community (as a hardware store owner,
he was unaffiliated directly with the copper companies), the defendant in the Bisbee
Deportation test case State v Wootton (showing the wide reach of the deputization).
12
Bledsoe, Wilson. Bisbee Deportation. TS 06467, Bisbee Deportation Ephemera. Arizona Historical
Society Archives.
This recollection represents the view of Doctor Bledsoe, who was seen beating up
deportees, regarding the immense threat the IWW “terrorism” posed to the mines.
Beerman, William S. History of The Bisbee Deportations. 1969. TS, Bisbee Deportation Ephemera.
Arizona Historical Society Archives, Tucson. This recollection claims that Wheeler was
duped by the companies into thinking the IWW were traitors.
Brockbank, Walter. Interview by Carl V. Nelson. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee
Mining and Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Primary source interview with a miner working at the Shattuck Mine at the time of the
Bisbee Deportation.
Brooks, Pearl. Interview. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining and Historical
Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Primary source interview with the son of a Phelps Dodge private investigator. Some
statements regarding the deportation contradict other sources.
Bruère, Robert W. Following the Trail of the I.W.W., a Firsthand Investigation into Labor Troubles
in the West, a Trip into the Copper and Lumber Camps of the Inland Empire with the Views of
the Men on the Job. New York: New York Evening Post, 1918. Print.
13
This primary source book is an investigative report on the activities of the IWW written the
year after the deportation. It contains information on the background racism and paranoia that
allowed the deportation to occur.
Carnahan, Charlie. Interview by Art Kent. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining and
Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
An interview with the son of a miner and staunch company man who was deputized
during the deportation.
Characteristics of Bisbee Deportees. Raw data. Bisbee Mining & Historical Museum, Bisbee.
The questions asked of the deportees are revealing; for example, the data records who
bought liberty bonds as an investigation into patriotic sentiments. Out of 887 miners, 281
had bank accounts, 773 were property owners, 196 bought liberty bonds, 355 were
registered for the draft, and 230 were married.
"Compromise with "Rattlesnakes" Impossible." Bisbee Globe 10 July 1917.
Describes the response of the mining company to the strikers, as well as newspaper tone
in the time period.
Dodge, Cleveland. Interview. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining and Historical
Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with the son of a founder of Phelps Dodge; it gives a vivid description of the
trial.
14
"Drivin' Them Out." Bisbee Deportation. Web. 13 Jan. 2015.
Primary source representing a jingoistic, corporate perspective on the IWW.
Deportees. Bisbee: Bisbee Mining and Historical Museum, 2005. PDF.
This is a digitized roster of deportees, by name, marital status, and race, and is so a
primary source despite being an online file. It shows trends in those targeted for
deportations (many immigrants and Germans, in particular).
Douglas, Walter. Interview by Robert Munson. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining
and Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with the president of Phelps Dodge (a mining company) and son of the Copper
Queen mine developer.
Goldweitzer, Ed. Interview by Henry French. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project.
Bisbee Mining and Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. Interview by a very antiIWW
employee of Shattuck Mines.
"Good for Bisbee." Tombstone Daily Prospector. Anonymous. 5 Aug. 1917.
This newspaper article represents another strong antiIWW stance and describes their
huge impact on labor (made it harder for legitimate unions to organize) and the war effort
(by reducing copper production by 75%).
"Guard Your Tongue These Days." Bisbee Evening Ore 13 July 1917: 3.
This article raises the possibility of German and Russian spies in town, and confirms the
war hysteria.
15
"Governor Campbell Flays IWW." Bisbee Evening Ore 20 July 1917: 1.
This article is more consistent with the current legacy of the Deportation than earlier articles in
the newspaper, describing it as a blot on the state's history.
Harris, Floyd. Interview by Beverly Woods. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining
and Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with the son of a deputized citizen. Interestingly, his father was a union
sympathizer and tipped off all his friends, allowing them to escape deportation.
"Hunt Carries County; Senate Race Is Close." Bisbee Daily Review 13 Sept. 1922: 1. ADNP. Web. 2
Feb. 2015.
Provides a primary source to confirm Houston's assertion that Wheeler lost his race for
Sheriff after the deportation.
Hunt, George. Letter to Woodrow Wilson. 3 Sept. 1917. MS. Phoenix, Arizona.
Evidence of the backlash against the deportation by government authorities and citizens.
International Workers of the World. The Deadly Parallel. International Workers of the World, 1917.
This primary source documents the antiwar beliefs of the IWW, who organized the strike
on the production of a strategically important resource during wartime
16
Investigation into the Bisbee Deportation. Lowell Court. 5 Aug. 1917. University of Arizona Web
Exhibits. University of Arizona. Web. 14 Jan. 2015.
Discusses the treatment of workers by the deputized sheriffs.
"IWW Denials." New York TImes [New York] 17 July 1917. . Shows the antiworker tone of
national newspapers at the time, and the fear that the strike Was funded by germany to
harm war production.
IWW On Cars. 1917. Bisbee, AZ. Deportation of Bisbee. Web. 13 Jan. 2015.
This photo shows the way the strikers were maltreated as they were shipped out of Bisbee.
IWW SecretaryTreasurer. Letter to Executive Committee. 16 July 1917. MS. Bisbee Mining &
Historical Museum, Bisbee, Arizona.
This letter both confirms the intentions of the IWW to hold a national strike and confirms
that many typical union demands (such as decent wages) were already met in the Bisbee
Mines.
Lazevich, Lefty. "A People's History of Bisbee." Interview by Susan Willard. A People's History of
Bisbee.
I use this source for some firstperson background on the deportation, and especially the
current attitudes towards the deportation in Bisbee.
Letter to Jack F. Norman. 24 Aug. 1917. MS. Bisbee Mining & Historical Museum, Bisbee,
Arizona. This source shows the nationwide coordination of the IWW strike in Bisbee, and
17
its links to those of other cities in the West, such as Butte, Montana.
The coordination that this letter is evidence of was part of a nationwide attempt by the
IWW to bring down the capitalist system.
Letter to The Members of Citizens Protective League and Loyalty League. Sept. 1917. MS. Arizona
Historical Society Archives, Tucson, Arizona.
This letter describes Wilson’s harsh reaction to the deportation, and his refusal to accede
to Loyalty League demands.
Medigovich, George. Letter to Claire Ellinwood. 2 Apr. 1979. MS. Arizona Historical Society
Archives, Tucson, Arizona.
This letter discusses the role of the Masons in organizing the deportation, and shows the
view of a WFM leader on the Deportation.
Morse, Samuel, comp. The Truth About Bisbee. Ivy Lee Report on the Bisbee Deportation.
Contemporary report (and thus a primary source) requested by Phelps Dodge on the
deportation.
Moyer, Charles. Letter to Tom White. 1917. MS. Bisbee Mining & Historical Museum, Bisbee,
Arizona.
Moyer, a WFM leader, says that the IWW strike is not endorsed by the WFM, and that
workers who continue to work at the “patriotic cause” of copper production would not be
considered scabs.
Pictures of Big Bill Haywood. Anarchy Archives. Web. 8 Feb. 2015.
A picture of Bill Haywood, one of the main IWW organizers, that evokes his hardnosed
tactics.
18
Preamble and Constitution of the Industrial Workers of the World. 1919.
Very uncompromising document outlines the views of the IWW that led to the
confrontation. Memorably, it states that no contract may be made between capital and
workers, supporting the assertions of Sheriff Wheeler and others that the IWW was not
agitating for better working conditions but instead for the complete destruction of the
copper companies.
"Red Lopez Back of the Mexican Row." The Arizona Republican [Phoenix] 26 Mar. 1916: 5. Print.
This newspaper article bears witness to the fear felt in Arizona towards Pancho Villa's
raids across the border.
Riddle, Jack. Interview by Boyd Nicholl. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining and
Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with a mining engineer that discusses the details of work conditions and
workweek at the Bisbee mines.
Rinic, Anita. Interview by Beverly Woods. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining and
Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with a relative of several shopkeeper deportees discussing the reasons for their
deportation.
Roosevelt, Theodore. Letter to Felix Frankfurter. 19 Dec. 1917. MS. Bisbee Mining & Historical
Museum, Bisbee, Arizona.
Very vitriolic, antibolshevik letter to a member of a commission set up to investigate the
19
deportation. It accuses Frankfurter of "taking a Trotskyist attitude", and admonishes him
that he hasn’t sufficiently stressed the unjust and criminal nature of the IWW. A good
representation of national sentiment in some quarters postdeportation.
State v Wootton. Phelps Dodge. Superior Court of Arizona. 1920.
This test case against the deporting deputies has important testimony regarding IWW
intentions and threats, against everybody from prolabor newspapers to working miners.
"The Great Wobbly Drive." The Bisbee Daily Review 13 July 1917: 1.
An astoundingly antiIWW article published in the Bisbee Daily Review, a company
paper.
United States. Arizona Council of Defense. Federal and Interstate Relations. By W. P. Hunt, J. H.
Kibbey, Henry F. Ashurst, Carl Hayden, Mark Smith, and W. H. Sawtelle. Arizona
Council of Defense.
Discusses the conditions in the army camp set up for the deportees, and confirms
statements in the company newspaper that the deportees were treated decently by the
Army.
Vercellino, John. Interview by Rod Hutchinson. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee
Mining and Historical Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with a son of a nonIWW deportee who had the bad luck to be on leave during
the strike (and thus assumed to be affiliated with the strikers).
20
Wheeler, Harry C. 30 June 1917. Telegram. Bisbee Mining and Historical Museum, Bisbee.
A request from the Bisbee Sheriff to send federal troops to combat “proGerman and
antiAmerican” influences.
Woods, Edna. Interview. Bisbee Museum Oral History Project. Bisbee Mining and Historical
Museum. Web. 1 Feb. 2015.
Interview with the daughter of a mine foreman who personally discovered dynamite
stockpiled by the IWW to blow up the Bisbee mines.
secondary sources:
Fathauer, Isabel Shattuck., and Lynn R. Bailey. Lemuel C. Shattuck: A Little Mining, a Little
Banking, and a Little Beer. Tucson: Westernlore, 1991. Print.
A book written about the owner of the Shattuck mine, it confirms Nichol’s report that the
attitude of the mine was more pro labor than the others.
Houston, Robert. Personal interview. 2 Feb. 2015.
Personal interview with the author of "Bisbee '17", a dramatic account of the Bisbee
Deportation. Discusses the contents of his many interviews with survivors, as well as the
results of his archival research for his book.
Joseph, Günter, and Konrad J. A. Kundig. Copper: Its Trade, Manufacture, Use, and Environmental
Status. Materials Park, OH: ASM International, 1999.
This book gives statistics on copper consumption during WWI.
21
Larkin, Annie. Personal interview. 26 Feb. 2015.
Brief discussion with a Bisbee Mining and Historical Museum curator about her research
and personal stories of the deportation. Most notably, her family had to flee the town due
to IWW threats.
Lindquist, John H., and James Fraser. "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation."
Pacific Historical Review 37.4 (1968): 40122. Print. Gives additional details about the deportation and its aftermath.
Nicholl, Boyd. "Bisbee Deportation." Personal interview. 31 Jan. 2015.
Interview giving an excellent background of the Bisbee Deportation as told by a local
historian, with interesting local details not readily available elsewhere.
O'Neill, Colleen. "Domesticity Deployed: Gender, Race and the Construction of Class Struggle in
the Bisbee Deportation." Labor History 34.23 (1993): 25673. Print.
This journal article had extensive footnotes of useful primary sources, as well as a description
of what it portrayed as a racist and sexist milieu in Bisbee. It also expanded on the effects of on
the town after the deportation.
Park, Joseph F. "The 1903 "Mexican Affair" at Clifton." Journal of Arizona History 18 (1977):
11948. Recollections: Herbert Young. University of Arizona, 2005. Web. 24 Jan. 2015.
This book describes the wages available to strikers: wages were quite high for whites, as
about $100/day in today's dollars.
"Russian Trick Pulled In Cochise County By AntiLabor Mining Co. In 1917."Gateway Times
[Bisbee] 3 Sept. 1960.
22
This biographical newspaper article gives humorous information and anecdotes on Sheriff
Wheeler's biography. Note: this article was found clipped and archived in the AZHS
Tucson, so no page number can be ascertained.
Phillips, Sara. Buried Voices, Fractured Homes: A Women's Role in the Bisbee Deportation of 1917.
Proc. of FORTYFIFTH ANNUAL ARIZONA HISTORY CONVENTION, Quality Inn,
Safford.
This paper presents a feminist view of the deportation, and specifically focuses on the
legacy of broken homes left behind by the event.
23