Module 4: Training and Adaptation

4.1 Anaerobic and Resistance Training

Key Point:There is a difference between an exercise response and a training adaptation. An exercise response is a change in one (or more) of the body’s systems or cells that occurs when a person exercises. This is a temporary and acute response. A training adaptation is a change that takes place in the body’s systems or cells that results from long-term exposure to a situation or stimuli. This is a semi-permanent change and a chronic response.

Causing an adaptation requires two basic principles of training: progressive overload and specificity. An overload is the process of pushing the body or system beyond the level of stimuli to which it is accustomed. The level of stimuli is known as the training threshold. The stimuli that can be overloaded are the frequency, duration and intensity of training.

The body will then adapt to this new level of stimuli. Therefore, a progressive overload, or continually increased overload, is needed to continue adaptation.

The body will react in certain ways to specific stimuli. Specificity of training is the concept of targeting the training to meet specific needs, or produce specific results. This specificity can be applied to the intensity of the training, the areas of the body being targeted, the movements being targeted and the energy pathways being used during the training.

Key Point:Anaerobic training involves activities that are high to maximum intensity and of a short duration. The goal of this type of training is to produce high forces and therefore, to produce a lot of ATP in a short period of time.

General adaptations that result from anaerobic training: Increased muscle strength Increased muscular endurance at higher power output No change or slight increase in aerobic power Increased maximal force production Increased vertical jump performance Increased anaerobic power Increased sprint speed Increased muscle fiber size Increased lean mass Decreased fat mass Increased ligament and tendon strength Increased collagen content

May increase bone density (specificity needed)

Neuromuscular adaptations that result from anaerobic training: Increased recruitment of agonist muscle motor units Increased recruitment of synergist muscle motor units Increased synchronicity of agonist and synergist(s), resulting in all muscle

fibers firing at same time Increased motor unit firing rates of agonists and synergists Decreased antagonist motor unit recruitment Increased area of the neuromuscular junction, this means that there are more

receptors for acetylcholine on the sarcolemma and will improve the signal to the muscle cell

Muscle cell adaptations that result from anaerobic training: Increased muscle mass, this occurs through:

o Increased muscle proteinso Increased myofibril size and eventually numbero Increased muscle fiber size (known as hypertrophy)o Increased muscle fiber number (known as hyperplasia)

Muscle fiber differentiationo Type IIx muscle fibers develop myosin ATPase and myosin heavy

chain segments o Type IIx motor units can differentiate into Type IIa motor units and

Type IIa can become more aerobic like Type I, however Type I to Type II differentiation does NOT occur

Common Question:When beginning a training program, which strength adaptations occur during which time frames?

During the first six weeks, the increases in strength will occur because of neural adaptations (mostly increased motor unit recruitment)

During the second six weeks, the increases in strength will occur because of increases in muscle mass (hypertrophy)

Metabolic adaptations that result from anaerobic training: Increased activity of the enzymes associated with the anaerobic energy

pathwayso Creatine kinaseo Myokinaseo Phosphofructokinase

Increased storage of energy pathwayso ATPo Creatine phosphateo Glycogen

o Fat (may or may not increase, based on training protocol and nutrition)

Increased tolerance to hydrogen ions Increased recovery abilities

o Buffering of hydrogen ionso Removal of lactateo Repletion of energy substrate stores

Cardiovascular adaptations that result from anaerobic training: Increased tolerance of higher blood pressures Capillary and mitochondrial densities can remain constant with specific

training prescriptions Increased cardiac muscle mass (myocardial hypertrophy)

o Left ventricle must push harder to overcome peripheral resistance

Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to anaerobic exercise: Increased heart rate Increased blood pressure No change or slight decrease in stroke volume No change or slight increase in cardiac output Increased rate and depth of ventilation No change in oxygen uptake or consumption Decreased blood flow in working muscles with heavy resistance during the

contraction Increase in tidal volume

These responses are most likely due to the need to rid the working tissues of metabolic by-products and provide oxygen for the recovery process

4.2 Aerobic Training

Aerobic activities are of low to moderate intensity and of moderate to long duration. ATP production during this type of exercise primarily involves the oxidative system. However, some energy will be provided via anaerobic mechanisms (recall oxygen debt). Glycolysis is still breaking down glucose and glycogen to be used in the Krebs cycle and electron transport system (aerobic glycolysis). Aerobic exercise primarily uses type I muscle fibers, but type II fibers will be recruited if intensity is increased or duration becomes longer.

Key Point: Changes within the body may be different between response and adaptation to aerobic exercise and these adaptations can differ between rest, submaximal effort and maximal effort.

Acute response to aerobic exercise:

Increased heart rate Increased stroke volume Increased cardiac output (cardiac output is the product of heart rate and

stroke volume) Increased oxygen difference between the arteries and veins (this indicates

increased oxygen use of the working muscles) Increased oxygen uptake (also known as VO2, is the product of cardiac

output and oxygen difference between the arteries and veins) Increased tidal volume Increased breathing frquency Increased minute ventilation (minute ventilation is the product of tidal

volume and breathing frequency)

General adaptations that result from anaerobic training: No change muscle strength Increased muscular endurance at lower power output Increased aerobic power (increased maximal oxygen uptake or VO2max) No change or decreased maximal force production No change in vertical jump performance No change in anaerobic power No change in sprint speed No change or slight increase in muscle fiber size No change in lean mass Decreased fat mass Increased ligament and tendon strength Variable change in collagen content No change or increase in bone mineral density

Structural adaptations as a result of aerobic training: Increase size of left ventricle chamber (will increase stroke volume) Increased total blood volume Increased capillary density Increased mitochondrial density of muscle fibers Increased myoglobin content of muscle fibers Increased aerobic enzyme activity Increased stored energy substrates

o ATPo Creatine phosphateo Glycogeno Triglycerides

Adaptations at rest as a result of aerobic training: Increased stroke volume Decreased heart rate No change or slight increase in cardiac output

No change in arterial-venous oxygen difference No change in oxygen uptake No change or slight decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure No change in tidal volume Decreased breathing rate

Adaptations at submaximal exercise as a result of aerobic training: Increased stroke volume Decreased heart rate No change or decrease in cardiac output No change or slight increase in arterial-venous oxygen difference No change or decrease in oxygen uptake No change or slight decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressure Increased tidal volume Decreased breathing rate

Key Point:These adaptations at submaximal exercise show an increase in exercise economy, or a decrease in the energy needed to exercise at the same intensity as a result of training.

Adaptations at maximal exercise as a result of aerobic training: Increased stroke volume No change or slight decrease in heart rate Increased cardiac output Increased arterial-venous oxygen difference Increased oxygen uptake (increased VO2max) Slight decrease of systolic and diastolic blood pressure Increased tidal volume Increased breathing rate

Key Point:These adaptations result in increases in possible intensity and duration of maximal exercise.

4.3 Training and Adaptation Considerations for the Endocrine System

Like the nervous system, the endocrine system helps to control and coordinate the functions of the body’s systems. However, the endocrine system doesn’t use electrical signals that travel down the nerves like the nervous system. The endocrine system uses hormones that travel through the blood stream. These hormones are detected by receptors of the target cells. Each hormone has a specific receptor.

There are two types of hormones: peptide hormones and steroid hormones. Peptide hormones (also sometimes known as polypeptide hormones bind to receptors that are located on the cell membrane. This will causes a cascade of events in the cell that

result in a change of some kind in the cell’s function or in the steps leading to protein synthesis.

Steroid hormones enter the cell, combine with a receptor in the cytoplasm, and bind to a specific site on the DNA located in the cell nucleus. This binding stimulates the RNA transcription and translation processes, resulting in the synthesis of proteins to alter the function of the cell.

Key Point:The main difference between peptide and steroid hormones is how they affect the function of the cell. Peptide hormones uses intermediaries to affect the DNA of the cell while steroid hormones act directly on the DNA.

Hormones are produced and released by glands in the body. Examples of these glands are the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the adrenal gland (on the top of the kidneys), the liver, the pancreas and the sex glands (testes and ovaries).

Hormones are not simple, one-task molecules. They can cause different cell functions based on the type of cell they are being bound to. In addition, they can interact with other hormones or molecules to alter their own function. The concentrations of hormones not constant and they may vary naturally within a day (also known as diurnal variation) and or may vary from day to day (such as in the menstrual cycles of females). The most important aspect for exercise physiology is that hormones can vary in concentration is response to a variety of stresses, including exercise.

Catecholamines such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine are polypeptide hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands. They have a variety of functions including: vasoconstriction of non-working tissue blood supply allowing blood redistribution (this leads to increased blood pressure during exercise), an increase in energy availability via metabolic enzyme activity and increase in muscle contraction rate and influences the central nervous system to increased force production.

In response to exercise, the nervous system will cause an increase in catecholamine levels. Chronic exposure to high levels of catecholamines causes the body to decrease catecholamine release at the submaximal level. However, at maximum exercise levels, higher amounts of catecholamines are still released.

Cortisol is a steroid hormone that is also released by the adrenal gland. It functions to stimulate gluconeogenesis, which is the conversion of amino acids to glucose, increases activity of enzymes that degrade proteins (this process is known as proteolysis) and inhibition of protein synthesis.Key Point:Cortisol is a catabolic (breakdown of cells) hormone that can affect adaptations in the body that improves performance. When cortisol levels are normal, they aid in

the removal of damaged muscle and connective tissue to allow these to be built up larger and stronger. At excessive levels cortisol can begin to remove healthy tissue and prevent rebuilding.

Cortisol levels are increased as a result of performing resistance training, particularly when volume is high and rest periods are short. When training is repetitive, performed with consistently high volume and intensity, performed with sufficient recovery and, or progressed too rapidly, chronic higher levels of cortisol are associated with impaired immune function and overtraining.

Need to Know:Exercise protocol that promotes increased release of cortisol (as well as the other adrenal hormones- catecholamines):

Perform a high volume of repetitions Exercise large muscle groups Take short rest periods

Key Point:Varying the training protocol periodically will prevent both chronically excessive release of cortisol and decrease catecholamine response to submaximal exercise.

Growth Hormone (also known as Somatotropin) is a polypeptide hormone that is released by the pituitary gland. Growth hormone increases lipolysis (breakdown of fat for metabolism), collagen synthesis and cartilage growth, renal function and retention of electrolytes. It also enhances immune cell function and spares glucose to be used as an energy substrate.

Growth hormone release increases with both resistance training (especially longer duration, higher repetition training with shorter rest periods) and aerobic exercise. Women have higher growth hormone levels than men and a higher response to exercise than men. This may be due to interactions of other hormones with growth hormone release. Currently there are no findings to show changes in release as a result of continued training or exercise.

Need to Know:Resistance training protocol to stimulate growth hormone release:

High intensity exercises that result in elevated lactate levels (High repetitions)

Multiple sets (at least three) Short rest period (one minute or less)

Testosterone is a steroid hormone that is released by the testes in males and the ovaries in females, as well as the adrenal glands. Testosterone serves to promote protein production and the expression of male sex characteristics.

Testosterone release is increased is response to exercise, especially resistance training. An enhanced response is observed in individuals who have been consistently performing intense resistance training for two years.Need to Know:Resistance training protocol to stimulate growth hormone release:

Exercises that use large muscle mass Heavy loads (85-95% 1RM) Moderate to high volume (multiple sets and exercises) Short rest intervals (30 to 60 seconds)

4.4 Training and Adaptation Considerations for the Skeletal System

In addition to muscle, bone and connective tissue can also be altered by exercise. Lack of physical activity can even lead to decreases in bone mass. As the forces generated by the attached muscles increase, so must the integrity of the connective tissue and bone be improved

Need to Know:Osteopenia is defined as having low bone mass. Osteoporosis is a state of extreme bone loss.

Weight bearing exercise provides the best stimulus for bone growth. The load of these exercises must exceed the minimal essential strain, which is the degree to which bone must be overloaded to cause new growth. Bone growth usually refers to an increase in bone mineral density. This is a long process that may take many months to years of continual stimulation to accomplish.

Need to Know:What are the training protocols that increase bone mineral density?

Utilize progressive overload (though must be cautious of extreme overloads that may cause injury, not adaptation)

Exercise variance to allow for multiple stimuli applying multiple force vectors to increase bone mineral density throughout the bone instead of specific areas

When performing resistance training use structural exercises (exercises that directly load the axial skeleton)

When performing aerobic or anaerobic training, use weight bearing activities

Common Question:Which of the following exercises is best for improving bone mineral density (or preventing osteoporosis)?

Resistance training exercises that structurally load the axial skeleton such as squats, deadlifts, overhead presses, etc. Not machine based exercises or exercises that target the appendicular skeleton such as bicep curls.

Endurance exercises that are weight bearing such as walking, running or skipping rope. Not cardiovascular machines, biking or swimming.

To increase tendons, ligaments and fascia density and strength, exercise of low to moderate intensity does not markedly change the collagen content of connective tissue. To accomplish these adaptations high intensity loading during resistance, plyometric, speed, or endurance training results in a net growth of the involved connective tissue

Cartilage density and strength can be improved by using weight bearing forces and complete range of motion when performing exercises seem to be essential to maintaining tissue variability. Moderate aerobic exercise also seems adequate for increasing cartilage thickness. Strenuous exercise does not appear to cause degenerative joint disease when performed properly and safely.

Key Point:The stresses needed for cartilage density improvement or maintenance are not as high as those needed for the tendons, ligaments and fascia.

4.5 Overtraining and Detraining

As there is a threshold that one must train above in order to cause an overload and result in adaptation (this can be called the training, or overload threshold), there is an upper limit, which can be referred to as the overtraining threshold, in which the stimulus (or stress) is too great and will lead to a decrease in performance.

This is described in the General Adaptation Syndrome that was developed by Hans Seyle to describe how humans respond to stress. The syndrome describes a three-stage response to stress.

The first stage is the alarm (or shock) stage, which occurs when the body is faced with a stress that exceeds the training threshold. This stage can last for several days to weeks and is denoted by excessive soreness and, or stiffness as well as a temporary decrease in performance.

The decrease is performance in the alarm stage is due to the body working overtime to adapt to the new stress. Once recovery and adaptation has occurred, the second stage, resistance (or supercompensation) is reached. During this stage, an increase in performance is noted and the previous stress level no longer results in entering the alarm stage. An increase in the training threshold has occurred and a greater stress will be required in order to reach the alarm stage again and further adaptation to occur.

If recovery after the alarm stage is allowed, the stress is progressively overloaded in a conservative manner and the stress is varied from time to time, this two stage

process can continue indefinitely with continuous increases in performance. However, if incomplete recovery during the alarm stage occurs, stresses that are too great (above the overtraining threshold) or the applied stresses are never varied, the third stage, exhaustion, can be reached. Like the first stage, the symptoms of soreness, stiffness and decreased performance are observed. However, this stage is more serious in that the body is too exhausted to adapt to these overload stresses and cannot recovery. This stage is also known as overtraining and can cause injury, illness and unrelenting fatigue in the individual.

There is a difference between overreaching and overtraining. Overreaching is continued feelings of soreness and stiffness and other symptoms of overtraining that can be remedied with a few days of rest. Overtraining is the continued display of these signs and symptoms despite weeks, months, and possibly even years of rest. Overtraining often occurs due to training through a period of overreaching without alteration of the training program.

Planned overreaching often occurs within training programs that pair this with planned periods of extended recovery. Coaches should be aware of sign and symptoms of overreaching when these are not planned.

Key Point:Exercise is not the only stress to consider during the training process. Extra stress such as lack of sleep, poor nutrition, school or work difficulties, etc., can all contribute to an individual reaching the exhaustion stage.

Need to Know:Most common causes of overtraining:

1. Stress(es) that one their own, or in combination are too high for the individual to handle (this can be due to exercise variables such as intensity, volume and frequency, or other life stresses)

2. Insufficient recovery from stress3. Allowing the progressive overload to escalate too quickly

Overtraining can be divided into anaerobic overtraining and aerobic overtraining because they have different mechanisms, signs and symptoms.

Anaerobic overtraining is theoretically developed through four stages. Altered neural functioning denotes the first stage, though no effect on performance is observed. The second stage also likely does not display an effect on performance and is characterized by altered motor unit recruitment, sympathetic activity and hypothalamic control. Performance decrements are displayed during the third stage in which decreased motor coordination and muscle glycogen stores, altered excitation-contraction coupling, immune function and hormonal concentrations, increased resting heart rate and blood pressure and mood disturbances are observed. The fourth, and most serious, stage is associated with sickness and

infection, emotional and sleep disturbances and decreased force production and glycolytic capacity.

Key Point:The psychological and emotional (decrease or change in training motivation) is the best market to look for in anaerobic overtraining because hormone levels (decreased resting levels of testosterone, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor or the sympathetic overtraining syndrome observed with the increase of epinephrine and norepinephrine beyond normal exercise-induced levels) are not easy to measure and performance decrements occur too late in the overtraining process. Asking how an athlete is feeling on a daily basis is a simple method of watching for overreaching and overtraining.

Most of the training mistakes that can lead to anaerobic overtraining are chronic use of high intensity or high volume, or a combination of the two, and, or too rapid a rate of progression.

Aerobic overtraining is more likely to occur than anaerobic overtraining and typically has longer recovery times. In addition, aerobic overtraining has more physiological markers of overtraining than anaerobic overtraining. The markers of aerobic overtraining are:

Decreased performance Decreased percentage of body fat Decreased maximal oxygen uptake Altered blood pressure Increased muscle soreness Decreased muscle glycogen Altered resting heart rate Decreased ratio of free testosterone to cortisol Decreased ratio of total testosterone to sex hormone–binding globulin Decreased sympathetic tone (decreased nocturnal and resting

catecholamines) Increased sympathetic stress response

Key Point:Unlike anaerobic overtraining, performance decrements are easy to observe in aerobic overtraining and occur early in the exhaustion stage. Timing endurance athlete’s performance regularly can be a good overtraining prevention tool.

Aerobic overtraining is often more associated with volume, not intensity. Both prescribed volume and progressing volume too quickly can lead to aerobic overtraining.

As in overtraining, aerobic and anaerobic detraining occur differently. Detraining occurs as a result of cessation of exercise. Often training as little as once per week is

sufficient to maintain adaptation. Although this is a lower volume, the intensity of the training must remain for this maintenance to occur.

Anaerobic training can be seen in as little as two weeks. This loss of strength, power and speed is primarily due to neural factors for the first month of detraining. After four weeks, muscle atrophy (loss of mass) contributes to performance decrements.

Aerobic adaptations are even more sensitive to periods of inactivity because a large part of these adaptations are enzymatic, which change quickly. Performance decrements will definitely occur within two weeks.

For both types of detraining, highly trained individuals will begin to show decreases in performance more quickly than less trained individuals. It is believed that this occurs because these individuals have to provide greater stresses to achieve these greater adaptations. However, more highly trained individuals have more to lose and will recover any lost adaptations more quickly.

Module 4 Practice Questions

1. Which of the following are the stimuli that one manipulates to cause a training overload to the body?

I. Frequency II. Training age III. Type of resistance

IV. Intensity V. Training setting VI. Duration

A. I, III and VI only

B. II, III and V only

C. I, II and IV only

D. I, IV and VI only

2. Which of the following is only an acute response to aerobic training?

A. heart rate

B. left ventricle size

C. mitochondrial density

D. capillary density

3. Which of the following types of resistance training activities would be the most benefit for those trying to increase their bone density?

I. Structural II. Axial Loading

III. Machine Based IV. Free Weight Exercises

A. I and III only

B. I and IV only

C. I, II and IV only

D. II, III and IV only

4. How does the endocrine system control the body’s function?

A. Through hormones

B. Through electrical signals

C. Through chemical neurotransmitters

D. Through cell interactions

5. Which of the following is NOT a factor leading to overtraining?

A. Inadequate Rest

B. Intense Training

C. Rapid Progression of Training

D. Repeated High Volume of Training

6. Which of the following will lead to perpetual increases in performance?

A. Repeated intense training

B. Lifting the same weights training session after training session

C. Continually changing the exercises from week to week

D. Continually increasing the stimuli as adaptation occurs

7. Which of the following is NOT a structural adaptation that occurs as a result of continued aerobic training?

A. Increased capillary density

B. Decreased heart rate at rest

C. Increased size of left ventricle chamber

D. Increased total blood volume

8. Which factor is the MOST important when prescribing aerobic exercise for the purpose of bone growth?

A. exercise type

B. intensity

C. rest times

D. frequency

9. Which type of hormone will act on the cell’s membrane to cause a change in the cell’s nucleus?

A. steroid

B. anabolic

C. catabolic

D. peptide

10. Which of the following is NOT a marker of aerobic overtraining?

A. decreased desire to train

B. decreased performance

C. decreased muscle glycogen

D. decreased body fat

11. Which of the following is NOT a muscle cell adaptation as a result of resistance training?

A. increased size of muscle cell

B. increased number of myofibrils

C. increased size of muscle proteins

D. increased size of myofibrils

12. Which of the following is a change at rest that occurs as a result of aerobic training?

A. a greatly increased cardiac output

B. an unchanged minute ventilation

C. an increased heart rate

D. an increased stroke volume

13. Cartilage is increased in a joint through which of the following training protocols?

A. strenuous exercise through a limited range of motion

B. non-strenuous exercise through a limited range of motion

C. strenuous exercise through a full range of motion

D. non-strenuous exercise through a full range of motion

14. Chronic high intensity exercise will lead to which of the following adaptations of the catecholamine hormones?

A. an increased response at submaximal exercise and a decreased response at maximal exercise

B. a decreased response at submaximal exercise and an increased response at maximal exercise

C. a decreased response at both submaximal and maximal exercise

D. an increased response at both submaximal and maximal exercise

15. Which would be the mechanism behind a decrease in strength as a result of a 4 week absence of resistance training?

A. decreased neural stimulation

B. decreased structural stimulation

C. decreased hormonal stimulation

D. decreased mechanical stimulation

16. Which of the following is an acute cardiorespiratory response to resistance training?

A. increased aerobic enzymes

B. decrease in oxygen consumption

C. no change in ventilation rate

D. decreased heart rate

17. Which of the following increases when performing exercise at a submaximal intensity as a result of chronic aerobic training?

A. heart rate

B. VO2

C. tidal volume

D. a-v O2 difference

18. Which of the following must occur to ensure healthy levels of cortisol and to avoid overtraining?

A. use a high volume of repetitions

B. exercise large muscle groups

C. take short rest periods

D. vary the training protocol

19. Which of the following enzyme’s activites are NOT increased as a result of anaerobic training?

A. creatine kinase

B. cyctochrome oxidase

C. ATPase

D. myokinase

20. Endurance training that is performed regularly will result in a decrease of which aerobic factor at maximal effort exercise?

A. blood pressure

B. heart rate

C. a-v O2 difference

D. breathing rate

Module 4 Practice Question Answers

1. D (Module 4.1 and 4.2)

2. A (Module 4.2)

3. C (Module 4.4)

4. A (Module 4.3)

5. B (Module 4.5)

6. D (Module 4.1)

7. B (Module 4.2)

8. A (Module 4.4)

9. D (Module 4.3)

10. A (Module 4.5)

11. C (Module 4.1)

12. D (Module 4.2)

13. C (Module 4.4)

14. B (Module 4.3)

15. A (Module 4.5)

16. B (Module 4.1)

17. C (Module 4.2)

18. D (Module 4.3)

19. B (Module 4.1)

20. A (Module 4.2)