bahan kajian mk. stela.smno , jtnh fpub mei 2014

Bahan kajian MK. STELA.smno, jtnh fpub Mei 2014

VALUASI EKONOMI SUMBERDAYA LAHAN

RATIONALITAS• Land resources support life, underpin the economies of nations and the

livelihoods of people across the world

• In many places these resources are being degraded by a series of pressures, and climate change will only make things worse

• Unsustainable land uses and practices take place for many different reasons, and may produce irreversible losses in fragile ecosystems

• The value of land resources to national development and poverty reduction is often not understood properly

• Investments in land, sectors or technologies driven by short-term gains may generate huge negative externalities, leading to serious depreciation of natural capital

Sumber: Economic Valuation of Land (EVL): Rationale and Objectives. Simone Quatrini. Master’s Course on Integrated Drylands Management, CAREERI, Lanzhou, China. 4-6 October 2010 .

Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/definitions/resources.htm .................... 31/10/2011 .

"Value" has multiple meanings, and we must get a clear understanding about what we mean.

Monetary or "market" value is determined by exchange of money. If I have a tree and you want a tree, how much money

will I accept and give you my tree in exchange? The market value, therefore, depends on a tension between one person wanting to retain what they have, and another

person wanting to have what the first person has. The resolution of the tension is achieved when ownership

changes simultaneously with a flow of money from the buyer to the seller, and a flow of ownership from the first owner to the

second owner. Market value refers only to what we can obtain from other

humans. What can people have? What can people exchange for money?

Are natural resources always exchangeable for money? Can humans "make" a tree? Who or what makes it "ownable," or

makes it "property"?

APAKAH SUMBERDAYA ALAM ?


Humans make artifacts (production) and can give their time and labor (services).

Humans do not make natural resources, which are unrelated to either human time or human production. Humans may only modify natural

resources. Natural resources are made by Nature and the energy to make them

comes from geochemical, geophysical and solar energy.

Humans cannot make petroleum, which once was living plants that have been processed for millions of years before humans existed, slowly becoming

petroleum. Petroleum is a natural resource that we consider to be "nonrenewable"

because it takes too long to make by the time scale that we can experience. But we can change where petroleum is located, and we can process it into

components parts.




So, when we say that petroleum is valuable, we refer only to what we do with it. Humans may own the use of petroleum and control the ways that other

people can use it. Ownership is a concept of humans, who invented laws to formalize the

concept. Groups of humans then agreed to abide by the rules spelled out in the laws.

Laws are also artifacts and laws make money "legal tender." If we "own the right to modify a right to modify a natural resource" then we may exchange our

right of modification with other people who give us money.

Money is another human artifact and its value is defined by laws, and ultimately, by many people's opinion about its value. Money cannot be used to make natural resources, but money and laws are used to influence what other

humans do with natural resources.


So, the monetary value of natural resources is what people believe the

value to be. Our ignorance can cause the resources to be greatly undervalued,

which is a major problem. We may not consider the "replacement cost" of a

limited natural resource when we establish a monetary value. Humans are inherently ignorant; we simplify complex things and processes because we do not

understand the "whole"! Natural resources and the ecosystem processes producing them are the most complex

systems we can imagine -- if, in fact, we actually can imagine them accurately.

Why are natural resources valuable to us? What do we assume about natural

resources and their "value" when we equate their existence and use with

money?

Ecosystem services keep our habitat comfortable and livable without the outlay of money. Nature's processes

work for free, powered totally by solar energy. Some examples are:

Pest control Flood controlWater filtration Soil fertilizationFood production Oxygen production

Climate stabilization Recreation opportunities



These services to some extent also can be achieved by technological means, but at significant monetary investment. Furthermore, continuing costs are

necessary to maintain the services. The ecosystem, however, will maintain these services without cost, unless we

interfere with these processes. In certain instances there is a "loss of opportunity value," such as avoiding building highways or buildings in such a

way that they destroy or damage the ecosystem processes. The loss of opportunity value is offset by the ecosystem services value they

supply. We may choose one form value over another form of value, such as short term

use value for long term service value. Such a choice resembles a decision to save or invest money in order to allow

the investment to grow (increase in monetary value) or to preserve future options and benefits that may not be fully recognized. Such long range value

requires imagination of future needs and recognition of the benefits of preserving options for those that may be valuable in ways we cannot imagine

today. Such projected values require understanding of management of systems, and

possibilities regarding the "replacement value" of a resource. Making good decisions implies an awareness of many factors and consequences not easily

understood today, or a belief that present people have an obligation to future generations of people to have options, opportunities, similar to those we have

today.



Sedimentation in the aquifer cannot be removed, and chemicals flush very slowly through the aquifer. Those people who "develop" the areas that damage the aquifer do not pay the costs of cleaning the water and keeping it clean. Nor

do they pay the cost of sedimentation filling in the aquifer. This cost is "externalized" by the perpetrators of the damage since it is paid

with tax funds (the public pays) or by the individuals who acquire their water from the aquifer directly. The permanent loss of the capacity of the aquifer by

sedimentation filling it instead of water is paid by all who eventually lose its "free" services or "use potential" of unknown possibilities in the future.

Externalizing costs while retaining the right to have an income from the development seems unfair, but it has been declared legal. The developers

thereby are subsidized by others who receive no benefits from the ecologically damaging development.

This is a "market failure" for monetized value whereby the human(s) who benefit do not pay the cost of their benefits.


NRDA : Natural Resources Damage ASSESSMENT

Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidance/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2011 .

The NRDA valuation techniques considers five general classes of valuation techniques: 1. Market-based techniques, which rely on historical

information on market prices and transactions to determine resource values;

2. Nonmarket techniques that rely on indirect estimates of resource values;

3. Nonmarket techniques that are based on direct estimates of resource values;

4. Cross-cutting valuation techniques, which combine elements of one or more of these methods; and

5. Ecological valuation techniques used in the emerging field of ecological economics.

TEKNIK-TEKNIK VALUASI SUMBERDAYA ALAM

Valuation Techniques, Benefit Types, and Selected Case Studies


TEKNIK-TEKNIK BERBASIS PASARThe pioneers of natural and environmental resource valuation relied onthe “law of demand” as a way to measure the market values for natural

resources and environmental amenities. While the same is true today, the

degree of sophistication in the measurement of these values has increasedconsiderably.

Three market-based techniques that have recorded a significant history of natural and environmental resource valuations are described here:

1. The market price approach, 2. The appraisal method, and3. The resource replacement costing.


PENDEKATAN HARGA PASAR

Demand for natural resources is measured on the assumption that many

factors that might influence demand, such as personal income, the prices of related goods and services, and individual tastes

and preferences, remain unchanged during the study period.

Under these assumptions, the estimated demand curve is a systematic measure of

how people value the resource. To illustrate, the figure shows that 20,000 acres of land were sold at a market price of $1500 per acre. In the course of these

land transactions, $30.0 million exchanged hands in the land market, i.e.,

20,000 x $1500. Had land become increasingly scarce, this scarcity would

ultimately be reflected in higher land prices.


Demand, Supply, and Market Valuation

CONCUMER SURPLUS…Now, consider the total area beneath the

demand curve up to 20,000 acres, as defined by A+B. This area measures the

value of the resource in terms of the maximum willingness to pay for the 20,000

acres of land. The total willingness to pay for 20,000

acres is calculated by adding up what was actually spent in buying the land, A = $30 million, plus the additional triangular area

B, which defines consumer surplus. Consumer surplus is the difference

between people’s maximum willingness to pay for 20,000 acres of land (A+B) and

what they actually paid (A). In essence, the area gives a dollar measure of satisfaction that people

received from the land, less what they actually pay for it.

Diunduh dari Sumber: http://www.hss.energy.gov/sesa/environment/guidan

ce/cercla/valuation.pdf.................... 31/10/2011 .

Economic surplus

Diunduh dari Sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_surplus...........

......... 3/10/2011 .

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Economic-surpluses.svg

PRODUCER SURPLUS …Producer surplus and economic rent are two other measures of the

benefits (or damages) associated with natural resources and resourceservices.

Producer surplus measures monetary gains from the production of natural resources, which is the difference between revenues (C+D) and the economic costs of producing

these resources (D). Similarly, economic rent measures monetary gains from using natural resources as factors of production, which is the difference between the actual

payments made in using resources and the lowest payment that their owners would have been willing to accept in supplying these resources or resource services.

Thus, producer surplus refers to the sellers’ gains from trade in the product market, while economic rent measures the sellers’ gains from trade in the input market.

Accordingly, the use of producer surplus or economic rent in resource valuation problems depends on whether the natural resource is considered as a final product or as

an input in the production of a final product.


Referring again to Figure 1, producer surplus is shown by the area C, which is bordered by the resource supply curve and the market price of the

resource, P = $1500. This measure reflects changes in the availability of the natural resource. For example, if the natural resource were damaged, its supply curve would shift leftward and producer surplus would diminish.

A similar description could be given to natural resource damages that result in a reduction in economic rent. Here, the damages would be

incurred by the owners of the resources. As in the case of measuring the consumer surplus, both producer surplus and economic rent require historical information on the market prices and quantities of natural

resources. In addition, the measures of producer surplus and economic rent require information relating to the economic costs of producing

and/or supplying the resource to the market.


PRODUCER SURPLUS …

bahan kajian mk. stela.smno , jtnh fpub mei 2014

Documents

natural resources

concept of humans

value of land resources

rationalitasland resources

market value

exchange of money

use of petroleum

flow of money