Being a Woman in Being a Woman in Turkey: Turkey:

Education, Education, Religion and Religion and

Social LifeSocial Life

bybyNesrin OruçNesrin Oruç

QUIZ:QUIZ:ON ON

WOMEN WOMEN RIGHTS IN RIGHTS IN

THE THE WORLDWORLD

Where do you think the Where do you think the following has happened? following has happened? “Women-only train “Women-only train cars have been cars have been introduced on X’s introduced on X’s railways as a way of railways as a way of countering the grapping countering the grapping women on overcrowded women on overcrowded

trains.trains.

A. TurkeyA. TurkeyB. Great BritainB. Great BritainC. JapanC. JapanD. USAD. USA

Which of the country below has the Which of the country below has the internationally highest proportion of internationally highest proportion of women professors?women professors?

A. TurkeyA. TurkeyB. Great BritainB. Great BritainC. GermanyC. GermanyD. USAD. USA

In France women got In France women got the right to elect and the right to elect and to be elected in 1944, to be elected in 1944, the date is 1946 for the date is 1946 for Italian women. In Italian women. In which year do you which year do you think Turkish women think Turkish women gained the right to gained the right to elect and be elected? elect and be elected?

A. 1934A. 1934B. 1950 B. 1950 C. 1963C. 1963D. 1980D. 1980

Turkey was brought to the Turkey was brought to the European Human Rights Court European Human Rights Court 1117 times in 2001. This is a 1117 times in 2001. This is a very high number. very high number. How many appeals from How many appeals from the UK and Italy were the UK and Italy were made to the Human made to the Human Rights Court in the Rights Court in the year 2001?year 2001?A. 30 for UK and 20 for ItalyA. 30 for UK and 20 for ItalyB. 300 for UK and 400 for Italy B. 300 for UK and 400 for Italy C. 956 for UK and 843 for Italy C. 956 for UK and 843 for Italy D. 1594 for UK and 7339 for D. 1594 for UK and 7339 for ItalyItaly

Status of Status of Women in Women in

TurkeyTurkey

The young Turkish Republic was The young Turkish Republic was searching for a way to explain itself to searching for a way to explain itself to the modern world in 1930s. The the modern world in 1930s. The expansion of women’s rights during the expansion of women’s rights during the early Republican era was seen neither early Republican era was seen neither as a dictate of human rights nor as a dictate of human rights nor women’s rights. The founders women’s rights. The founders of the republic were genuinely of the republic were genuinely committed to the modernization committed to the modernization on the Western model and the on the Western model and the nature of women’s status in nature of women’s status in society was intimately society was intimately linked to this process, linked to this process, which included secularization which included secularization

and nationalism (Arat, 1997).and nationalism (Arat, 1997).

It was only in the 1980s, when women in Turkey It was only in the 1980s, when women in Turkey began demanding their rights, that the concept of began demanding their rights, that the concept of human rights became relevant as a tool to pursue human rights became relevant as a tool to pursue

women’s interests.women’s interests.

Women’s movement in Turkey has gained speed Women’s movement in Turkey has gained speed because of various factors. As a result of the because of various factors. As a result of the military intervention of 1980 a political vacuum military intervention of 1980 a political vacuum where women could come out with their own where women could come out with their own voices was created. Access to feminist voices was created. Access to feminist experiences in the West and personal links to experiences in the West and personal links to feminists abroad were important for feminist feminists abroad were important for feminist politics in Turkey. Western literature on feminist politics in Turkey. Western literature on feminist experiences and theory helped influence women in experiences and theory helped influence women in Turkey. In the context of a globalizing world in Turkey. In the context of a globalizing world in which means of communication and transportation which means of communication and transportation made borders more porous than before, it was made borders more porous than before, it was inevitable that women in a westernizing Turkey inevitable that women in a westernizing Turkey would be influenced by the feminist revolution in would be influenced by the feminist revolution in

the West.the West.

The Republic that was The Republic that was founded in 1920 adapted founded in 1920 adapted the Swiss civil code in 1926 the Swiss civil code in 1926 to replace the religious to replace the religious code and granted suffrage code and granted suffrage in 1934. The civil code gave in 1934. The civil code gave women many rights that women many rights that had been denied under had been denied under religious code; these religious code; these included divorce, equal included divorce, equal share in inheritance, and share in inheritance, and

custody over children.custody over children.

The Educational Reform Act in 1924 gave The Educational Reform Act in 1924 gave women equal educational rights. women equal educational rights.

The Dress Reform Act in 1928 prohibited The Dress Reform Act in 1928 prohibited women from covering their heads and entire women from covering their heads and entire bodies with long black veils. bodies with long black veils.

The new Republic marked the end of The new Republic marked the end of polygamy as well as the end of divorce by polygamy as well as the end of divorce by men only. men only.

TThe most notable was the reform in 1934 he most notable was the reform in 1934 that granted women the right to elect that granted women the right to elect and to be elected in local elections and in and to be elected in local elections and in 1935 in national elections.1935 in national elections.

According to the data we have on the literacy rate of the According to the data we have on the literacy rate of the whole population of Turkey of 6 years of age and over:whole population of Turkey of 6 years of age and over:

In 1935,In 1935,

Total: 10 387 105 Female: 5 997 138 Male: 4 389 967Total: 10 387 105 Female: 5 997 138 Male: 4 389 967

In 2000,In 2000, The total: 7 589 657 Female: 5 732 525 Male:1 857 132 The total: 7 589 657 Female: 5 732 525 Male:1 857 132

It is clear that in 2000, the rate of illiterate women is almost It is clear that in 2000, the rate of illiterate women is almost

five times more than the rate of the illiterate men.five times more than the rate of the illiterate men.

WOMEN RESEARCHERSWOMEN RESEARCHERSIn most countries for which data are available, In most countries for which data are available, women represent only between 25% and 35% of women represent only between 25% and 35% of total researchers. The number in Turkey is a little total researchers. The number in Turkey is a little bit above the avarage. While women represent bit above the avarage. While women represent over 40% of researchers in Portugal and the over 40% of researchers in Portugal and the Slovak Republic, they represent only 11% in Japan Slovak Republic, they represent only 11% in Japan and Korea. Women researchers are principally and Korea. Women researchers are principally found in the higher education sector and their found in the higher education sector and their participation is particularly low in the business participation is particularly low in the business sector, which employs the largest number of sector, which employs the largest number of researchers in most countries and also in Turkey. researchers in most countries and also in Turkey.

Women in ParliamentWomen in Parliament

When we analyze the number and percentage of When we analyze the number and percentage of women in the Turkish Assembly we see that even women in the Turkish Assembly we see that even in 2000 the percentage of women parliamentars is in 2000 the percentage of women parliamentars is only 4,4, which is less than the 4,6 % in 1935. only 4,4, which is less than the 4,6 % in 1935.

Unfortunately, Turkish women had more chance to Unfortunately, Turkish women had more chance to be selected and represented in the parliament 70 be selected and represented in the parliament 70 years ago.years ago.

WOMEN IN BUSINESS LIFEWOMEN IN BUSINESS LIFEIn their guide for Western businesspeople, Morrison, In their guide for Western businesspeople, Morrison, Conaway, and Borden (1994) describe women’s status in Conaway, and Borden (1994) describe women’s status in the Turkish business context as follows: “Remember that the Turkish business context as follows: “Remember that Turkey is primarily a Muslim country, so the vast majority of Turkey is primarily a Muslim country, so the vast majority of your business contacts will be male. . . . Any business your business contacts will be male. . . . Any business women you meet will probably be Greek or Armenian rather women you meet will probably be Greek or Armenian rather than Turkish” (p. 394). If people prepare to do business in than Turkish” (p. 394). If people prepare to do business in Turkey by following such popular, but erroneous, “how to Turkey by following such popular, but erroneous, “how to do business” books, they will surely experience “culture do business” books, they will surely experience “culture shock”. Turkish women actively participate in almost all shock”. Turkish women actively participate in almost all domains of work life at all decision-making levels. The domains of work life at all decision-making levels. The question is why there is such a common misconception question is why there is such a common misconception about Turkish businesswomen. As the cited “advice” about Turkish businesswomen. As the cited “advice” indicates, this is partly because Turkey is a country where indicates, this is partly because Turkey is a country where the majority of the population is Islamic (cited in Aycan, the majority of the population is Islamic (cited in Aycan,

2004).2004).

WHAT IS VIOLENCE?WHAT IS VIOLENCE?Research has shown that violence against Research has shown that violence against women is a universal problem. According to women is a universal problem. According to the United Nations Declaration on the United Nations Declaration on Elimination of Violence Against Women, Elimination of Violence Against Women, violence is defined as “any act of violence violence is defined as “any act of violence that results in or is likely to result in, that results in or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private liberty, whether occurring in public or private

life”.life”.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMENVIOLENCE AGAINST WOMENPrime Ministry’s Family Research Institution Prime Ministry’s Family Research Institution determined that the rate of physical violence determined that the rate of physical violence against women in family was 34% in Turkey. against women in family was 34% in Turkey.

44.9% of men thought that the husband had the 44.9% of men thought that the husband had the right to beat his wife, and 35% of Turkish women right to beat his wife, and 35% of Turkish women agreed (Basbakanlik Aile Arastirma Kurumu, 1995). agreed (Basbakanlik Aile Arastirma Kurumu, 1995).

Women exposed to physical violence lost their Women exposed to physical violence lost their selfimage and their ability to make decisions and selfimage and their ability to make decisions and had difficulty developing identity and thought (Yayin had difficulty developing identity and thought (Yayin Kurulu, 1995). Kurulu, 1995).

Violence against women is a serious Violence against women is a serious problem in Turkey. The social tolerance for problem in Turkey. The social tolerance for violence in police stations, public prosecutor violence in police stations, public prosecutor offices, courts and health care facilities is offices, courts and health care facilities is widespread. widespread.

In particular, ‘virginity control’ and ‘honor In particular, ‘virginity control’ and ‘honor murders’ are practices that are peculiar to murders’ are practices that are peculiar to Turkish society, which appraises social Turkish society, which appraises social ethics and social honor by a woman’s body ethics and social honor by a woman’s body

(Büken & Şahinoğlu, 2006).(Büken & Şahinoğlu, 2006).

WOMEN AND DECISION MAKINGWOMEN AND DECISION MAKINGErci (2003) in her study works with three hundred ten women Erci (2003) in her study works with three hundred ten women who applied to the Maternal–Child Health and Family Planning who applied to the Maternal–Child Health and Family Planning Center in Erzurum. For the study, she collected the data Center in Erzurum. For the study, she collected the data through the inquiry form, which was prepared to determine through the inquiry form, which was prepared to determine women’s efficiency in decision making, their perception of their women’s efficiency in decision making, their perception of their status within the family, and their demographic characteristics. status within the family, and their demographic characteristics.

According to the results of the study women’s decision-making According to the results of the study women’s decision-making rate was lower than that of men, except for selecting clothes. rate was lower than that of men, except for selecting clothes.

Couples’ joint decision-making rate was high on personal Couples’ joint decision-making rate was high on personal matters but low on official matters. matters but low on official matters.

The women’s educational level affected their decision making The women’s educational level affected their decision making in the family. The majority of the women perceived themselves in the family. The majority of the women perceived themselves as wives sharing everything within the family. Women’s as wives sharing everything within the family. Women’s perception of their positions in the family was related to their perception of their positions in the family was related to their status and decision making. status and decision making.

In Erci’s study, 42% of the In Erci’s study, 42% of the women women stated that men were more stated that men were more intelligent and superior to intelligent and superior to women; women;

70.7% of them thought 70.7% of them thought that way because of tradition, that way because of tradition, and and 29.3% thought this way 29.3% thought this way becausebecause they believed that men were they believed that men were physically and economically physically and economically powerful.powerful.Women’s ideas about men as Women’s ideas about men as more intelligent were more intelligent were associated with men’s high associated with men’s high educational levels. educational levels. Their beliefs were Their beliefs were inherited from their ancestors.inherited from their ancestors.

Gülçür’s report details the Gülçür’s report details the findings of a field study findings of a field study undertaken as part of a larger undertaken as part of a larger project by Women for Women’s project by Women for Women’s Human Rights (WWHR), which Human Rights (WWHR), which focused on theoretical, focused on theoretical, empirical and policy issues empirical and policy issues related to domestic violence in related to domestic violence in Turkey. Turkey. According to tAccording to the study, which he study, which was conductedwas conducted in 1993-94 in in 1993-94 in Ankara, the capital of Turkey,Ankara, the capital of Turkey, there there was was a a very low-level use very low-level use of legal and institutional means of legal and institutional means in in response to the violence response to the violence to which women were to which women were

subjected.subjected.

WOMEN AND ISLAMWOMEN AND ISLAM

Most of Turkey’s population is Muslim, but the Most of Turkey’s population is Muslim, but the Turkish Government makes it very clear that the Turkish Government makes it very clear that the country is a secular state with complete freedom of country is a secular state with complete freedom of religion. It is clearly stated in the Turkish religion. It is clearly stated in the Turkish Constitution that Islam is not the religion of the Constitution that Islam is not the religion of the state but the citizens. However, noone can deny state but the citizens. However, noone can deny the effect of Islam on the Turkish society. Although the effect of Islam on the Turkish society. Although Turkish laws and other social structures are not Turkish laws and other social structures are not based on Islamic principles, Islam has a large based on Islamic principles, Islam has a large influence on society, especially in the rural areasinfluence on society, especially in the rural areas

(Bahar et. al., 2005).(Bahar et. al., 2005).

QUESTIONS QUESTIONS PLEASE!!!PLEASE!!!

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