Becoming A Psychological Detective

Becoming A Psychological DetectivePsychology, Research, and YouChapter 1 Section 1Chapter in PerspectiveDescribe the methods psychologists use to gather information about the numerous problems and areas they researchExamine the historical development and growth of psychologyLook at the different types of jobs that psychologists currently hold

Why do we need to learn about psychology?

Be a Knowledgeable ConsumerThe results and claims of psychological research fill our daily lives, so we need to know how to evaluate the accuracy and credibility of these claims.

Question:How much electric shock, from 0 to 450 volts, would you administer to someone as part of a psychology experiment?

Stanley Milgram (1974)Conducted a study in which people were asked to administer shocks to others in what they believed was an investigation of how people learned.No shocks were actually delivered. Participants continued to administer shocks even when they believed that the shocks could be harmful.

Obedience to AuthorityCan be incredibly powerful1978 Jonestown, GuyanaJim JonesPersuaded his followers to give cyanide-laced Kool-Aid to their children and then poison themselves (918 total died)http://abcnews.go.com/Health/slideshow/jonestown-massacre-anniversary-17728596

The Science of Psychology

What is psychology?Psychology is the science of behavior (both human and animal) and mental processes.

It also includes dreams, daydreams, and other inner experiences.

Psychology as a SciencePsychology provides the tools we need to answer questions about a wide range of issues including IQ testing, problems in learning, ethics in research, and countless other issues.

Becoming a Psychological DetectiveWe need to be clear about what happened to determine why and how it happenedAsking and answering these questions can provides tools to answer questions about other situations.Takes practice!

Sample Questions:Will most people administer a 450-volt shock to another person as part of a study of learning?

How strong is obedience to authority?

A Barrage of InfoWe are bombarded by information from newspapers, radio, television, family and friends, and advertisements on a daily basis designed to influence our opinion, persuade us to buy products, entertain us, and/or inform us about the world.

Sample Headlines:Miracle Happy Pill Banishes the BluesYoull Read 200% Faster with Better ComprehensionRecovered Memories Point to a History of AbuseHidden Messages in Rock Songs Linked to SuicidesThree-Year-Old Psychic Predicts the Future

Psychological TechniquesTo evaluate information, psychologists have found certain techniques to be helpful in thinking critically.

We will explore these techniques in the next section, but lets consider a common alternative: folk wisdoms.

Folk WisdomsUsually presented in the form of a proverb.Folk wisdom provides explanations for every event as well as the exact opposite event so that they can never be proven wrong.Hence, folk wisdom provides answers for all situations but actually explains none.

ExamplesList ALook before you leap.You cant teach an old dog new tricks.Out of sight, out of mind.Two heads are better than one.A penny saved is a penny earned.Opposites attract.List BPeople who hesitate are lost.Its never too late to learn.Absence makes the heart grow fonder.If you want something done right, do it yourself.Nothing ventured, nothing gained.Birds of a feather flock together.

Psychological ResearchPsychologist are trained to: - ask good questions - gather useful information - arrive at appropriate conclusions - develop and ask further questions based on the information collected.There are right and wrong ways to conduct research.

Evaluating Info

SpiritualismA belief in the supernaturalPopular after WWI on both sides of AtlanticPeople would hold sances and hire mediums to contact the spirit world to communicate with the dead loved ones.

Arthur Conan Doyle

Creator of Sherlock Holmes- England 1920sBecame deeply interested in spiritualism after the death of his son in WWI.Believed he had spoken with his dead son on several occasions.

Fairies Found?May 1920-Report claimed fairies had been photographed by two young girls which confirmed Doyles belief in spiritualism.He rejected the possibility of fraud because the girls were young and did not know how to use photographic equipment even though one had worked in photographic shop.

Confirmation?In 1921, Doyle presented the results of his investigation in a book, The Coming of Fairies.His authoritative statements led many people to believe that the photographs were genuine which led to other people writing to him about similar experiences.

Fairy HoaxModern technology reveals that the fairies were cardboard cutouts from a childrens book suspended by nearly invisible threads.

Question?Why did the famous author of the most well-known detective stories fall for such a hoax?Before he had seen the photographs he was already convinced of the existence of the spiritual realm.

Biasbeliefs that interfere with objectivityBias can - cloud our observations - influence the questions we ask - determine the methods we use - influence our interpretation of the data we gather.

Lessons?1. Prominent public figures may have great credibility, but their statements should not keep us from asking our own questions.2. We should be aware of the potential for bias which could cloud our judgment.

Simple Questions that May Reveal Some Evidence of BiasTable 1-2

#1Is the sun closer to the Earth or farther from the Earth during the winter months, or is the distance the same in summer and winter?

#2Whose face appears on a penny?

#3Who stole the greatest number of bases in a single season of professional baseball?

#4Can you transform the following figure into a perfect square using just one straight line?

Answers:

#1Is the sun closer to the Earth or farther from the Earth during the winter months, or is the distance the same in summer and winter?

#1The answer depends on the hemisphere you are in when you answer the question. For people in the Northern Hemisphere, the Earth is closer to the sun from September to May; for people in the Southern Hemisphere, the Earth is closer to the sun from May to September. The degree of warmth is not associated with distance from the sun; the tilt of the Earth as it receives the suns ray determines warmth.

#2Whose face appears on a penny?

#2It depends. If the country minting the coin is the United States, the answer is Abraham Lincoln though you may be aware of the much older and very valuable Indianhead pennies. In Canada, the Queen of England appears on a penny.

#3Who stole the greatest number of bases in a single season of professional baseball?

#3The answer is Sophie Kurys, who played for the Racine Belles in the Womens Professional Baseball League in 1946; she stole 202 bases.

#4Can you transform the following figure into a perfect square using just one straight line?

A#4The answer is simple, provided that assumptions do not get in your way. Extend the line on the right side downward and you will produce the number 4 (a perfect square).

QuandarySuppose we have two or more explanations for an event or a claim.Which should we accept?Assume for a moment that all the proposed explanations explain the event or claim.The law of parsimony tells us to adopt the simplest explanationthe one that requires the fewest assumptions.

The Law of ParsimonyThe principle that simple explanations of phenomena (the one that requires the fewer assumptions) are preferred to complex explanations.

Doyles Choices:Doyle was faced with two explanations for the apparent sightings of the fairies by the girls.One explanation was that the girls had actually seen the fairies.The second explanation was that the girls had played an elaborate hoax on Doyle.

Which to choose?Which explanation is simpler and involves fewer assumptions?Clearly, the belief in the existence of fairies involves many more complex assumptions than does the view that the girls perpetrated a hoax.

GoalGoal of book is to help you become a better psychological detective capable of asking good questions, collecting useful information, arriving at defensible conclusions, and being aware of your own biases and those of others.

Study TipName a bias that you have seen in people you know or even in yourself.Evaluate the bias: - What effects does it have on behavior and belief? - What are the results of such behaviors or beliefs, and are the results positive or negative?

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking, or the reasoning we do in order to determine whether a claim is true, is a cornerstone of psychology.

Guideline Questions

Question #1What is the statement or claim, and who is making it?

AnalyzeConsider personal bias or personal gain (from the person making the claim and ourselves) - Evaluate authority of the claim. - Remember credibility does not automatically transfer from one field to another.

Example:Salespeople have a personal stake in convincing you to purchase the products they sell.Car dealers want new customers to know that past buyers have been satisfied, and to prove their point they offer the results of surveys.

SurveysCar manufacturers mail surveys to recent buyers to determine their level of satisfaction.According to Consumer Reports (Selling It, 1991), some car dealers offered their customers incentives to complete these surveysbut only if they take the survey to a dealer, who is more than happy to help them complete it!

Question #2Is the statement or claim based on scientific observations?

AnecdotesPeople often support conclusions with personal experiences or anecdotes.You may think that you succeeded on an exam because you sat in your lucky seat.

Proof?Personal experiences are also frequently offered as proof of the quality of particular products, ranging from detergents to cars.

Justified?When you come across such a claim, ask whether it is justified.For example, does the fact that one customer is satisfied with a product prove that the product is consistently satisfactory?

Examining FactsCritical thinking also requires us to question where the facts came from.Was the information based on scientific research or was it based on casual observation?

Cause and EffectAlthough there are several research methods, the experimental method is the only method that can provide the basis for cause-and-effect statements.

Psychology in PrintPopular sources ranging from such tabloids as the National Enquirer to more respected newspapers such as The New York Times often print news related to psychology.

Lack of SourcesFewer than 50% of these articles specify the research methods used.Since print media pay little attention to the process of scientific inquiry, it makes it difficult for us to evaluate these claims.

InternetMost articles and information on the internet do not specify research methods, so there is no guarantee on accuracy.

Question #3What do statistics reveal?

Fear of StatisticsMany students are fearful of statistics in any form, yet we use statistics all the timealthough not always wisely.

Never hesitate to ask for numbers to support a claim, but be sure to understand them.

AverageClaims are often presented as some type of average (or typical score).An average conveys information about the middle of a distribution, or collection of numbers.There are actually three types of averages, and you will need to know which type is being presented and whether is it appropriate.

Statistically SignificantWhen evaluating claims, we need to know whether the findings could have occurred by chance.Findings that exceed chance are said to be statistically significant, which should be backed by data.You cannot tell if a finding is statistically significant just by looking at the results- need to conduct a statistical test.

Question #4

Are there plausible alternative explanations for the statement or claim?

CorrelationResearchers frequently report that two variables (behaviors or events) are related.The fact that two events are correlated does not prove that one of the events caused the other; however, knowing the relation between two events helps us to make predictions about when events will occur in the future.

Third VariableWhen we deal with an association between two variables, we must consider the possibility that the relation is actually due to a third variable.

Example:Whenever the moon is full, the police report more crimes and emergency rooms treat more accident victims.Is there a relation between the full moon and these occurrences?Researchers who have examined broader periods have consistently failed to find such a relation.

CoincidencesAlthough all the worlds events demand an explanation, some are mere coincidences.

Cause and Effect? Consider each of the following statements. - Does one of the factors in each statement cause the other? - If not, what other factors might be involved?

Table 1-3The phone always rings when Im in the shower. I lose my keys only when Im in a hurry.People always call at the wrong time.It always rains just after I wash the car.An item goes on sale the day after I buy it.The doorbell always rings just as the baby is going to sleep.

Study TipGather in a group of four. In a current newspaper or magazine article, find a statement or claim.Assign one of the four Guidelines for the Psychological Detective to each of the four group members.Then, each student should evaluate the claim using his or her chosen guideline and share this information with the group.

Drug TrialsAmong the many claims we encounter every day are ones about drugs and other remedies.Patients may respond to drug treatment even if the treatment contains no active ingredient.

Why?If you expect that a drug will give you relief from some ailment, that belief itself may bring about a reduction in the symptoms.

Placebo EffectPositive effects associated with a persons beliefs and attitudes about the drug, even when it contains no active ingredient

Evaluating EffectivenessThe claims made for drugs often sound quite impressive.When judging a drugs effectiveness, we need to know how many patients may have improved because of the placebo effect alone.Only when we have obtained this comparative information can we judge the true effectiveness of the drug.

Guideline Recap1. What is the statement or claim, and who is making it?2. Is the statement or claim based on scientific observations.3. What do statistics reveal?4. Are there plausible alternative explanations for the statement or claim?

Caution!Using the 4 guidelines does not guarantee you will always arrive an accurate understanding of any claim or proposed explanation.Not even a well-conducted scientific experiment can guarantee that you have found the truth.

The TruthDepending on the specific type of experiment conducted, the culture in which the experiment is conducted, and the personal interpretation of the results, different views of the truth may exist.

Why use the guidelines?They do help you avoid certain pitfalls that can easily lead to inaccurate conclusions.