b2 cfer syallabus

Vantage

Vantage

J. A. van Ek and J. L. M. Trim

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, So Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521567053

Council of Europe 2001

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without

the written permission of Cambridge University Press

and the Council of Europe.

First published 2001

Reprinted 2003

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Ek, Jan Ate van.

Vantage/J. A. van Ek and J.L.M. Trim.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-521-56705-X (pbk)

1. Language and languages Study and teaching. I. Trim, J.L.M. (John Leslie

Melville) II. Title.

P51 .E42 2000

428'.0071dc21

00-049438

ISBN 978-0-521-56705-3 Vantage

ISBN 978-0-521-56706-0 Threshold 1990

ISBN 978-0-521-56707-7 Waystage 1990

Transferred to digital printing 2007

Table of contents

PageIntroduction 1

1 Theobjective: levels of specicity 72 The objective: general characterisation 83 Theobjective: extended characterisation 94 Theobjective: components of the specication 215 Language functions 276 General notions 607 Topic-related tasks and lexicon 728 Discourse structure and verbal exchange 809 Dealingwith texts: reading and listening 88

10 Writing 9311 Sociocultural competence 9512 Compensation strategies 10613 Learning to learn 11014 Degree of skill 11515 By-products 118

APPENDICESA Lexical exponents of specic notions forVantage 120B Grammatical summary 141C Pronunciation and intonation 176

v

Introduction

Vantage is the third level in a series of specications of learningobjectives developedwithin theCouncil of Europes programme forthepromotion of language learning in Europe. The series is intendedto offer guidance and support to themany partners for learningwhose co-operation is necessary to the creation of a coherent andtransparent structure of provision for effective learning relevant totheneeds of the learners aswell as of society,whichnormally providesthe resources.Without setting upbureaucraticmechanismsofcontrol, it provides a series of referencepoints, commonobjectivestowards the achievementofwhichall canwork independently but inharmony curriculumplanners, examining andqualifyingauthorities, course designers andmaterials producers, teachertrainers and last but bynomeans least the teachers and learnersthroughwhose interaction organised learning takes place.

The series is directed towards those probably the greatmajority ofordinary language learners whowant to use another language forcommunicationwithpeoplewho speak it, both for transacting thebusiness of everyday life and for exchanging information andopinions onprivate life and public affairs.

It therefore sets out to dene in somedetailwhat such an objectivemeans in practice:whatusers of a language aremost likely towishorneed to be able to do in the communication situations inwhich theytakepart and consequentlywhat they have to knowand the skills theyhave to develop in order to be able to communicate effectively in thosesituations.

The Threshold Levelmaybe regarded as the key element in the series,since it attempts to identify theminimal linguistic equipmentwhichwill enable a learner to dealwith themorepredictable situations ofdaily life, transactional and interactional, as an independent agent.Minimal is somewhatmisleadinghere, of course; a substantiallearning effort is required, not only to cover the range of languagefunctions and the expression of general and specic notionswhichconstitute the buildingblocks, but also to gain control over themtothe extent necessary to dealwith the situations of usewith somedegree of condence and facility. Even so, independence is relative. Alearner at Threshold level is still dependent on the goodwill of theinterlocutor, especially amore experienced or native speaker.

Waystagehas subsequently been developedas an early learningobjectivedesigned to provide the learnerwith a broad range ofresources at a very elementary level so as to satisfy themosturgent

1

requirements for linguistic survival in themost predictable situationsfacinga visitor.

Vantage, as the name implies, carries learnerswith the sameneeds andperspectives a stage further.What are theneeds andmotivationsofsuch learners?

First, theywill be aware that the principles of maximumexploitationofminimalmeanswill have given themaminimally adequateequipment to dealwith awide range of situations in daily life, andstrategies to use that equipment to the best effect.However, theywillrealise that their ability is very limitedby comparisonwith theirability to dealwith similar situations in their native language. Theycandealwith straightforward situations ina straightforwardway, butmay feel some sense of frustrationwhena situationbecomesmoreproblematic and theyneed to understand and express ideas in amoredevelopedway,makingner distinctions ofmeaning than theirlinguistic equipmentallows. Theymay feel that they are unable to dothemselves justice, that they are obliged to saywhat they can sayrather thanwhat theywant to say. This feeling is common, of course, tousers of a foreign language at any level, and to native speakers toowhen they are onunfamiliar ground. It is likely to be particularlystrong, however,when a learner can cover awide communicationrange, butwith only a small vocabulary to dealwith the vastwealthofspecicnotions in eacharea. Furthermore,whilst the exponents oflanguage functions andgeneral notionswill have coveredbetweenthemthemajor grammatical resources of the language, the learner atT-levelwill be far fromhaving these resources under control forgeneral purposes. Theymaywellhavegured as part of a xedformula for expressing a particular function. Evenwhere a structurerather than axed formulahas been listed as the exponent of afunction, the learner is notnecessarily expected to be able to handleits full potential in such away as fully tomeet the criteria of accuracy,uency and appropriateness of usage. An obvious example is thefunctionof reporting (describing andnarrating) forwhich theprimary exponent is given as declarative sentences. This cannot, ofcourse, be interpreted tomean thatwhennarrating an event ordescribing aperson or object, a learner after some400hours of initiallanguage learning is expected tohave at his or her disposal the fullunbounded set of declarative sentences of indenite complexity,using all resources brought together in theGrammatical Appendixand incorporating all the general notions set out inChapter 6.

For these reasons, language learnerswhohave reached Threshold levelin a particular language andwant to continue to learn are not somuchcalledupon to do entirely new things in the language, as tomeet thechallengesof daily living in amore adequate and satisfyingway, lessrestricted by the limited resources especially perhaps in vocabulary

2 I N T R O D U C T I O N

which theyhave been able to acquire in the time available. At the sametime, theywill achieveamoreuent andaccurate control over thecommunicationprocess. Accordingly,Vantage level goes beyondThreshold level particularly in the following respects:

the renement of functional and general notional categories,with aconsequent growth in the available inventory of exponents. In thefunctional area (Chapter 5), the expansion is perhapsmost notablein the expression of emotions and in the conduct of discussion.

a considerable enlargement of concrete vocabulary expressingspecicnotions in thematic areas set out inChapter 7. It shouldbeemphasised that at Vantage levelwemakeno attempt to propose adened recommendedvocabulary. Theneeds and interests oflearners are by this time far too diverse for such a proposal to bedesirable or realistic. Experience takes us all in differentdirectionsandweneed to talk to other people about our own situations, jobsand leisure interests. Of course, post-Threshold level learnerswillcontinue to share a commonframeworkof universal experienceand to buildup a shared vocabulary for referring to the people,creatures and objects that formthe commoncontext inwhichourlives are led.However, above Threshold levelwe expect learners to bemore autonomous, able to take increasing responsibility for theirlearning and able tomakemore effectiveuse of reference books andother information sources in order to developa vocabularyappropriate to their ownneeds and interests.We therefore havemademoreuse of openword classeswith suggestions for anincreased range of specic itemswhichwe should expect to gure ina commoncore.

recognition and limited control of important register varieties. Upto Threshold levelwehave advised learners to keep to a neutralregister, avoidingexcessive formality on the one handandcolloquial or familiarusage on the other. Inmoving toVantage level,learnerswill gainmore experience of the situationswhichcall formore formal ormore colloquialusage and judgewhen theymayappropriately follow suit. Correspondingly, a number of colloquialexponents are given for those language functions inwhich they aremore likely to occur. At the phonetic level,Vantage learnerswill beable to copewith the degree of phonetic reductionnormal ininformal spokenEnglish.

increased ability to understand andproduce longer andmorecomplexutterances. Up to Threshold level, it is expected that learnerswillmostly be participating in dialogues consisting of short turns.Inmany cases simple sentences or very short sequences of simplesentenceswill beused, the relations between thembeing inferredby the listener. AtVantage level learnerswill be able to followand

3I N T R O D U C T I O N

produce longer discourses structured by suchmeans as theuse ofsentence adverbs, the anaphoric use of pronouns andgenerics torefer back to items alreadymentioned, theuse of intonationalprominence to distinguishgiven fromnew information, theconstructionof complex sentences by the embeddingofsubordinate clauses (thoughnot toomany!), etc. (See Chapter 8.)

increased range and control of goal-directed conversationstrategies. Up to Threshold level, learners are preparing to dealwiththe simpler,more predictable situations of daily life in astraightforwardway, following the Co-operative Principle (seeChapter 4) and expecting their interlocutor to do likewise. They areable to answer the question: Whatdo I say next? by reference to therelatively xed schemata (verbal interaction patterns) that underliemost routine transactions and exchanges of information. They arelikely to have difculty in copingwithunexpected twists inconversation, orwith those complications in everyday transactionsthat always seemto affect the customer just ahead of one in a queue!Theymay thenuse compensation strategies to enlist the aid of theinterlocutor.More experienced (and sympathetic) interlocutorswillmost probably adjust their normal conversational behaviour tosimplify the communicative task for the benet of the lessexperienced foreign learner. AtVantage level, interaction is lessconstrainedand bothpartners can act in amore exible andnaturalway, followingbasic goal-directed conversation strategies ratherthan adhering as closely as possible to xed verbal exchangepatterns (seeChapter 8).

greater sociocultural and sociolinguistic competence. Someearliercriticismsof The Threshold Level centred on its allegedminimalismandneglect of cultural issues. In fact, the level represented, thoughit attempts to set out theminimal linguistic requirements for acommunicativeprociency sufcient tomeet thedemands ofeveryday living, is far from minimal in the learning effort required.As for theneglect of sociocultural values, language is a socio-cultural phenomenoncentral to human social existence. Theeverydayuse of any language is impregnatedwith the culture of thecommunity that uses it to organise its communication.All languagelearning involves intercultural experience.However, in Threshold1990 the relationwasmademore explicit by the additionof anewchapter on Sociocultural competence, including amore detailedtreatment of politeness conventions in a variety of British Englishoften taken as amodel for foreign learners. At Threshold level, thesociocultural is largely amatter of awareness, though learners areencouraged to act in accordancewith that awareness. ByVantagelevel, the learners grasp of interculturalitywill be thatmuchdeeper, so that he or shewill be able to respondmoreexibly to thenature of the situations of use and the interpersonal aswell as thesocial role relations appropriate to the situation. This exibility is of


course all themore importantwhenEnglish is beingused as ameans of communicationbetweennon-native speakers. It is not tobe expected that theywill both conformto the sameBritish culturalnorms. Sensitivity, awareness, openness to newexperience,tolerance andacceptance of sociocultural diversity are needed. Toact accordingly is a signof the increasing linguisticmaturityappropriate to aVantage learner (see Chapter 11).

improved reading skills applied to awider range of texts. Up toThreshold level, learners are expected only to be able to dealwithwritten texts of a type related directly to the situations and topicsset out in the extended characterisation of the global objective(Chapter 3). They are largely conned to public signs andnotices,private and routine public correspondence and information innewspapers andmagazines. Learnerswhochoose to goonwithlanguage learningmaybe expected to have awider range ofinterests,which theywillwish to develop throughwrittenmedia perhaps increasingly electronic aswell as printed and extendedlistening. As their general andmore specic vocabulary expands,and their use of dictionaries, encyclopaedias andother referencematerials becomesmore efcient, aswell as their ability to deducewordmeaning fromcontext, theywill be able to select andunderstandmore demanding texts and become increasingly able todifferentiate theirmodeof reading, employingdifferent strategiesaccording towhat they need to take fromaparticular text. Thisexibilitywill increase their reading speed so as to cross thethresholdof satisfactory value for effort.

ahigher level of skill in theprocesses of language production andreception. It has oftenbeen remarked that theuse of language by amature adult native speaker is themost highly skilledactivityanywhere to be found.Wehave to accept the fact that in attemptingto dealwith a full range of communicative taskswhicharise in dailyliving Threshold learnerswill have problems indoing sowith the verylimited resources at their disposal and that theywill have furtherproblems in actually bringing those resources to bear on aparticular occasion in a particular situation.Whilst learneraptitudes and abilities undoubtedly vary greatly, we cannot expect,at any level, perfect executionof the tasks, activities andprocessesset out in the objective, nor shouldwe. Perfect executionwouldonlybe attainable by spending a great deal of timeonovertraining at theexpense of broadening experience. There is a necessary balance to bestruck between extending knowledgeand training performance.Thus the Threshold learner not only has awider coverage than theWaystage learner, but also has amore consolidatedandrmer graspof theWaystageobjectives. Similarly, inmoving from Threshold toVantage, the learner improves not only in the respects set out above,but also consolidates the Thresholdobjectives and satises higher

5I N T R O D U C T I O N

performance criteria in these areas. Thesewill include greaterfreedom frommemory lapses, fewermistakes and slips of thetongue, fewer blockages andhesitations, fewer false starts andincomplete sentences, a smootherutterancewith better phrasingand intonation and ahigher speech ratewith shorter delay inresponse. Therewill be less need touse compensatory strategies. Asto receptive processes,Vantage learnerswill have less difculty inidentifyingwords, phrases and sentences in the owof speech,especiallywhenphonetically reduced formsare used orwhenaslight foreignornon-standard accent is used. Theywill be betterable to understand speechunder noisy conditions, orwithacousticdistortion in public address systems, orwith interference fromother sound sources. Theywill lose track less frequently andwhenthey do sowill nd it easier to break back in.

In all,Waystage, Threshold andVantagenowoffer to all practitioners adescriptionof the language needed to assure a learners ability to dealeffectivelywith the challenges presentedby everyday life, presented atthree levels rising fromaminimal equipment to dealwith thehighestpriority needs, through theminimumneeded to dealwith the fullrange of requirements for a visitor or temporary resident, to anenrichedequipment adequate to deal effectivelywith thecomplexities of daily living. It is, of course, for the individual user todecidehow tomakeuse of this descriptive apparatus, in order todeneappropriate objectives for a particular set of learners,whilst ofcoursebearing inmind the need to co-ordinate the efforts of differentproviders in developing a learning/teaching system.Users cansupplement the specication if someneeds of the constituency are notmet, or cut out elements they donot need. Itemswhichare ofmarginal value to the learners envisaged canbe replaced byothers.Theprocess canbe articulated intomore stages if a particulareducational system is organised in a drip feedmode, or fewer if thereis a full-time intensive programme for experienced andgiftedlearners.With courses for non-beginners, the description can beusedto specify a prior knowledge requirement aswell as the objective.Modules canbe derivedby concentratingon somedened sub-part ofthe specication, as can partial competence.

Thisexibility is possible because a singlemodel hasbeen used for thesuccessive levelsWaystage, Threshold andVantage.We trust that allthose concernedwithplanning and implementing language teachingand learningwill nd it useful in setting objectiveswhicharedesirable, appropriate and feasible for the particular learners towardswhomtheyundertake responsibility.

J. A. van EkJ. L.M. Trim

June 1996


1 Theobjective: levels ofspecicity

Theobjectivewill be formulated in three stages, or at three levels ofspecicity:

1 General characterisation

2 Extended characterisation

3 Specication

The general characterisation ismeant as an overall description for rapidorientation.

The extended characterisation is a detailed description for all potentiallyinterestedparties, including the learners themselves.

The specication is a fully detaileddescriptionmeant for coursedesigners, curriculumplanners, test constructors, etc.

7

2 Theobjective: generalcharacterisation

As visitors to, or residents in, a countrywhere the foreign languageis used for general communicationpurposes,

whendealingwith foreign visitors or residents in their owncountry,using Englishas a commonmeansof communication,

in contactwithnative orwithnon-native speakers of English inanother foreign country,

whenencounteringwrittenor spoken texts in the foreign language,

the learnerswill be able to use the foreign language in such away as tocopewith the (principally linguistic) requirements of those situationsthey are likely to nd themselves in, particularly:

situations involvingpractical transactions in everyday life;

situations involvingpersonal interaction, enabling the learners toestablish andmaintain social contacts aswell as to engage inmeaningful relations in various domainsof public life (e.g. business,education,welfare, entertainment);

situations involving indirect communication, requiring theunderstandingof the gist and relevant details ofwrittenor spokentexts.

8

3 Theobjective: extendedcharacterisation

1 Practical transactions

Learners are able to copewith transactional situations in everyday life.AtVantage level, learners are able to dealmoreexiblywith thesesituations than at Threshold level , when they are problematic or takeanunexpected turn.With enriched language resources (especially awider vocabulary), learners are able to express their needs andintentionsmoreprecisely,with less (though still some) need forcompensatory strategies.

1.1 ContactswithofcialsNote In all contactswith ofcials learners are able to ask for repetition,claricationand explanation, etc. of any information, questions ordocumentsnotunderstood, andare able to ask for the services of aninterpreter and/or legal adviser in case of serious difculty (cf. Chapter12).

1.1.1 ImmigrationLearners are able to understand and completenecessarydocumentation.Learners are able to understand and answerquestions concerning:

personal identication (cf. AppendixA, section1)

the duration andpurpose of their visit

1.1.2 CustomsofcersLearners are able to understand and completenecessarydocumentation.Learners are able to understand and answerquestions concerning:

whether they havedutiable items to declare

the contents of their luggage and the value of items

where theyhave come fromandwhere theyhave acquired itemsofproperty

whether items are for personal use or as gifts or for commercial use

1.1.3 SecurityofcersLearners are able to understand and answerquestions covering:

the contents of their hand-baggage, pockets, etc.

9

whether their baggage contains specied items (e.g. electronicequipment, real or toyweapons, etc.)

whohas packed or handled their baggage

1.1.4 Police, trafc wardens, etc.Learners are able to:

understand andanswer questions concerning:

personal identication

details of any vehicle theydrive

details of anyproperty lost or stolen

their recent actions

their intentions and reasons for acting

apologise and ask for understandingof their position in case ofminor infringements of regulations

ask questions andunderstand the answers given regardingregulations (parking, public access to buildings, etc.)

(See also1.11 Finding theway.)

summonpolice assistance in the case of emergency (e.g. an accident,assault, robbery), giving a brief account ofwhathas happened

1.2 Arrangementsfor accommodation(See alsoAppendixA, section 2. 16.)

1.2.1 Learnersare able to:

book accommodationby letter or telephone

enquire about thenature and availability of accommodation intourist information ofces or travel agents, or onarrival at ahotel, guest house, camp site, etc.

complete registration forms

complain and secure rectication of poor service,malfunctioningequipment, etc.

completedeparture procedures, query bills, etc.

1.2.2 Accommodation for temporary residentsLearners are able to:

enquire, inwriting or speech, about accommodation to rent, e.g.:

thenumber, type and size of rooms

the cost (perweek,monthor year) and terms of letting

10 3 E X T E N D E D C H A R A C T E R I S A T I O N

the charges for services and amenities provided (e.g. local taxes,gas, water, electricity, etc., furniture andhousehold equipment)

the arrangements for repairs andmaintenance

make and conrm inventories of contents and their condition

make arrangements for and supervise household removal

make arrangements for services, repairs andmaintenance asrequired

make oral andwritten complaints to landlord

1.3 Arrangementsformeals(See alsoAppendixA, section 10.)

1.3.1 EatingoutLearners are able to:

read andunderstand advertisements for restaurants,menus, etc.

discuss the relativemerits of accommodation, food, prices,waitingtime, etc.

ask for a (particular) table

order foodanddrink

ask andunderstand answers to questions on thenature andpreparation of dishes

ask for bill, enquirewhether service and tax are included

query and complainof slowservice, poor food, overcharging, etc.

1.3.2 Eatingat homeLearners are able to:

read instructions for safety anduse of kitchenequipment

read content informationonpackets, tins, etc. and instructionsregarding foodpreparation

followrecipes andoral instructions

1.4 Shopping: buyingconsumergoodsLearners are able to:

read advertisements innewspapers,magazines, etc. for shops andconsumer goods

read explanatory documentation (brochures, package labelling,etc.) on the nature, use and conditions of sale of goods

read signposting in supermarkets, departmental stores, etc., aswell

113 E X T E N D E D C H A R A C T E R I S A T I O N

as details printed on tins, packets, bottles, etc. ondisplayconcerning their contents anduse

askwhether goodsare available andwhere they are to be found

discuss thenature and relativemerits of particular choicesof goods

negotiate prices andunderstand conditions of sale

makepayments and if necessary query prices, additionof bills, etc.

return faulty, inappropriate or unwantedgoods andnegotiatereplacement, refund, etc.

1.5 Usingpublic transportLearners are able to:

read published information (e.g. timetables, types and conditions ofsale of tickets)

enquire as to cost, times, routes of journeys

discuss relativemerits of differentmeans of transport andcompanies (e.g. duration, cost, conditions of travel)

order, query andpay for tickets (e.g. destination, class of travel,single or return, route, dates), reserve seats, etc.

enquire as to location of gates/bays/platforms/quays, etc. of planes,buses, trains, ships, etc.

register luggage for despatch, use left luggage facilities, report lossof or damage to luggage and property.

enquire about the existence of special rates, etc. and their terms andconditions

1.6 Usingprivate transport (car)Learners are able to:

read, query and complete documentation for car sale or hire

readmandatory and advisory ofcial road signs

obtain petrol, oil,water, air and services at service stations

report and secure repair ofmechanical faults and breakdowns

exchangenecessary car and insurance details in case of accident

(See also1.1.4, Contactswithpolice, trafcwardens, etc. and 1.11,Finding theway.)

1.7 Using informationservicesLearners are able to:

makepersonal and telephone enquiries


read informational brochures, leaets, etc.

consult referenceworks inpublic libraries, etc., such as directories,manuals, guides, etc.

1.8 Visitingpublicplaces (museums, theatres, stadiums,discos, etc.)Learners are able to:

read published guides to tourist attractions, entertainment guidesinnewspapers andmagazines, brochures of particular institutions,posters, handbills, etc.

enquire about opening times, prices of admission, performancetimes, position andnature of seats

book tickets in advance, or purchase at timeof admission

enquire about facilities and amenities (toilets, refreshments,programmes, etc.)

read poster displays, notices, descriptive captions, etc. inmuseums,exhibitions, etc., designed for the information of the general public

1.9 Usingpublic services1.9.1 Postofce

Learners are able to:

read simple published regulations, counter signs, etc. for specicinformation

enquire about postage rates, etc. (e.g. rst and second class, letters,postcards, destination categories, registered and express post,parcels, telegrams and fax facilities)

purchase stamps, postal andmoney orders

complete customsdeclarations, registration forms, etc.

(for temporary residents)

use post ofce facilities for licences, etc.

1.9.2 TelephoneLearners are able to:

read instructions onuse of telephone

consult telephonedirectories (includingyellowpages)

use telephonedirectory enquiries

(See also language functions 5.20.)

1.9.3 BankLearners are able to:


read public notices (especially service tills, currency regulations andexchange rates)

enquire about exchange rates for notes/travellers cheques andcommissioncharges, andquery amounts if in doubt

understand and follow instructions on automatic cash-distributingormoney-changingmachines

(for temporary residents)

enquire about, set up anduse bankaccounts

1.9.4 Medical servicesLearners are able to:

readnotices (e.g. consultationhours, specialisms, signposting ofhospital departments, instructions to patients)

ask for a hospital or general practitioner appointment (bytelephone)

explainnature of complaint andanswer questions onplace andnature of acheor pain andother symptoms

understand instructions for treatment at the time and subsequently

obtainmedication frompharmacist andunderstand informationand instructions for use printedonpharmaceutical products andaccompanying leaets

1.10 Educational services (for temporary residents)1.10.1 As students


read brochures (e.g. of ARELS, BritishCouncil andparticularteaching institutions and language schools) and followadmissionprocedures

understand anduse target language asmediumof instruction andas language of social interaction in English language classes andamong learners duringbreaks, atmealtimes, etc.

report and discuss problems relating to learning, teaching, studyfacilities, social activities, accommodation, canteenmeals, nance,school administration, etc.

discuss and enter for examinations

read examination regulations, rubrics andquestions and respondappropriately

1.10.2 AsparentsLearners are able to:

enquire about arrangements/options for the public/private


educationof their children (e.g. types of school, entry requirements,costs, dates of terms, equipment required)

makeday-to-day arrangements for school attendance

readnotes and reports on childrens progress

attend parent/teachermeetings and discuss childrensprogress

1.11 Finding thewayLearners are able to:

ask for andunderstand oral instructions on nding theway in aparticular locality

readmaps (roadmaps, train, tube andbus networks, and otherdirection signs and instructions)

enquire fromofcials, service station staff ormembers of the publichow to reach certain destinations,where a particular road orrailway line leads to, the destination of a bus or train, etc.

give similar information to others

1.12 Communicatingatwork1.12.1 As temporary residents


seekworkpermits as required

enquire (e.g. fromemployment agencies) about the nature,availability and conditions of employment (e.g. job description, pay,hours ofwork, free time andholidays, length ofnotice)

read employment advertisements

write letters of application andattend interviewsgivingwritten orspoken informationabout ownpersonal data, qualications andexperience andanswer questions about them

understand and follow joiningprocedures

understand andask questions concerning the tasks to be performedon startingwork

understandhealth, safety and security regulations and instructions

report an accident andmake an insurance claim

makeuse ofwelfare facilities

communicate appropriately with superiors, colleagues andsubordinates

participate in the social life of the enterprise or institution (e.g.canteen, sports and social clubs, etc.)


1.12.2 Asmembersof thehost communityLearners are able to

assist an English-speaking (native or non-native) visitor or residentwith the tasks listed above

1.13 Privatehospitality(See also Language functions, socialising.)

1.13.1 AshostsLearners are able to:

issue an invitation, spoken orwritten

greet and introduce guests

explain about features of domestic arrangements

followsocial routines and exercise socialising functions

exchange informationand opinions onpersonal and social themes

receive or exchange souvenirs or small gifts

say goodbye to guests and react appropriately to expressions ofappreciation

1.13.2 AsguestsLearners are able to:

reply appropriately to accept or decline spoken andwritteninvitations

exchangegreetingswithhost andother guests, knownor newlymet,whether introducedor not

followsocial routines and exercise socialising functions

exchange informationand opinions onpersonal and social themes

offer owers or other small gifts

express appreciation ofhospitality given

take leave,makingor conrming travel arrangements as required

2 Social interaction

Learners are able to conversewithother native andnon-nativespeakers on a variety of topics relating to their everyday lives,experiences, opinions, etc. AtVantage level this ability extends beyondthe relatively brief conversational turns appropriate to Threshold levelto the reception andproductionof longer sequencesof coherentdiscourse and to argumentation.



exchange information

express, andunderstand the expression of, opinions, views,attitudes, emotions,wishes

agree upon and carry out co-operative actions

Theabove in relation to topics of their ownchoosing, such as:

personal life and circumstances

living conditions andhousehold activities

trade, profession, occupation

education

free-time activities

travelling, regions, places, sights

consumer goods, shopping, prices

eating anddrinking

social relations, religious beliefs andpractices

politics, current events, economic, social and cultural issues

weather

languages, language learning, languageproblems

Fordetails, see Chapter 7 andAppendixA.

3 Dealingwith texts

The learner canunderstandwritten and spoken textswhicharerelevant to the situations listed in Section 1 above or to the topics inSection2 above andwhichhave the following characteristics:

they have a reasonably clear structure, both conceptually andformally

the information contained in themis offered explicitly, or requiresonly amoderate amount of interpretation and inferencing

their understandingdoes not require close familiaritywith aparticular foreign culture

they are produced in an accessible form:

written texts are clearly handwritten or printed and,whenappropriate, providedwith titles, paragraphing, illustrations, etc.

spoken texts are producedwith little acoustic distortion, noise or


interferenceusing standard forms andpronunciation, or areasonably close approximation, and at a speech ratewhich iswithinnormal range

AtVantage level the learner is able to deal appropriately withdifferenttext types according tohis or her needs and intentionswith respect tothem, in some cases extracting gist or relevant detail, in othersreadingor listeningwithclose attention to detail andusing referenceaidswherenecessary (and possible).Vantage learnerswill be able todeal to a greater extentwithunstated implications, euphemisms,irony andmetaphoricusage, aswell aswithunfamiliar culturalelements, given that the text provides adequate clues to theirunderstanding and interpretation. AVantage learner can dealwithhandwritingwhich is clearly legible, andwith typewritten andprinted texts containing someerrors and less clear typography (faded,smudgedor using awidevariety of fonts). Speech canbe understood atnormal conversational speed (c. 150words perminute)with thenormal degree of phonetic reduction andusing the regional ornational accents in current use by educated speakers of StandardEnglishof a particular regional or national provenance (but free fromdialectal features of grammar and lexicon). AVantage learnerwill alsobe able to understand speech in a somewhatnoisier environmentorwith slight acoustic distortion, especiallywhen themessage isfamiliar or expected.He or she is capable of recognising the phoneticformofunfamiliarwords and storing them inmemory so as toenquire later as to theirmeaning and spelling.

4 Social conventions and rituals

In connectionwith Sections 1 and2 above the learner is sensitive to,andable to act appropriately with respect to relevant socialconventions, e.g.

non-linguistic:physical contact (hand-shaking, kissing, touching,etc.), signicant roles of gesture andmime, etc.

linguistic: verbalways of drawingattention, ways of addressing,choosingdegree of formality/informality, turn taking, contactending, etc. aswell as normal conventionsof politeness. (SeeChapter 11.)

The learner is also familiarwith relevant social rituals, e.g.

visiting rituals (appropriate time for arriving, present giving,acceptable conversation topics, etc.)

eating anddrinking rituals

acceptance and refusal rituals


5 Interpretationstrategies

In connectionwith Section3 above the learner canuse appropriateinterpretation strategies both as a reader and as a listener, e.g.

distinguishingmainpoints and secondary points

distinguishing fact fromcomment

identifying relevant information. Thismay involve determining theaudience forwhomthe textwas produced and the attitudes andcommunicative intentions of the author, aswell as drawinginferences fromwhat is explicit in the text

makinguse of clues such as titles, illustrations, typographicaldevices (e.g. bolding, italicising, underlining, paragraphing), and, inoral texts, suchdiscoursemarkers as the placingof emphasis,structurally relevant pauses, tone of voice, etc.

6 Sociocultural considerations

The learner has some familiaritywith characteristic features of theculture of themajor countrieswhere English is used as nativelanguage (especially those in theBritish Isles), particularly thoseaffecting:

everyday life

living conditions

interpersonal relations

major values and attitudes

AtVantage level learners are aware of thedangers ofmisunderstandingsarising fromdifferencesof culture and theassociated conventionsand rituals (see 4 above). InEurope they areaware of the principal sociocultural differencesbetween their owncommunity and those of native speakers of Englishand candistinguish stereotypes from reality.Whendealingwithother(especiallynon-native) speakers of Englishwhose cultural backgroundis unfamiliar, they are alert to evidenceof cultural difference, able andwilling tomake allowances and react sensitively aswell as to exchangeinformationwith thepartner about their respective culturalbackgrounds, expectations andbehaviour.

7 Compensation strategies

The learner canuse techniques and strategies for copingwithdemandsof situationswhichgobeyondhis orher non-linguisticand/or linguistic repertoire, e.g.


engaging a communicationpartners co-operation inlling a gap inones know-how

appealing to tolerance of a foreigners linguistic limitations, etc.

strategies for gettingonesmeaning across in spite of linguisticinadequacies

strategies for derivingmeaning from texts in spite of the occurrenceof unknownelements

strategies for enlisting the communicationpartners help in solvingcommunicationproblems

using appropriate aids such asmonolingual andbilingualdictionaries, thesauruses, grammars, encyclopaedias, electronicaids and other referencematerials.


4 Theobjective: components ofthe specication

Vantage, like its predecessors Threshold andWaystage, is conceivedas acontribution to improved communication, particularly amongEuropeans of all backgrounds. A communicative approach aims toenable the learners to use a foreign language for their ownpurposes.What these purposes are, depends on thepersonality, thecircumstances, the needs and interests of the learners themselves.They are never fully predictable, but, starting fromaparticular targetgroup, howeverheterogeneous itmay be,we canmake an attempt toidentify those things that all of themare at least very likely to need orwish to be able to do in the foreign language. In order to do this in anyusefulwaywehave to try to determine inwhat situations they aremost likely to use the foreign language,what roles theywill play inthese situations, andwhatmatters they aremost likely to have to beable to dealwith in the foreign language. Determiningall this especially ifwewant to arrive at a fairly detailed description is, in away, amatter of guesswork.However,we canmake at least bettereducated guesses if wemakeuse of our collective experience, ourknowledgeof theworld, andofwhatever amount of consensuswouldappear to have been explicitly or implicitly achieved. In fact, theinformationon this that is available bynow is by nomeans negligible.Itmay be found innumerous studies that have appeared since TheThreshold Levelwas originally published, and it is to be found in thechoicesmade in those coursematerialswith a communicativeorientation that havebeenproduced in the last fteen years or so. Byand large, the assumptionsmade in the original Threshold Levelwouldseemtohave beenwidely upheld, so that the basis uponwhich thepresent specications are built is amore solid one than for that earlierversion. Yet, it should be constantly borne inmind that theseassumptions aremadewith regard towhat themembers of the verylarge target group dened inChapter 2 are supposed tohave incommonand that the undoubtedly considerable individualdifferences among thesemembers are deliberately left unspecied.This is just anotherway of saying thatVantage is a general objectiveonly, and,moreover, one that is never to be regarded as xedandclosedbut as something to be usedexibly and creatively.

In the precedinggeneral characterisation andparticularly in the extendedcharacterisationwedescribed theVantage objective. The question is nowhowthismay bemost usefully specied, how itmaybe brokendownintoa coherent set of elements thatmay serve thepurposes of thoseforwhomthe specication ismeant.

21

Our starting-point remains the situations inwhich the learners aremost likely to nd themselves. Each situationwillmake its owndemandson their communicative resources. At the same time, thesedemandshave a lot in common, somethingwhich requireswhatwemay regard as general communicativeability. An economicaldescription, then, ofwhat the learners need to be able to do,willspecify the components of this general communicative ability plus, foreach situation envisaged, the specic ability required to functionadequately in it. The general ability, the ability required inmostcommunication situations,will be the subject of by far the greaterpart of our specication. In fact, therewill be only one component thatis directly concernedwith specic situation-related ability, and as itis to be expected thiswill largely be amatter of concrete vocabularyitems.A communicative approachdoes not consider knowledgeof thelanguage however desirable thismaybe as an end in itself. Its goalis the ability to use language, to dowith language the kindof thingsoneneeds orwants to dowith it.

The starting-point of the specicationof our objective, then, is a list ofthekindof things peoplemay dobymeans of language. These arethings such as describing, enquiring, denying, thanking, apologising,expressing feelings, etc.We refer to these things as languagefunctions andwe say that in saying, for instance, Im sorrypeoplefull the language function of apologising or of expressing regret. Therst component of our specication is a list of those languagefunctions that themembers of our target group are likely to need to beable to full. The categories and exponents presented inChapter 5 aremodestly increased from Threshold,whichalready affords awiderange.

Language functions are not fullled in a void,with regard to nothing.Ifwe say Im sorry, we apologise for or express regret about something,even thoughwemay notmention this explicitly because it issufciently clear from the context inwhich the utterance is produced.If, however,wewere to say Im sorry for being late, we explicitly refer toaparticular concept, the concept of lateness. The concepts thatwemay refer towhile fullling language functionswill be indicatedhereas notions. Among thenotionswedistinguish general notions andspecicnotions.General notions are such asmay be expressed inalmost any situation and specic notions are thosewhichare likely tobe expressed typically inparticular siuations only. Inmost situationstheneedmay arise to refer to time, to place, to quantity or quality, toexpress relations between entities, etc. Thenotions involved in doingsowill be listed in our second component (Chapter 6) as generalnotions. Anotion such as timetable, on the other hand, is likely to beexpressedonly ina situation of people dealingwith travelling; thenotion of potatoes ismost likely to be expressed in connectionwith

22 4 C O M P O N E N T S O F T H E S P E C I F I C A T I O N

eating orwith agriculture. Such situation-related or topic-relatednotionswill be listed in our third component, specicnotions. In thisthird componentwe shall also give general indicationsas towhatpeoplewill be supposed to be able to do in each of the situations orwith regard to each topic includedhere. Such indications facilitateand justify the selection of thosenotionswhichmaybe thoughtparticularly relevant to themembers of the target group.

AtVantage level, learners canbe expected to have progressed beyondThreshold level in anumber ofways. Theywill have an enrichedvocabulary for dealingwith the concrete details of the situations ofuse identied in Threshold.Where these involve themes and tasks ofconcern to all learners,wemay consider that the commoncore oflanguage learning has been consolidatedand extended.However,learnerswillundoubtedlywish to discuss their special leisure,cultural andprofessional interests ingreater depthwith other peoplewho share them.We cannot specify the vocabularyneeded for thesepurposes as a general learning objective.We canonly identify thecategorieswithinwhich learnerswill develop a vocabularyunique tothemselves as a result of their experience of life. Topic-related tasksand lexiconare discussed inChapter 7 andexemplied inAppendixA.

By specifying language functions, general notions and specicnotionsin relation to themes and tasks, we identify the basic elements ofcommunication. The elements are usually combined.Most sentencescontainall three. Thus Im sorry to be late for dinner combines thefunctionof apologywith the general notion of lateness and thespecicnotion of dinner. Clearly, such combinations are very large innumber, so that the expressive power, evenof simple sentences, is verygreat. AtWaystage level, the contribution of a simple sentence to aconversational exchange, or perhaps a short sequence of simplesentences, is a suitable objective. Chapter 8demonstrates that, inspoken interaction, such a sequence canbe very effective. The greaterresources available to Threshold learners enable them to express theinterrelationof ideas and thoughts in amore compact andexplicitwayand to followthrough the schemata of predictable verbalexchanges. In the absence of such schemata theywill probably nd itadvisable to express themselves straightforwardly in accordancewiththe co-operative principle, that is to say that theywill do their best tospeak simply, sincerely, relevantly and clearly,making theircontribution suchas is required, at the stage atwhich it occurs, by theacceptedpurpose or directionof the interaction inwhich they areengaged. ByVantage level, greater control over greater linguisticresources enables the learner to rise above stereotypical schemata andtomakemore varied, exible and effectiveuse of principles ofdiscourse structure and verbal exchange. Thesematters are treated inChapter 8.

234 C O M P O N E N T S O F T H E S P E C I F I C A T I O N

AtVantage level, it is expected that the spokenandwritten textswithwhich learnerswillwish to deal will be longer, richer andmorevarious thanwas the case at Threshold level.Wehave to distinguishhere between the use of texts as language teaching and learningmaterials,means to the achievementof a different communicativeobjective (e.g. prose passages in textbooks, or extracts fromcontemporary novels as examples of conversation structures andstrategies) and the text typeswhich learnerswish to readauthentically as an objective in its own right. It is of course the latterwhichare the concern ofChapter 9.

Similarly,Chapter 10 is not concernedwith thewritten tasks involvedin language courses and examinations, butwith theplace of authenticwriting in thedaily lives of thosewhohave reachedVantage level. SinceVantagedoesnot aim to cover the professional domain, the role ofwriting specied as a commonobjective remains relatively restricted.Letters of all kinds and informal notes are primarily envisaged.Ofcourse, some learners probably aminority willmakemoreuse ofthewrittenmediumor less as the casemay be. As timepasses, theuseof information technologymaywell change the role and thenature ofwriting in daily life.However,wedonot consider that this point hasyet been reached.

Communicative interactionwithina particular language communityis largely governed (though rarely determined) by the socialconventionsobserved in that community regarding who sayswhat towhom,how,whenandwhere (cf. D.Hymes, 1971, Oncommunicativecompetence reprinted in J. B. Pride and J. Holmes, 1972, Sociolinguistics,Harmondsworth: Penguin.) Evenat Threshold level,where the learnersuse of language seemsmost appropriately neutral in register andstraightforward in character, an awareness of the socioculturalcontext and its effect upon linguistic and other behaviour is essentialif interculturalmisunderstandings are to beminimised.AtVantagelevel the learnerwill bemore familiarwith the conventions andableto actmoreexiblywith regard to formal and colloquial registers andthepoliteness conventionsof a host community,morealert tocultural differences and skill in copingwith them.These issues aredealtwith inChapter 11.

Inmany real-life situations the learners language resourceswill fallshort ofwhat the situation requires. Successful communicationwillthendependon the learners ability to ndways of overcoming theobstacle by employing compensation strategies. This ability isparticularly important in earlier stages of learning,when theresources available are verymodest.However, the problemstill arisesatVantage level. Although the resources are greater and bettercontrolled, the expectations of the learner are also raised. Indeed,mature adult native speakers, facedwith the intolerablewrestlewith


words andmeanings, not infrequentlynd their shabby equipmentinadequate for the purpose! (Quotations from Four Quartets: East Coker IIand V, in T. S. Eliot, 1969, Complete Plays and Poems, London: Faber andFaber.) The compensation strategies which theyhave acquired byThreshold level, dealtwith inChapter 12, remainuseful andwithincreasing experiencemaymore readily be brought to bear.

In the transition from Threshold toVantage learnerswill necessarilydiverge in their language development in accordancewith thediversityof their interests and experience. The individualised learningwhich is involvednecessarily requires each learner to take charge ofhis or her own learning. Responsibilitywill be progressivelytransferred fromteacher to learner,whomust be technicallycompetent to undertake it. Theknowledge, skills and attitudeswhichenable learners to function autonomously are therefore, in our view,not to be regarded asmerely spin-off from theprocess of languagelearning, but as objectives to be purposively pursued. Chapter 13 isdevoted to their specication.

Finally, theVantage learner has progressed beyond Thresholdnotmerely in the increased content of learningbut perhaps evenmore inthedegree of skill withwhich the language resources are deployed.That is to say that qualitative development is at least as important asquantitativedevelopment. The threshold concept is based on themaximaluse ofminimal resources. Minimal has a qualitative aspectaswell as quantitative one.At Threshold level the criterion is thesuccess of communication. The learnerwho is not contentwithhavingreacheda thresholdof communicationadequate to dealwith thesituations of daily lifemaynot somuchwish to dealwithmoresituations as to improve the quality of performance, to reduce the gapbetween theway those situations canbe dealtwith in onesmothertongue and in a foreign language, to dobetter justice to ones feelingsand ideas. Thoughwedonot feel able to quantify quality in the sameway that contentmay be specied,wediscuss inChapter 14 the skillparameters of accuracy, appropriacy anduency as criteria.

Followingadiscussion in Chapter 15 of some valuable by-products oflanguage learningwhichwehavenot regarded as integralcomponentsof our objective, appendices are devoted, rst, tosuggested lexical exponents of specic notionswhichmaybeneededto dealwith the themes set out inChapter 7 (AppendixA), secondly, togrammarat Vantage level (Appendix B), and, thirdly, to pronunciationand intonation at Vantage level (AppendixC).

Other appendices of Threshold 1990havenot been reproduced inVantage. SinceVantage subsumes Threshold in the sameway thatThreshold subsumesWaystage, they are of course valid at thehigherlevel.However, since they are available toVantageusers in the earlier

254 C O M P O N E N T S O F T H E S P E C I F I C A T I O N

publicationno useful purpose is served by simply replicating themhere. In order to preclude the erroneous impression thatwe areadvocatinga denedvocabulary forVantage learnerswe refrain fromincludingan overall index of thewords to be found in the exponents oftheVantage categories set out inChapters 5 and 6 and inAppendixA ofthepresent document.Nor, in the light of experience, havewe found itnecessary to include a subject index.


5 Language functions

IntroductionTheVantage learner, like the Threshold learner, is onewhowishes to usea language (in our case English) to transact the business of daily livingandenter into relationswith the other speakers of that language inthe situationswhichbring them together. For this reason there is nofundamental difference between language functions at the two levels.Threshold already covers a verywide range, though it does sowithhighly restrictedmeans. To a large extent, theVantage learnerwillcover the samebroad range. Thus both Threshold andVantage learnerswillneed to assert facts, describepeople and things andnarrate events(cf. Section 1.2).However, the range of declarative sentenceswhichaVantage learnerwill be able to usewill bemuchgreater. That is,however, largely amatter of themeans for expressing general andspecicnotions rather than of the function itself. (It shouldnot beforgotten, of course, that thematerial for the exponence of functionsis also available oftenby nomore than a change of person or tense for referring to themin the course of anarrative or description. I amina badmood expresses ill-humour. Iwas in a badmood or he is in abadmood reports rather thanexpresses that state ofmind.)

Accordingly,wehave seenno reason to change the broad categories inwhich language functions are classied.Beyond someminorreorganisation seeking andgranting permissionhave, for instance,been treated togetherwith requests rather thanundermodality,while self-correctionandhesitationllers have beenmoved fromSection5 to 6 the principal developments in a learners expectedability to express functions are:

amore sensitive sub-categorisation of functionsparticularly those inwhicha personal reaction, intellectual oremotional, is called for. Thus the single Threshold level category 1.4asking for conrmation is amplied inVantage level 1.4 to six,distinguishingbetweenquestionswhichare neutral and thosewhichexpect or demand conrmationof a statement or cast doubtupon it.

a greater variety of exponentsThus the twopossibilities for denial in Threshold level 2.4 areincreased tonine inVantage level 2.1.6 in addition to the fourintroduced for strongdisagreement (2.1.2.1). Theseallowa learnerto distinguishbetweenmore or less formal responses and to expressshades of feelingas opposed to theneutralitywhichcharacterisesThreshold level. This applies particularly to 2.5, expressions of

27

emotion, expanded from22 to 37 categories and sub-categoriesinvolving194 rather than 102exponents. This greater richness ofresources for affective self-expression (and of course for recognisingthe emotions of others) involves a large number of xed idiomaticexpressions, or xed frames for structural and lexical variables. AsPalmerhas said, spokenEnglish is particularly rich in suchexpressions,whicha foreign learner cannot simply invent fromgeneral grammatical and lexical resources for the expression ofgeneral and specic notions.

Suasion, decidingon andmanaging courses of action, is alsoexpanded to give theVantage learner greater exibility and controlover themanagement of personal relations in awider variety ofsituations. At Threshold level, requesting someone to do somethingis a single category forwhich seven exponents are offered. AtVantagelevel, eight sub-categories are distinguished,with26 exponents. Indecliningoffersand invitations,rmrefusalsaredistinguishedfromdemurring orweak refusals, which invite the renewal of the offer.

On the other hand, resources for socialising and communicationrepair are onlymarginally increased; both are priorityrequirementswhichare alreadywell-developedby the timeThreshold level is reached and further progress is likely to be in theuency andnaturalness withwhich the resources are used.

more developed realisation of structural variablesThreshold (and evenmoreWaystage) follows the fundamentalprinciple of maximaluse ofminimalmeans. ByVantage, learnerswill have increased the linguisticmeans at their disposal andwill beable to organise themwith greater facility.

Language functions forVantage andrecommendedexponentswith examplesConventionsIn the following section, the functional categories are numbered andshownin bold print, e.g.1.1 identifyingand specifying. Exponents areshownbelow the category, eachpreceded by a bullet. Actualwords tobeused are given in bold e.g.him/her/them. Structural variables aregiven inmediumsans serif, using abbreviationswhere appropriate.Themost commonabbreviations used are:

NPnounphrase adj adjectiveVP verb phrase adv adverbVP(inf) verb phrasewith verb

in the innitivebe anappropriate formof theverb to be

VP(gerund) verb phrasewithverb in gerund

28 5 L A N G U A G E F U N C T I O N S

Optional elements are placed in brackets. Thus, this (one)means:either this or this one.

Alternative elements are placedbetween slashes. Thus these/thosemeanseither these or those.

Wherever the exponent of a functional category contains astructural variable, an example is given immediately below it. Itshouldbe emphasised that these are examplesof exponents, not theexponents themselves. Thus category 1.1 identifying andspecifyinghas as an exponent Pronoun/NP+be +NP,meaning that either apronoun (I/you/he/she/it/we/they/this/that/these/those)or another nounphrase is followedby the appropriate formof the verb to be and then afurthernoun phrase. In the two examples given, This is selected as apronoun and The animalsover thereas an initial nounphrase. These arefollowedrespectively by is and are as appropriate formsof the verb to beand the bedroomormydogsare examples of the secondNP.Examplesare given in sans serif text, except sometimeswhere awritten text isspecically indicated and italics or other special devices are used(5.6.2, 5.6.3 and 5.21).

1 Impartingand seekinginformation

1.1 identifyingand specifying this (one)/that (one)/

these/those; him/her/them(with indicating gesture,e.g. pointing, nodding)

the (adj) one+adjunctphrase/relativeclausethe small onewith the bluebuttons

Itsmeyou/himher/us/them/NPIts thepostman.

Pronoun/NP+be+NPThis is thebedroom.The animalsover there aremydogs.

1.2 statingand reporting(describing, narrating) (sequencesof) declarative

sentencesThe trainhas left.

NP+ say, think+complement clauseHe says the shop is shut.

NP+ ask,wonder+ indirectquestionHe askedwhere theyweregoing.

there+be+NP+adjunctThere is a bankon the corner.There is a cow in our gardeneating theplants.

1.3 correcting As1.1 and1.2,with

contrastive stressThis is thebedroom.The trainhas left.

1.3.1 correctingapositivestatement(e.g.Valetta is in Italy.) No+ tag,with falling-rising

intonationNo, it isnt.

negative sentence(fall-rise)+ correctedpositive sentence (falling)Valetta isnt in Italy. Its inMalta.

295 L A N G U A G E F U N C T I O N S

1.3.2 correctinganegativestatement(e.g.Wedidntgo to London.) Yes+ tagquestion (with

falling-rising intonation)Yes, you did.

positive statement(withfall-riseonauxiliary verb)You didgo to London.

1.4 asking

1.4.1 asking for conrmationordenial interrogative sentences

(with low risingintonation), positiveornegativeDid you seehim?Didnt you seehim?

Please (can) you tellmewhether . . .Please tellmewhether yousawhim.

1.4.2 demandingconrmationordenial interrogative sentences

with low falling intonation(+ Yesorno)Did you seehim, yes or no?

1.4.3 expectingconrmation positive statement(falling)

+ negative tag (rising)You sawhim, didnt you?

negative statement(falling) +positive tag(rising)You didnt seehim, did you?

1.4.4 demandingconrmation positive statement

(falling) +negative tag(falling)You sawhim, didnt you?

negative statement(falling) +positive tag(falling)You didnt seehim, did you?

1.4.5 queryinga statement repeating statementwith

high riseor (more sceptical)fall-riseYou

sawhim?

question tagwith high riseor (more sceptical) fall-riseDidnt you?

Are youquite sure (aboutthat/complementclause)?Are youquite sure you sawhim?

1.4.6 asking fora pieceofinformation wh-questions (event)whathappened? (time)when?

Whenwill the guests arrive? (place)where?

Where ismy purse? (manner)how?

Howdoyoumake anomelette?

(degree)how+gradableadj/advHow far is it to York?

(reason)why?Whyare youhere?

wh is it+ complementclauseWhen is it your train leaves?

(Please) (can you) tellme+NP/wh-clausePlease can you tellme thewayto the station?Tellmewhere you havebeen.

1.4.7 seeking identication which?

Whichonedoyouwant? (of aperson)who?

Who is that lady? (of apersonsoccupation,

nationality, etc.)what?What is her husband?

(of possessor)whose?Whoseglovesare these?


(of things, etc.)what?What is this parcel?

1.4.8 asking for specication what sort/kindof

NP ( +VP+NP)?What sort of animalwas it?

1.4.9 expressingcuriosity I wonder

(+ if-clause/wh-clause)I wonderwhat hewants.

Id like toknow(+ if-clause/wh-clause)Id like to know if shewasthere.

question+ I wonder(unstressed)?Who is that, I wonder?

1.5 answeringquestions

1.5.1 conrmingordisconrming Yes (+positive tag)

Yes, I did. No (+negative tag)

No, I didnt. I (dont) think so. I believe so/not. expressionsof

agreement/disagreement(2.1, 2.2)Of course.

probability (2.3.1, 2.3.2)Perhaps.

ignorance (2.2.3)I dont know.

forgetting (2.2.4)I dont remember.

certainty (2.2.7.1)Imnot sure.

1.5.2. giving information1.5.2.1 time

(e.g. in reply toWhenwill ithappen?) temporaladverbs

Soon.

temporalphrasesNextWednesday.

temporal clausesWhenwere ready.

1.5.2.2 place(e.g. in reply toWheresmybox?) locative adverbs

Here. locativephrases

On the table. locative clauses

Where you left it.

1.5.2.3 manner(e.g. in reply toHowdo youdrive?) manneradverbs

Carefully. mannerphrases

With care.

1.5.2.4 degree(e.g. in reply toHowgood is it?) adverbofdegree+ (adj/adv

in question)Very good.

adj/advexpressingdegreeFair.

1.5.2.5 reason(e.g. in reply toWhyare youhere?) (because+)declarative

sentence/of+NPBecause Imamemberandbecause of themeeting.

1.5.3 identifying(e.g. in reply toWhichonedoyouwant?) See1.1.1and1.1.2.

That one. The large greenone.

1.5.3.1 identifyingaperson(e.g. in reply toWho is that?) See1.1.3.

Itsme. JohnSmith.


1.5.3.2 identifyingapersonsoccupation, role, etc.(e.g. in reply toWhat is she?) (personalpronoun+be+)

NPdenotingoccupationrole, etc.Shes an actress.

1.5.3.3 identifying thepossessor(e.g. in reply toWhosearethese?) Its/theyre+possessive

pronouns (SeeChapter6,7.5.1.)Theyremine.

1.5.3.4 identifyinga thing(e.g. in reply toWhat is this?) (Its/theyre+)NP

(non-human)Itsmy hat.

1.5.4 specifying(e.g. in reply toWhat sort ofanimal is this?) (Its/theyre)+NP

Its a grey squirrel.

1.5.5 questionsasking forconrmation, information,identicationor specicationcanbeansweredbyexpressionsof ignorance (See2.2.3.)I havent a clue.

2 Expressingandndingout attitudes

2.1 attitudes tomattersof fact

2.1.1 expressingagreementwithastatement

2.1.1.1 expressingstrongagreement Exactly! Certainly! Absolutely! Denitely! Well said!

Yes, indeed. I quite agree. You can say that again. Spot on! Just so. (in public discussion)Hear,

hear!

2.1.1.2 expressingagreementwithapositive statement(e.g.withYouwork hard.) Yes (+positive tag)

Yes,wedo. (Certainly/Ofcourse (+ tag)

Of coursewedo. Thats right. Thats correct. (morecolloquial)OK.

2.1.1.3 expressingagreementwithanegative statement(e.g.withYou cant stopnow.) No (+negative tag)

No,we cant. Indeed not. Certainlynot. Of coursenot.

2.1.1.4 expressingreluctantagreement If you say so. I supposeso. Nodoubt.

2.1.1.5 concedingapoint Goodpoint. Fair enough.

2.1.1.6 expressingagreementwithreservationsuseof falling-risingintonation I agreewithyou there. I dont disagreewith you

there. Up to a point, yes. Thatmay wellbe so, but . . . Yes (+ tagwith fall-rise)

Yes, it is.


I agree + complementclause (+ but)I agree that its difcult.

Perhaps so, but . . .

2.1.1.7 demurring (Seealso 5.12.)(e.g. in response to I thinkthats stupid.) Well. Tagquestion

Is it? I seewhat you mean.

(fall-rise)

2.1.2 expressingdisagreementwitha statement I dont agree. Thats not right. Yourewrong (there/about

that).

2.1.2.1 expressingstrongdisagreement (Absolute)

nonsense/rubbish. I couldnt agree less. Noway! Howcan you (possibly) say

that/sucha thing?

2.1.2.2 expressingdisagreementwithapositive statement(e.g. Spinach is horrible.) No (+negative tag)

No. It isnt. Not so. Certainlynot. I dont think so.

2.1.2.3 expressingdisagreementwithanegative statement(e.g. Tomorrow isntWednesday.) (Oh) Yes (+ positive tag)

Oh, yes it is. I think+positive statement

(with contrastive stress)I think itsWednesdaytomorrow.

2.1.2.4 expressingweakdisagreement I cant/dont altogether

agree. Imnot so sure. I wonder (if that is so).

2.1.3 enquiringabout agreementordisagreement Doyouagree? Whatdo you think? statement+question tag

(with rising intonation)She is French, isnt she?

2.1.4 inviting agreement (statement +)OK? (with

high rise)I like this music,OK?

statement +question tag(with falling intonation)She is French, isnt she?

Dont youagree (+ thatclause)?Dont you agree shesbeautiful?

Dont you think (+ thatclause)?Dont you think its nice?

Surelyyouagree (+ thatclause)?Surely youagree?

interrogative sentencewithfalling intonationIsnt she lovely?

2.1.5 invitingdisagreementwith astatement Surelyyoudont think+ that

clauseSurely youdont think itscold?

2.1.6 denying statements(Seealso2.1.2.1.)(e.g.Youweredriving far toofast.) That isnt true. That is (quite) untrue.


I deny it. That is a (downright) lie. Nonsense! Certainly/absolutelynot. Not at all. (Most) certainlynot. No (+negative tag)

No, Iwasnt. negative sentences

I didnt drive at all fast.

2.2 expressingknowledge,memory,belief

2.2.1 expressingknowledge (ornot) of aperson, thingor fact I (dont) know. I (dont) know+NP

I knowtheway to your house. I (dont know)+wh-

clauseI dont knowwhere he lives.

I (dont)know+complementclauseI know its cold inwinter.

2.2.2 askingabout knowledge Doyouknow+NP?

Do you knowMaryBrown? Doyouknow+aboutNP?

Do you knowabouthis illness? Doyouknow+ complement

clause?Do you knowthat shes dead?

Doyouknow+wh-clause?Do you knowwhat he did?

Whatdo youknowabout+VPgerund?What do youknowaboutmending furniture?

Haveyou (ever) heard (+ofNP)?Have youever heardofLivonia?

Haveyouheard aboutNP?Have youheard about thebomb?

Haveyouheard+ complement clause?Have youheard that shes lefthim?

Haveyouheard+wh-clause?Have youheardwhathappenedtoday?

Youknow(+NP/complementclause/wh-clause)+ tagquestionYouknowwhere he lives,dont you?

2.2.3 assertingignorance Ive no idea. I havent a clue. negativeexpressions in

2.2.1I dont know.

2.2.4 expressingrememberingorforgettingpersons, things,factsandactions I (dont/cant) remember

(+NP)I rememberour holiday inSpain.

I (dont/cant) remember+VPgerundI dont remember saying that.

I (dont/cant) remember+ complement clauseI remember that he gave itback.

I (dont/cant) remember+wh-clauseI cant rememberwhere I leftmy handbag.

I forget (+wh-clause)I forgetwhether Ive locked thedoor.

Ive/havent forgotten (+NP)I havent forgottenmypassport.


Ive/havent forgotten+VPgerundIve never forgotten climbingMontBlanc.

Ive/havent forgotten+ to+VPinfIve forgotten to lock the door.

Ive/havent forgotten+ complement clauseI havent forgotten that yourenotwell.

Ive/havent forgotten+wh-clauseIve forgottenwhere it is.

2.2.5 enquiringaboutrememberingand forgetting Do(nt) you remember? Do(nt) you remember+NP?

Do you rememberCapri? Do(nt) you remember

+VPgerund?Dont you remember cominghome last night?

Do(nt) you remember+ complement clause?Dont you remember thatJameswas there too?

Do(nt) you remember+wh-clause?Do you rememberwhere youleft it?

Have(nt) youremembered/forgotten?

Have(nt) youremembered/forgotten+NPHave you rememberedherbirthday?

Have(nt) youremembered/forgotten+ to+VPinfHavent you forgotten to feedthe cat?

Have(nt) youremembered/forgotten+ complementclauseHave you forgottenweregoingout this evening?

Have(nt) youremembered+wh-clauseHavent you rememberedwherewere going?

2.2.6 remindingsomeone Dont forget (Please) remember/dont

forget+NPPlease remember themilk.

(Please) remember/dontforget+ to+VPinfDont forget to phonehome.

(Please) remember/dontforget+wh-clausePlease rememberwhywerehere.

(Please) remember/dontforget+complement clausePlease dont forget its Sundaytomorrow.

2.2.7 expressingdegreesofcertainty

2.2.7.1 condentassertion in declarative sentences

certainly, denitely,undoubtedly, beyondanydoubtShe is certainly over thirty.

I am (quite/absolutely)certain/sure/convinced(+ complement clause)I amquite sure that Stalindiedin 1952.

declarative sentenceswithstresseddo,beor auxiliaryI most certainly didpost theletter.

declarative sentences(+ tag)with low fallingintonationAnkara is in Turkey.

I know (+ complement/wh-clause)I know Irun is in Spain,notFrance.


2.2.7.2 tentativeassertion NP+ to seem/appear/look

(+ to be)Adj/NPThe translationappears to becorrect.

It seems/appears (tome)+ complement clauseIt seems tome thathewasright.

It looksas if/asthough+ statementIt looks as if hes coming.

perhaps/maybe (also indeclarative sentences)Maybe youre right.

I (dont) think/believe+ so/complementclauseI dont thinkhes ever beenhere.

Imnot (quite/altogether)sure (+but+ tentativeassertion)Imnot quite sure, but I believehes already gone.

declarative sentence+ Ithink,with low risingintonationHes French, I think.

I couldbewrong,but+ tentativestatementI couldbewrong, but it looksas though theyvewon.

2.2.7.3 expressinguncertainty I dont know

(+ if-clause/wh-clause)I dont know if hewill come.

Imnot (at all) sure(+ if-clause/wh-clause/complement clause)Imnot at all surewhat hewants.

I wonder (+ if-clause/wh-clause)I wonderwhy they go intoLondonby car.

Im (verymuch) in twominds.

2.2.7.4 expressingdoubt, incredulity I dont/cant believe

+ it/complementclauseI cant believe shes only thirty.

I (rather) doubt+ it/if-clauseI rather doubt if hell come.

Doyou really think+so/complement clause?Do you really think theyllagree?

2.2.7.5 expressingbewilderment Impuzzled. Im (completely)bafed. This is beyondme. Whatdoes/can thismean? Dont askme.

2.2.7.6 enquiringabout certainty Are you sure (+ complement

clause)

2.3 expressingmodality

2.3.1 expressingdegreesofprobabilityNote Logically, probability (objective) is distinct fromcertainty (subjective).However, they correlate closely and some terms (e.g. certain, perhaps)may beusedfor both, since the condencewithwhichan assertion ismadedependson theprobability of it being true.

(absolutely) certain(ly)He is certain to be there.

(most) probable/probablyThat is theprobableoutcome.

NP+will/must (most)certainly/probably+VPTheywillmost probably lose.


(quite) possible/possiblyDefeat is certainly possible.

NP+may/might/can/could+well/possibly/even/perhaps+VPOxfordmay evenwin this year.

(highly) improbableRain in the Sahara is highlyimprobable,

(totally) impossiblebut not totally impossible.

NP+ cannotpossibly/conceivably+VPWecannot conceivably fail.

(not) (very) likely/(very)unlikelyThats not very likely.

NP+be+ certain/likely+ to+VPinfThemuseum is likely to beclosed.

it is certain/probable/likely/possible/impossible+ complement clauseIt is possible that hewill resign.

NP+will/must/may/might/can/cannot +VPinfThat paintingcannotbe byPicasso.

2.3.2 enquiringaboutprobability/possibility be+NP+ certain/likely

(+ to+VPinf)?IsMary likely to come?

Is it certain/probable/likely/possible/impossible+ complement clause?Is it possible that youaremistaken?

Howcertain/probable/likely/possible is it+ complement clause?Howcertain is it that itwillrain?

Will/must/may/might/can+NP+VPinfMay Einsteinbewrong?

Sentences in 2.2.8withhighrising intonationon thewordexpressingprobability.That painting cannot bebyPicasso?

2.3.3 expressingnecessity(including logical deduction) necessary/necessarily in

declarative sentenceGood shoesare necessarilyexpensive.

NP+must/cannot+VPinfPeoplemust sleep sometimes.

so/therefore+declarativesentenceI think: therefore I exist.

2.3.4 denyingnecessity It isnt necessarily so. unnecessary/notnecessary/

notnecessarily indeclarative sentencesAprivate car is not necessary inLondon.

it is notnecessary (+ forNP)+ to+VPinfIt is not necessary for guests towear ties.

NP+neednot+VPinfClassicalmusicneednotbeboring.

2.3.5 enquiringas tonecessity(including logical deduction) Is that necessarily so? necessary/necessarily (in

interrogative sentences)Are communistsnecessarilyatheists?

must/need+NP+VPinf?Must thingsbeblack orwhite?

2.3.6 expressingobligation(Formoralobligation see2.6.1.) NP+have to/must+VPinf

Youmust behomebeforemidnight.


NP+mustnot+VPinfYoumust not arrive late.

2.3.7 denyingobligation NP+donothave to/neednt

+VPinfYouneednt say Sir tomeoffduty.

2.3.8 enquiringaboutobligation (wh)do+NP+have

to+VPinfWhat dowehave to say?

(wh)must+NP/VPinfMust yougonow?

2.3.9 expressingability todosomething NP+ can+VPinf

I can speak Spanishquitewell. NP+be+ able to+VPinf

I amnowable to tell you aboutit.

2.3.10 denyingability todosomething NP+ cannot/cant+VPinf

You cant be in twoplacesatthe same time.

NP+be+notable/unable+ to+VPinfSir Harold is unable to bepresent.

2.3.11 enquiringabout ability todosomething interrogative sentencesand

wh-questionsCan you swimyet?corresponding to2.3.9and2.3.10Where can I ndmens socks?

2.3.12 expressingpermissibility NP+be+ allowed

(+ adjunct)Smoking is allowed in the bar.

NP+be+permitted(+ adjunct)Parking is permittedafter6 p.m.

NP+ can/may+VPinf(+ adjunct)Studentsmay entertainguestsuntil 11p.m.

2.3.13 denyingpermissibility NP+be+not allowed

(+ adjunct)Swimming is not allowed inthis reservoir.

NP+be+notpermitted(+ adjunct)Photography is not permittedin theCathedral.

NP+be (strictly) prohibited(+ adjunct)Ball gamesare strictlyprohibited.

NP+mustnot+VPinfChildrenmustnt ever forget tosay Please.

NP+be+notsupposed+VPinfVisitors are not supposedtowalk on thegrass.

2.3.14 enquiringaboutpermissibility interrogative sentencesand

wh-questionscorresponding to2.3.12Wheremay onepark in thecity?Can visitors enter the library?

2.4 expressingandenquiringaboutvolition

2.4.1 expressingwishes/wants/desires Id like+NP

Id like an incomeof 50,000ayear.

Id like (NP) to+VPinfId like to goandwashmyhands.

I want+NPI want a nice longholiday.

I want (NP) to+VPinfI want you togive up smoking.


I wish+ complement clause(note subjunctivewere)I wish Iwere twenty yearsyounger.

2.4.2 expressingnegativewishes/wants/desires Id likenot to+VPinf

Id like not to have towork fora living.

I dontwant+NPI dontwant any trouble.

I dontwant to+VPinfI dontwant to go tobed.

I wish+negativecomplement clauseI wish Iwerent so fat.

2.4.3 enquiringaboutwishes/wants/desires Whatwouldyou like

(+ adjunct)?Whatwould you like for yourbirthday?

Whatwouldyou like todo? Wouldyou like+NP

Wouldyou like a cake? Wouldyou like (+NP) to

+VPinfWouldyou like to comeshing?

Doyouwant+NPDo youwant anything?

Doyouwant (+NP) to+VPinfDo youwantme to try the suiton?

Whatdo youwant? Is there anythingyouwant?

2.4.4 expressing intentions NP+be+ going to+VPinf

Imgoing tobuy a newcar. NP+will+VPinf

I will explain later. NP+ intend(s) to +VPinf

Ann intends to go toAmerica.

NP+be+ thinkingof+VPgerundWeare thinkingof driving toTurkey.

2.4.5 expressingnegativeintentions I/we+be+not going

to+VPinfImnot going tobe beatenbyhim.

I/we+wont+VPinfI wont stop trying.

I/we+do+not intendto+VPinfI dont intend to resign.

I/we+be+not thinkingof+VPgerundWere not thinkingof retiringjust yet.

2.4.6 enquiringabout intentions interrogative sentencesand

wh-questionscorresponding to2.4.4 and2.4.5What are you going todo?Will youy toGeneva?Arent you thinkingof comingtobed?

2.5 expressingandenquiringaboutemotions

2.5.1 expressingpleasure,happiness(witha smile, laughing, etc.) This is/thats lovely/

wonderful/great/ne! Hownice/delightful! Im/I feel sohappy! Im really enjoyingmyself! Bliss! Imdelighted/(very) glad/

pleased(+ to+VPinf/complementclause)Im very glad to see you here.


Its a delight/(great)pleasure+ to+VPinfIts a great pleasure tomeetyou.

2.5.2 expressingunhappiness,sadness Ohdear! I dont feel (at all) happy/

cheerful (today, etc.). I feel/amfeeling (very)

unhappy/miserable/depressed/gloomy/upset/sad.

2.5.3 enquiringabouthappiness/unhappiness Howare you (feeling) (today,

etc.)? Are youhappy/pleased?

2.5.4 enquiringabout the causeofunhappiness/dissatisfaction/disappointment Whats thematter?

2.5.5 exhorting someonenot tobedejected (Comeon!) Cheerup! Its not the endof theworld! Dont let it/themget you

down! Neverdespair! Nevermind! Better lucknext time!

2.5.6 expressingregret/sympathy,condolence Ohdear! Whata shame/pity

(+ complement clause)What a pity Peter died soyoung.

Its a great shame/pity(+ complement clause)Its a great shameyouwerentthere.

Im (so) (very) sorry (tohear+ complement clause)Im very sorry to hear youfailed.

2.5.7 expressingfellow-feeling,empathy I know (just) howyou feel. I (fully) sympathise. I feel (just) the sameway.

2.5.8 expressinghope, expectation I (do) hope+ complement

clauseI hope it stays ne.

I hope/amhoping to+VPinfI hope tobecomea doctor.

I (do) hope so. I (do) hopenot. I am looking forward

(greatly/verymuch)to+NP/VPgerundIm looking forward verymuchto your visit.

I amvery excitedabout+NP/VPgerundI am very excitedabout yourvisit.

2.5.9 expressingdisappointment Im/I feel (very)

disappointed. Thats a (great)

disappointment (tome). expressionsand structures

in 2.5.6

2.5.10 expressingfear/anxiety Help! Im frightened/scared/

terried/to death) (ofNP)Im scared todeath of thatman.

Im afraid (+ complementclause)Im afraid hell comeback.

Im (too) afraid to+VPinfIm afraid to complainabouthim.

Im (rather/very)worried/anxious (+ aboutNP/complement clause)Im ratherworried about Joan.


2.5.11 enquiringabout fear/anxiety/worry interrogative sentencesand

wh-questionscorresponding to2.5.10Are youafraidof the dark?Are youworriedabout yourhealth?

Is somethingworryingyou? Is there somethingonyour

mind? Whats thematter? Whatare youafraid of? Whyare you frightened/

worried?

2.5.12 expressingpain, anguish,suffering Oh!/Ow!/Ouch! That hurts! Yourehurtingme! Im in (great) pain. My+NPbodyparthurts/is

hurting/is (very) painful/isachingMy leg is hurting.

Ive got a (bad)stomach-/headache

Ive got a (bad) pain inmyNPbodypartIve got a badpain inmy chest.

2.5.13 enquiringaboutpain,anguish, suffering Haveyougot a

pain/(stomach-/headache)? Does this/it hurt? Are you in (great) pain? When/wheredoes it hurt? Where is thepain?

2.5.14 reassuringaworriedorfrightenedperson,comfortinga sufferer There, there. Dont worry. (with low

rising intonation) Dont be frightened. (with

low rise)

Its (going tobe) all right.(with low rise)

Relax. Keep calm.

2.5.15 expressingrelief Whew! Thankgoodness (for that)! Whata relief! Thats a relief! Well, thats that!

2.5.16 expressing liking, affection NP+be+ (very) good/nice/

pleasantThis coffee is very good.

I like/enjoy+NP/VPgerund(verymuch)I like riding verymuch.

I have a great liking forNP/VPgerundI have a great liking for Belgianchocolates.

I love/adoreNP/VPgerundI love cats.

Im ratherquite/very fondofNP/VPgerundIm very fondofmywife.

I feel great affection forNPI feel great affection forFlorence.

2.5.17 expressingdislike Ugh! NP/VPgerund+be+not

(very/at all) good/nice/pleasantThese cakes are not very nice.

NP+be+ (rather/very)nasty/horrible/awful/unpleasantbadHis views are rather nasty.

I dont like/enjoyNP/VPgerund (verymuch/atall)I dont like sweet tea at all.

I hate/detest/dislike+NP/VPgerundI hate sayingno to people.


I (simply) cant standNP/VPgerundI cant standhypocrisy.

2.5.18 enquiringabout likeanddislike Whatdo you thinkof

NP/VPgerund?What do you thinkof thiswine?

Doyou like/enjoyNP/VPgerund?Do you enjoyballet?

Howdoyou likeNP/VPgerund?Howdoyou likeplayingpopmusic?

Whatdo you (dis)like(doing)?

Who/what is your favouriteNP?Who is your favouritelmstar?

What is yourpet aversion?

2.5.19 expressingpreference I prefer+NP/VPgerund (+ to

NP/VPgerund)I prefer hockey to football.

Id rather+VPinf (than+ contrastiveelement)Id rather travel by train thanby car.

I likeNP/VPgerundbetterthanNP/VPgerundI likebrandy better than sherry.

I thinkNP/VPgerund isbetter than/preferableto+NP/VPgerundI thinkwinning is better thanlosing.

2.5.20 enquiringaboutpreference interrogative sentencesand

wh-questionscorresponding to2.5.19Do youprefer coffee to tea?Whichbranddoyou prefer?Do you like cats better thandogs?

Whichdo youprefer:NP/VPgerundorNP/VPgerund?Whichdo youprefer: Scotchor Irish?

NPorNP?Coffeeor tea?

Adj orAdj?Blackorwhite?

PreporPrep?With orwithout?

AdvorAdv?Nowor later?

2.5.21 expressingsatisfaction Good!/Fine!/Excellent! Just right! demonstrative(+NP)

+be+ (very) good/niceThat puddingwas very nice.

(demonstrative (+NP)+be) + justwhat Iwant(ed)/need(ed)/meant/had inmindThis is justwhat I had inmind.

(followingdissatisfaction) Thatsmuchbetter. ThatsOK (now). Its (quite) all right (now). Right-ho. Thatll do. Thats (good) enough.

2.5.22 expressingdissatisfaction declarative sentences

(reporting causeofdissatisfaction)This soup is cold.The TVdoesntwork.

Imnot satised/happy(with+NP)Imnot happywith this fridge.

I dont like/want+NPI dontwant this soap.

I dont like/want+NP likethisI dont like cabbage like this.


NP+be+ (still)not+ right/good (yet)The sound is still not right.

This/these+be+notwhat Iwant(ed)/need(ed)/meant/had inmind/asked forThis is notwhat Imeant.

This/thatwill not do. This/that is not good

enough.

2.5.23 enquiringaboutsatisfaction/dissatisfaction Is everythingall right/OK/in

order? Are you (quite) satised/

happy (with+NP)Are youquite satisedwithyourmeal?

Doyou likeNP like this?Do you like coffee like this?

Is it all right/OK (now)? Will this do? Is thiswhat youwant(ed)/

need(ed)/meant/had inmind/asked for?

Is everything to yoursatisfaction?

Howdoyou like/ndNP?Howdoyoundourbeer?

Is anything thematter? Is anythingwrong? Whats thematter/problem? Whatswrong?

2.5.24 complaining I have a complaint (tomake). Im sorry,but . . . I dontwant to complain,

but . . .Thenexpressionsandstructuresasper 2.5.22

2.5.25 expressingbad temper Im in abadmood/temper

(just now/today).

Im/I feel (rather/quite/very)cross/angry/livid/annoyed/irritated (with+NP/about+NP)I feel very angry about the newroad.

NP+be (very) annoying/irritating/infuriatingJohn is being very annoying.

Its enoughtodrive youmad/try thepatience of asaint.

2.5.26 reacting tobad temper Calmdown! Dont get soangry/worked

up! Theres nothing toget angry

about. Theres noneed tobe so

impatient/takeoffence. Dont take it toheart/the

wrongway. Its a stormin a teacup. Dontmake amountainout

of amolehill.

2.5.27 apologising for bad temper Im sorry I lost control/

patience/mytemper. Nohard feelings (I hope/

trust).

2.5.28 expressing interest Really! Fascinating! Is that so! Well,well. (How) (very) interesting! I am (very)

b2 cfer syallabus

Documents